Rohit Thanki

Purva Joshi

Advanced
Technologies
for Industrial
Applications
Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications
Rohit Thanki • Purva Joshi

Advanced Technologies
for Industrial Applications
Rohit Thanki Purva Joshi
Krian Software GmbH Department of Information Engineering
Wolfsburg, Germany University of Pisa
Pisa, Italy

ISBN 978-3-031-33237-1 ISBN 978-3-031-33238-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8

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Preface

Our modern society cannot ignore the influence of technology. We are immersed in
technology if we are at a desktop or laptop in the office, checking heart rates from
our smartwatches, playing with our iPhone, or talking to Alexa. Every industry is
being disrupted by technology, and we all know that. Even relatively new areas
such as the development of new tools and applications are being disrupted by the
next generation of technology, which moves incredibly fast. Moore’s law state that
transistors will continue to double on integrated circuits every year in the near future.
As technology advances, it becomes more powerful and faster while simultaneously
becoming more lightweight, and it is happening at an alarming rate.
In this book, we discussed a variety of technologies such as system identification,
signal processing, computer vision, and artificial intelligence and their usage in
industries. These technologies have great market values and significant influence
on human society. Various tools and applications have been developed using these
technologies to better human culture. During the pandemic, technologies became
critical assets for developing modern industrial applications. This book covers the
usage and importance of these technologies in various industrial applications. Also,
this book provides future technological tools which help in the development of a
variety of industrial applications.
In Chap. 1, basic information of various technologies which are used in industrial
applications. Chapter 2 addresses a basic concept of system identification and
its usage in various industries. In Chap. 3, we present a signal processing and
its applications in various areas such as broadcasting, defense, etc. Chapter 4
gives information regarding computer vision technology and its usage in various
industries. Furthermore, artificial intelligence technology along with its commercial
usage are provided in Chap. 5. Chapter 6 gives advanced technological tools based
on technology such as Internet of Health Things, autonomous robots, etc. The book
has following features:
• Describes basic terminologies of various technologies such as system identifica-
tion, signal processing, computer vision, and artificial intelligence
• Presents various technological tools for industrial applications

vii
viii Preface

• Gives usage of system identification and artificial intelligence in industrial

applications
• Provides technical information on upcoming technologies for industrial
applications
Our task has been easier and the final version of the book considerably better
because of the help we have received. We would also like to thank Mary James,
Executive Editor, Springer, and other representative of Springer, for their helpful
guidance and encouragement during the creation of this book.

Wolfsburg, Germany Rohit Thanki

Pisa, Italy Purva Joshi
March, 2023
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 System Identification and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 What Is System Identification? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Parametric and Nonparametric System Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Parametric Model Estimation Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Optimization for Time-Varying System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Adaptive κ-Nearest Neighbor Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Robust Control Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Industrial Applications of Time-Varying System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.1 Robotic-Based Automotive Industries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.2 Chemical Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.3 Communication and Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.4 Agriculture and Smart Farming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.5 Logistics and Storage Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Signal Processing and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Basic of Signal Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.1 Types of Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1.2 Types of Different Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Transforms Used for Analysis of Signals and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.1 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.2 Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.3 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.4 Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Designing of Discrete-Time Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.1 Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3.2 Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Industrial Applications of Signal Processing (SP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4.1 SP for Digital Front End and Radio Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4.2 Development of Chip for All DSP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

ix
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3.4.3 Usage of SP in Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.4.4 Development of Reconfigurable and Cognitive Radar . . . . . . . 28
3.4.5 SP in Smart Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.6 SP for Cloud and Service Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.7 SP for Digital TV Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.8 SP for Autonomous System Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 Image Processing and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1 Most Commonly Used Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1.1 Binary Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1.2 Grayscale Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1.3 Color Image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Fundamental Steps of Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.1 Image Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.2 Image Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.3 Image Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.4 Color Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.5 Wavelets and Multi-Resolution Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.6 Image Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2.7 Morphological Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2.8 Image Segmentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2.9 Representation and Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2.10 Object Detection and Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2.11 Knowledge Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 Image Processing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3.1 Image Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3.2 Image Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3.3 Image Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.4 Image Segmentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.5 Image Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.6 Image Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3.7 Object Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3.8 Image Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4 Industrial Applications of Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.1 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4.2 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4.3 Automotive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4.4 Healthcare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.5 Robotics Guidance and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.6 Defense and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1 Types of Learning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.1.1 Supervised Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Contents xi

5.1.2 Unsupervised Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.1.3 Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1.4 Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 Types of Machine Learning Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.1 Supervised Learning-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.2 Unsupervised Learning-Based Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2.3 Reinforcement Learning-Based Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3 Types of Deep Learning Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.1 Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.2 Other Deep Learning Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4 AI-Based Research in Various Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4.1 Development of New Algorithms and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.4.2 AI in Computer Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.4.3 AI in Natural Language Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4.4 AI in Recommender Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4.5 AI in Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4.6 AI in the Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4.7 AI in Advanced Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4.8 AI in Collaborative Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.5 Industrial Applications of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.5.1 Financial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.5.2 Manufacturing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.5.3 Healthcare and Life Sciences Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.5.4 Telecommunication Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.5.5 Oil, Gas, and Energy Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.5.6 Aviation Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.6 Working Flow for AI-Powered Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1 Industrial IoT (IIoT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1.1 Internet of Health Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.2 Autonomous Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.2.1 Collaborative Robots (Cobots). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2.2 Soft Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.3 Smart and Automotive Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.4 Human and Machine Interfacing (HMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.5 AI Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.6 Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.7 Blockchain and Cybersecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.8 Challenges and Open Research Problems in Various Domains . . . . . . . . 90
6.8.1 Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.8.2 Biomedical Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
xii Contents

6.8.3 Natural Language Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.8.4 Robotics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.8.5 Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chapter 1
Introduction

Technology has become an integral part of our daily lives, and it’s hard to imagine a
world without it. Technological advancements have changed how we communicate,
work, and interact with the world around us, from smartphones to social media,
from artificial intelligence to the Internet of Things. Technology has revolutionized
nearly every industry, from healthcare to finance, education to transportation.
In this day and age, it’s important to understand the impact of technology on
our lives and society as a whole. With new technologies emerging daily, keeping up
with the latest advancements and understanding how they work can be challenging.
But by staying informed and aware of the benefits and challenges of technology, we
can make informed decisions about its use and create a better future for ourselves
and our communities. The technology discussed in this book will explore the
latest advancements, their potential applications, and the ethical considerations
surrounding their use. We’ll look at how technology has transformed industries,
from healthcare to finance, and we’ll consider the ways in which it is likely to
shape our world in the years to come. By the end of reading this book, you’ll better
understand the role technology plays in our lives and the importance of staying
informed about the latest advancements.
Technological advancements have brought about significant changes in various
industries, enabling them to operate more efficiently and effectively. The use of
technology has become a crucial aspect of modern-day industries, as it helps to
improve productivity, quality, and speed while reducing costs. From automation
to artificial intelligence, machine learning to the Internet of Things, industries
use the latest technologies to streamline operations and gain a competitive edge.
By leveraging these tools, industries can optimize their supply chains, manage
inventory more effectively, and monitor their production processes to ensure they
run efficiently.
This book will explore how industries use technology to transform operations and
achieve goals. We will look at the latest advancements in automation, robotics, and
other technologies and consider their potential applications in various industries,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

R. Thanki, P. Joshi, Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8_1
2 1 Introduction

such as manufacturing, healthcare, transportation, and more. We’ll also examine

the challenges and ethical considerations surrounding the use of technology in the
industry and how businesses can navigate these issues to ensure responsible and
sustainable growth. By reading this book, you’ll better understand how technology
transforms industries and how businesses can leverage these advancements to
remain competitive and drive growth.
Technologies have brought about significant changes in the industry, and their
impact cannot be overstated. Here are some of the key ways in which technologies
are significant in the industry:
1. Improved Efficiency: By using technologies such as automation, machine
learning, and robotics, industries can optimize their processes and reduce the time
and resources required to complete tasks. This leads to increased productivity,
faster production cycles, and lower costs.
2. Better Quality: Technologies such as sensors and analytics enable industries
to monitor their production processes and identify areas for improvement. This
leads to better quality products and services and improved safety and compliance.
3. Increased Flexibility: Technologies like 3D printing and additive manufacturing
enable industries to produce complex parts and products more quickly and
flexibly. This allows for more customization and faster time to market, which
can be a significant competitive advantage.
4. Enhanced Safety: Technologies such as drones and remote monitoring enable
industries to conduct inspections and maintenance activities in hazardous or
hard-to-reach areas without putting workers at risk. This leads to increased safety
for workers and reduced downtime for the business.
5. Improved Sustainability: Technologies such as renewable energy, energy stor-
age, and recycling enable industries to reduce their environmental impact and
operate more sustainably. This can be a significant differentiator for businesses
that want to appeal to environmentally conscious consumers and stakeholders.
Overall, the significant impact of technologies in the industry is that they
enable businesses to operate more efficiently, effectively, and sustainably, leading to
increased profitability and growth. By leveraging the latest technologies, businesses
can stay competitive and meet the market’s ever-changing demands. Technologies
are used extensively in various industries to streamline operations, increase produc-
tivity, and reduce costs. Here are some examples of how technologies are being used
in industry:
• Automation: Automation technologies, such as robots and conveyor systems,
are used in manufacturing to perform repetitive and dangerous tasks. This leads
to increased efficiency and safety for workers.
• Additive Manufacturing: Additive manufacturing technologies, such as 3D
printing, are used to produce complex parts and products more quickly and with
greater flexibility. This enables industries to customize products and reduce time
to market.
1 Introduction 3

• Machine Learning: Machine learning technologies are used to analyze large

amounts of data and identify patterns and insights. This enables industries to
make better decisions, optimize processes, and improve quality.
• Internet of Things: The Internet of Things (IoT) connects machines and devices,
enabling industries to monitor and manage their operations more effectively. This
leads to improved efficiency, reduced downtime, and better quality.
• Renewable Energy: Renewable energy technologies, such as solar and wind
power, are used in various industries to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and operate
more sustainably.
• Augmented Reality: Augmented reality technologies are used in industries such
as healthcare and education to enhance learning and training experiences.
• Blockchain: Blockchain technologies are being used in industries such as
finance and supply chain management to increase transparency and security.
Overall, the usage of technologies in the industry is vast and varied, and new
technologies are being developed and applied all the time. By adopting the latest
technologies, industries can stay competitive and meet the market’s changing
demands.
This book contains six chapters that cover most emerging technologies used
in real applications and different industries worldwide. Chapter 1 gives a broad
view of different technologies and their significance in the industry. Chapters 2–6
give information on various technologies such as system identification, signal
processing, image processing, artificial intelligence, and advanced technologies.
System identification is the process of building mathematical models of physical
systems using measured input and output data. These models can be used to
understand and predict the system’s behavior and design control systems to achieve
desired performance. System identification is a critical tool in fields such as
engineering, physics, economics, and biology and is used in a wide range of
applications, including control of aircraft, optimization of energy systems, and
modeling of biological processes. In this way, system identification provides a
powerful framework for understanding and controlling complex systems and has
important implications for many areas of science and engineering. All information
regarding system identification is covered in Chap. 2.
Signal processing is a broad field of study that involves the analysis, mod-
ification, and synthesis of signals, which are patterns of variation that convey
information. Signals can take many forms, including audio, video, images, and other
data types. Signal processing is critical in many fields, including communications,
image and video processing, audio processing, and control systems. The goal of
signal processing is to extract meaningful information from signals and to use
that information to make decisions or take action. This involves techniques such
as filtering, smoothing, and compression and more advanced methods such as
machine learning and artificial intelligence. Signal processing has many applica-
tions, including speech and audio processing, medical imaging, radar and sonar,
and telecommunications. It is essential to many modern technologies, such as
smartphones, streaming media services, and autonomous vehicles. In summary,
4 1 Introduction

signal processing is a powerful and versatile field of study that plays a critical
role in many areas of science and technology. By analyzing and manipulating
signals, signal processing allows us to extract information and make decisions that
can improve our lives and advance our understanding of the world around us. All
information regarding signal processing is covered in Chap. 3.
Image processing is a field of study that involves the analysis and manipulation
of digital images. Digital images are composed of pixels, each representing a single
point of color or intensity within the image. Image processing techniques can be
used to enhance or modify images, extract information from them, or perform other
tasks such as compression and transmission. Image processing has many applica-
tions in fields such as medicine, remote sensing, and computer vision. In medical
imaging, for example, image processing techniques can be used to enhance images
of the human body for diagnostic purposes. In remote sensing, image processing
can be used to analyze satellite imagery to monitor environmental changes or detect
objects on the ground. In computer vision, image processing enables machines to
“see” and interpret the visual world. Image processing techniques range from simple
operations such as resizing and cropping to more advanced methods such as image
segmentation, feature extraction, and machine learning. These techniques can be
applied to images from various sources, including digital cameras, medical imaging
equipment, and satellites. In summary, image processing is a powerful and versatile
field of study that allows us to analyze, modify, and extract information from digital
images. With applications in fields such as medicine, remote sensing, and computer
vision, image processing is essential for advancing our understanding of the world
around us. All information regarding image processing is covered in Chap. 4.
The field of artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the fastest-growing academic
fields as it aims to create machines that can perform tasks that normally require
human intelligence. This includes learning, problem-solving, decision-making, and
language understanding tasks. AI can transform many industries, from healthcare to
finance to transportation. AI aims to create machines that can learn and adapt to new
situations as humans do. This involves developing algorithms and models to analyze
large amounts of data and make predictions based on that data. Machine learning,
a subfield of AI, is compelling, allowing machines to learn from experience and
improve their performance over time. AI has many applications in various fields.
For example, AI can analyze patient data in healthcare to assist doctors in diagnosis
and treatment planning. In finance, AI can predict market trends and improve
investment strategies. In transportation, AI can be used to develop autonomous
vehicles that can navigate roads and traffic without human intervention. While AI
can potentially revolutionize many industries, it raises ethical and societal concerns.
For example, there are concerns about the impact of AI on employment, as machines
may replace human workers in specific jobs. There are also concerns about bias in
AI algorithms, which can lead to unfair treatment of certain groups. In summary,
artificial intelligence is a rapidly advancing field that can transform many industries.
By creating machines that can learn and adapt to new situations, AI has the potential
to improve our lives in countless ways. However, as with any new technology, there
1 Introduction 5

are also potential risks and ethical considerations that must be carefully considered.
All information regarding artificial intelligence is covered in Chap. 5.
Finally, Chap. 6 gives information on various advanced technologies and tools
such as the Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, human-machine interfaces (HMIs),
AI software, augmented and virtual reality, blockchain, and cybersecurity. Also,
this chapter covers open research problems in different domains such as machine
learning, biomedical imaging, robotics, natural language processing, and wireless
communications.
Chapter 2
System Identification and Its Applications

In the real world, different systems exist with different characteristics, such as time-
invariant and time-varying. The systems can be classified in different ways, such as
linear and nonlinear systems, time-variant and time-invariant systems, linear time-
variant and linear time-invariant systems, static and dynamic systems, causal and
non-causal systems, and stable and unstable systems.
• Linear and Nonlinear Systems: A system is linear if it satisfies the following
property (in Eq. 2.1), where input signals .A(t) and .B(t) while output signals
.C(t) and .D(t), respectively. Those systems that are not following this property

are known as nonlinear systems.

.H [A(t) + B(t)] = H [A(t)] + H [B(t)] = C(t) + D(t) (2.1)

In Eq. 2.1, H is the transfer function of the system.

• Time-Invariant and Time-Variant Systems: The time-invariant system is a
system such that the response doesn’t change with time, while the system
response changes with time in a time-variant system. The time-invariant systems
[1] and time-variant systems are also known as time-in-varying systems and time-
varying systems [2].
• Linear Time-Variant and Linear Time-Invariant Systems: Linear and time-
invariant systems are called linear time-invariant systems or LTI systems. In
the field of systems, these systems play a very significant role. Due to the
mathematical nature of these systems, any input signal can be analyzed for
its output properties. An LTI system can be composed of many LTI systems,
resulting in an LTI system in its own right.
• Static and Dynamic Systems: A static system is one whose output depends only
on its current input. A dynamic system, however, is one whose output depends
on its past input.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 7

R. Thanki, P. Joshi, Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8_2
8 2 System Identification and Its Applications

• Causal and Non-causal Systems: As static and dynamic systems are distin-
guished, causal systems are those whose outputs depend only on the present and
past state of inputs.
• Stable and Unstable Systems: When the outputs and inputs of a system are
bound, it is considered stable. An unstable system has a bounded input but an
unbounded output.
Various nonlinear, time-varying [18] (variant) systems exist in the real world.
The modeling of time-varying nonlinear characteristics and the nonparametric
tracking of these properties are well-known and play a significant role in system
identification. The weighted least squares method has been employed to identify
such systems. This study aims to monitor time-varying nonlinearities while balanc-
ing bias and variance using various estimation techniques [3]. Various estimation
methods [17] and regression techniques have been used to evaluate how to balance
bias and variance.
A modified self-tuning regulator with restricted flexibility has been successfully
applied in a large-scale chemical pilot plant. A least squares estimator with the
variable weighting of historical data is used in the new approach; at each step, a
weighting factor is selected to keep the estimator’s scalar measure of information
content constant. It is demonstrated that such a method enables the parameter
estimations to track gradual and abrupt changes in the plant dynamics for essentially
deterministic systems. This chapter has been divided into a few sections and
emphasizes the industrial application of time-varying nonparametric systems.

2.1 What Is System Identification?

One definition of a system is an item in which several variables interact throughout

a range of time and spatial scales and result in observable signals. Generally, system
identification does not have any specific definition but classifies the system to its
physical parameters and changes the behavior according to inputs [4].
System identification uses two different data types as a specific statistical
inference method. The other, known as a priori, is known before any measurements
are made. The first is an experiment. The a priori information [4] broadly refers to
the system and signals that are entering the system.
Sometimes it is also classification available based on time-varying or stationary
systems. Mostly the classification of system identification is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Tracking time-varying systems [5] are the most crucial aspect of adaptive systems,
and it is addressed by identifying time-varying processes. Combining linear time-
variant and nonparametric methods [6] offers fresh perspectives on how to approach
solving statistical issues on their own. Nonlinearities [7] for a time-varying static
system have been found using kernel estimation theory [8], orthogonal expansion
method, and k-nearest neighbor approach [9]. With prior data knowledge [7]
and kernel estimates, the tracking of time-varying nonlinearities can be precisely
defined.
2.1 What Is System Identification? 9

Fig. 2.1 General classification of system identification methods

The nonlinear systems [7] are complex to control and not easy to operate.
However, if engineers search for the percentage of nonlinearities, solving the
constraint problems can be easy. System identification suggests that the parameter
estimation process will become considerably simpler when using the same type
of system, specifically for identifying nonlinear systems frequently encountered in
applications involving biological or chemical components.
Exercise 1 Let’s define one system which can be illustrated as:

. f (t) = (α1 (x) + α2 (x) + ..... + αn (x))un (t) (2.2)

By the above equation, it is clear that:

 n 

f (t) =
. αi (x) un (t) (2.3)
i=1

For the estimated value, the output should be defined as below:

 n 
n  ∞
f (y) =
. f (t)dt = αi (x) un (t)dt (2.4)
0 i=1 0

It is assumed that the inputs must be measured by applying a square to the current
point.


n  ∞
f (y) =
. αi (x) u2n (t)dt (2.5)
i=1 0
10 2 System Identification and Its Applications

Fig. 2.2 An example of time-varying system

Here, it is clear that, by Fig. 2.2,

 n 
 
 
.un (t) = E  un−i (t) − u0 (t) (2.6)
 
i=0

Here, it is clear that .f (t) and .un (t) are only measurements and .α1 +α2 +.....+αn
are sum of the defined parameters. As a result, we cannot independently estimate
each parameter from the data.
The main problem in identifiability analysis is the subject of the uniqueness of
the estimates, which has garnered a lot of attention in the literature . The analysis
[19] is referred to as theoretical, structural, or deterministic identifiability analysis
when the query solely considers the situation where the experiment and model
structure, in theory, lead to unique parameter values and, therefore, without respect
to uncertainties. Most methods for this kind of analysis are only useful for issues
with few unknowns. Hence, they are not further studied here.
For instance, the order of data-driven models [10] is sometimes easy to under-
stand but complex to identify based on a percentage of nonlinearity. However,
block-oriented models [6] are usually solved using the kernel algorithm and
Hammerstein-Wiener models and also support vector machine schemes. The block-
oriented parametric [20] and nonparametric system identifications are mentioned in
the next section.
2.3 Optimization for Time-Varying System 11

2.2 Parametric and Nonparametric System Identification

Prior knowledge plays a crucial role in system identification, comprising the three
basic elements of prior knowledge, objectives, and data. It should be understood that
these organizations are not autonomous. Data is frequently gathered based on prior
system knowledge and modeling goals, resulting in an appropriate experimental
design. At the same time, observed data may also cause one to change one’s
objectives or even one’s prior understanding.
The model’s structure on physical laws and extra relationships with matching
physical parameters is a logical choice at that point, leading to a structure known
as a “white-box model.” However, if some of these characteristics are unknown
or uncertain and, for example, accurate forecasts must be made, the parameters
can be inferred from the data. These movable parameters are found in model
sets or “gray-box” models. In other situations, such as control applications, linear
models are typically adequate and won’t always refer to the process’s underlying
physical laws and relationships. These models are frequently referred to as “black-
box” models. Along with selecting the structure, we must also select the model
representation, such as the state space, impulse response, or differential equation
model representation, and the model parameterization, which pertains to selecting
the variable parameters [1].
The identification method, which numerically solves the parameter estimation
problem, must be chosen to quantify the fit between model output and observed
data. A criterion function must also be supplied. The model’s [16] suitability for
its intended use is then evaluated in a subsequent phase known as model validation
[2, 11]. If the model is deemed suitable at that point, it can be used; otherwise, the
method must be repeated, which is typically the case in practice.

2.2.1 Parametric Model Estimation Method

Gray-box models, in which the structure of the dynamics as a function of the

parameters is known, but the values of the parameters are unknown, are used
in many applications. Due to sensor constraints, these parameters are frequently
unavailable and cannot be directly measured.

2.3 Optimization for Time-Varying System

Control theory has a subfield known as optimization for time-varying systems. This
subfield focuses on designing and implementing optimal control techniques for
time-varying systems whose parameter values, dynamics, or disturbances change
with time [5]. The objective of time-varying optimization is to design control
12 2 System Identification and Its Applications

policies that either minimize a specified cost function or maximize a specified

performance metric over a specified time horizon. This must be done while
considering the system’s dynamics and constraints on the control inputs and state
variables [12].
Time-varying optimization can be approached from various perspectives, such as
model predictive control (MPC) [7], adaptive control, and robust control [10]. MPC
is a widely used method for time-varying optimization. In this method, the system
model is used to predict the system’s future behavior over a finite time horizon,
and an optimal control policy is computed by solving an optimization problem
at each time step. MPC is one of the most widely used methods for time-varying
optimization. The optimization problem often comprises a quadratic cost function
that makes trade-offs between tracking performance [13], control effort, and other
objectives while being subject to constraints on the system states and inputs. This
type of cost function is called a “trade-off.”
An additional method for time-varying optimization is known as robust control.
This method entails the construction of control strategies that are resistant to the
effects of uncertainty and disruptions in the system’s parameters and dynamics.
Another strategy for time-varying optimization is known as adaptive control. This
strategy entails modifying the control policy based on online system characteristics
and dynamic measurements to achieve optimal results.
In the next sections, a few methods have been discussed with constrained-based
time-varying systems.

2.3.1 Adaptive κ-Nearest Neighbor Method

As mentioned in Chap. 5, KNN is a nonparametric approach [9]; no underlying

assumptions regarding the distribution of the input dataset are necessary. Some
prior knowledge of the input dataset is needed to identify the relevant properties.
In Fig. 2.2, an example of the time-varying graph has been presented.
A variation of the normal KNN technique that adjusts the value of k to the local
characteristics of the data is called the adaptive KNN (.κ-nearest neighbor) method
[14]. This is accomplished by employing a distance-weighted function, which gives
the .κ neighbors varying weights based on how close they are to the query point. The
following algorithm can be used to define the adaptive KNN technique:
Here the problem is defined for the equation below. Let’s consider that we need
real-time and live data points w.r.t past data points.
 n 2
 
 
.un (t) = E  un−i (t) − u0 (t) (2.7)
 
i=0
2.3 Optimization for Time-Varying System 13

Algorithm 1 An adaptive .κ-NN algorithm

Require: Training set .un−i , test instance i, maximum value of .κ
Ensure: Predicted class label y for test instance n
1: .κ ← 1
2: while .κ ≤ maxκ do
3: Find the .κ nearest neighbors of .ut in .un−i
4: Calculate the majority class label of the .κ neighbors
5: if Majority class label of .κ neighbors is unique then
6: return the majority class label
7: else
8: .κ ← κ + 1
9: end if
10: end while
11: return random class label

2.3.2 Robust Control Method

A group of control methods known as robust control is created to manage uncer-

tainty and disruptions in a system. When it comes to time-varying systems, where
the system characteristics could change over time, robust control methods are
especially beneficial. Using adaptive control techniques is one way to identify time-
varying systems employing robust control. A group of control methods known as
adaptive control modify the controller’s parameters according to the system’s state
at the time. This allows the controller to adjust as the system parameters vary over
time.
Model-based control techniques provide a different strategy for time-varying
system identification employing robust control. Model-based control entails using
a mathematical system model to create the controller. Based on the discrepancy
between the actual system behavior and the behavior anticipated by the model, the
controller can modify its settings.
The system dynamics and the uncertainties in the system parameters must be
carefully considered for both techniques. Also, the requirements of the particular
application, such as response time, stability, and robustness to disturbances, must be
considered in the controller’s design.
Overall, employing robust control approaches can be a successful method
for identifying time-varying systems, especially when the system parameters are
ambiguous or dynamic. The individual system and application needs must be
carefully considered during these strategies’ design and implementation.
Constrained-based robust control methods are a class of control techniques that
account for system uncertainties and restrictions on the control inputs and system
states. These techniques are often employed when there are significant system
uncertainties, and it is important to guarantee that the system is stable and operates
effectively under all conceivable operating scenarios.
Constrained-based robust control approaches aim to create a controller that
can cope with various uncertainties and disruptions. To accomplish this, the
14 2 System Identification and Its Applications

Algorithm 2 Robust control for time-varying system

Require: System model .ẏ = f (x, u, t, α), control law .u = μ(x, t, α), disturbance bound D
1: Initialize control input .u0 (t)
2: for .k = 0, 1, 2, ... do
3: Measure state .xk
4: Compute disturbance estimate .α̂k
5: Compute control input .uk + 1 = μ(xk , tk , α̂k)
6: Apply control input .uk + 1 to the system
7: Measure output .yk
8: Compute error .ek = rk − yk
9: Compute sliding surface .sk = ek + Dsgn(ek )
10: Compute control law update .Dμk = −kμ sk
11: Update control law .μk+1 = μk + Dμk
12: end for

control problem is often formulated as an optimization problem, with the goal of

minimizing a performance metric while considering constraints on the control inputs
and system states.
 n 2
 
 
.f (y) = E  un−i (t) − u0 (t) (2.8)
 
i=0

By the equation above, it can be assumed that:

  n 2

n ∞  
 
f (y) =
. αi (x) E un−i (t) − u0 (t) dt (2.9)
0  
i=1 i=0

In this above algorithm, we are making the assumption that the system is
described by the differential equation .ẏ = f (x, u, t, α), where x is the state of
the system, u is the control input, t is time, and .α represents uncertain system
parameters. In other words, we are assuming that the system is described by the
differential equation. We also make the assumption that we possess a control rule
denoted by the notation .μ(x, t, α) that translates the current state of the system as
well as the current time into a control input.
The method employs a sliding mode control strategy to deal with uncertainty in
the system parameters. Every time step, we estimate the unknown parameters .α̂k
and measure the system state. Then, we compute the control input .uk + 1 for the
subsequent time step using the control rule .μ(xk , tk , α̂k).
After applying the control input to the system and measuring the output, we
calculate the error .ek between the desired output .rk and the actual output .yk . By
computing a sliding surface with the help of this mistake, we can update the control
law by applying the formula .Dμk = −kμ sk , where .kμ is a tuning parameter.
2.4 Industrial Applications of Time-Varying System 15

Until the required control performance is attained, the algorithm iterates continu-
ously, updating the control law and estimating the uncertain parameters at each time
step.

2.4 Industrial Applications of Time-Varying System

Systems that change with time are said to have time-varying properties or behaviors.
These systems are used in various industrial applications, and it is essential to
analyze and control them to improve and optimize them. These are some examples
of time-varying systems being used in the industrial environment:

2.4.1 Robotic-Based Automotive Industries

Time-varying systems are widely used in industrial applications, with robotic-based

automobile industries being one such use. Automotive manufacturing employs
sophisticated robotic systems that must complete various jobs quickly, accurately,
and accurately. These robotic systems can be made to work at their best using time-
varying systems, which will boost productivity, lower costs, and improve quality
control.
The adaptive control system is a time-varying system utilized in the robotic-
based automobile industry. Adaptive control systems employ a control algorithm
that changes as the environment and the system’s behavior do. Adaptive control can
be used in robotic systems to modify the control inputs to account for changes in
the environment or system dynamics, such as shifting workpiece positions or the
presence of outside disturbances.
Trajectory planning is another area where time-varying systems are used in
robotic-based automobile sectors. In trajectory planning, the ideal path for a robotic
system to complete a particular task is determined. Algorithms for trajectory
planning that adjust to changes in the system’s environment and behavior over time
can be created using time-varying systems.
For instance, a trajectory planning algorithm may adjust the robot’s path as it
approaches the workpiece based on data from the system’s sensors, ensuring that it
follows the intended path and avoids running into other items.
Finally, defect finding and diagnostics can leverage time-varying systems. Wear
and tear, environmental variables, or other factors may contribute to failures in a
robotic-based car manufacturing system. Real-time defect detection and diagnosis
are possible with time-varying system approaches, enabling quick correction and
minimizing downtime.
16 2 System Identification and Its Applications

2.4.2 Chemical Industries

Time-varying systems are widely used in the chemical industries, where they are
utilized to increase the quality of chemical production and optimize process control
to achieve maximum efficiency. Time-varying systems can be used to optimize each
stage of a chemical process, leading to greater yields, reduced waste, and enhanced
profitability. Chemical processes are frequently complex and involve a number of
phases. Many procedures (as mentioned below) in the chemical industry can be
utilized and handled by time-varying processes:
• Fault Detection and Diagnosis (FDD): FDD techniques can detect and diagnose
errors in real time, enabling fast corrective action and reducing downtime. FDD
techniques are also known as fault tree analysis (FTA). Fault detection and
diagnosis (FDD) can use time-varying system methodologies to better account
for changes in the process dynamics over time and increase the accuracy of
problem detection.
• Process Design and Optimization: Time-varying models of the process can be
used to simulate the behavior of the process under various operating conditions
to optimize the process design to achieve a desired performance objective, such
as maximum yield or minimum waste. This can be accomplished through the use
of time-varying models of the process.

2.4.3 Communication and Networking

Time-varying systems in communication and navigation have different subcate-

gories as below:
• Wireless Communication: Time-varying systems are utilized in wireless com-
munication systems to a significant extent. In these kinds of systems, data is
transferred from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves; these
waves change as time passes. To figure out the time-varying signal [15] and
retrieve the transmitted data, the receiver must be able to interpret it.
• Radar Systems: To identify and locate objects, radar systems transmit and
receive signals that fluctuate over time. The radar broadcasts a signal into the
air, which then reflects off of the target and is received by the radar. The distance
to the object can be determined by the radar by measuring the amount of time that
elapses between the signals being broadcast and received. The Doppler effect can
also be used to calculate the speed of the studied item.
• Routing Protocols for Coverage Mobility: In networking, routing algorithms
are used to choose the optimum route for data to take between various network
nodes. Shortest Path First (SPF) utilizes Dijkstra’s algorithm or a comparable
method to determine the shortest path between a source and a destination node.
2.4 Industrial Applications of Time-Varying System 17

Each node in the link-state routing (LSR) algorithm keeps a complete map of the
network architecture. Nodes frequently share details on their own local linkages
and the links of their neighbors. Each node builds a complete map of the network
architecture using this data, which it then utilizes to calculate the shortest path
between a source and a destination node. Data can be sent from one node in a
network to numerous nodes using the routing mechanism known as multicast.

2.4.4 Agriculture and Smart Farming

Time-varying systems can monitor plant development, soil conditions, and envi-
ronmental elements including temperature, humidity, and light in smart agriculture.
Smart agriculture uses closed-loop control systems to maintain greenhouse temper-
atures. In a closed-loop control system, sensors report greenhouse temperature to
a controller. The controller controls the heating or cooling system to maintain the
setpoint. Because the greenhouse temperature changes over time, the controller must
adjust the heating or cooling system.
Time-varying systems can regulate greenhouse humidity, light, and temperature.
A closed-loop control system might measure greenhouse humidity and alter the
ventilation system to control air moisture.

2.4.5 Logistics and Storage Industries

Time-varying systems track inventory, optimize warehouse operations, and boost

supply chain efficiency in logistics and storage. Real-time inventory tracking is
a logistics and storage time-varying system. Sensors are utilized all across a
warehouse or supply chain to keep track of the flow of products as part of an
inventory tracking system that updates in real time. The location and status of
products might change over time as they are transferred from one area to another,
which is one of the reasons why the system is considered to be time-varying.
The system monitors the location of goods in real time by employing a number
of different sensors, such as radio frequency identification (RFID) tags and barcode
scanners. After that, the information is sent to a centralized database or control
system, which is then accessible by warehouse managers, supply chain coordinators,
and any other relevant stakeholders. In conclusion, time-varying systems have
several applications in the logistics and storage industries, such as real-time
inventory tracking systems, which can help to optimize warehouse operations and
increase supply chain efficiency. These systems also have a number of other uses.
18 2 System Identification and Its Applications

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time nonlinear systems with unknown dynamics and state constraints. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man
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London, 2010), pp.0278–0046
Chapter 3
Signal Processing and Its Applications

Everything we use and rely on in our daily lives is enabled by signal processing.
Signal processing is a branch of electrical engineering that analyzes data gen-
erated using physical devices using various models and theories. It models and
analyzes data representations of physical events and data generated across multiple
disciplines. These devices include computers, radios, video devices, cellphones,
intelligent connected devices, and much more. Our modern world relies heavily
on signal processing. This field combines biotechnology, entertainment, and social
interaction. Our ability to communicate and share information is enhanced by it. We
live in a digital world thanks to signal processing.
Signal processing refers to any modification or analysis of a signal. These
processing techniques are used to improve the efficiency of the system. Signal
processing has applications in nearly every field of life. But, before we get into
that, let us define signal. A signal is an electrical impulse or a wave that carries
information. The electrical impulse refers to the changing currents, voltages,
or electromagnetic waves that transmit data at any point in electrical systems.
Examples of signals are speech, voice, video stream, and mobile phone signals. The
noise is also considered a signal, but the information carried by noise is unwanted;
that is why it is considered undesirable. Let us briefly go through its types.

3.1 Basic of Signal Processing

This section briefly discusses basic information about signal processing; the mathe-
matics used in signal processing, particularly various transforms; etc.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 19

R. Thanki, P. Joshi, Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8_3
20 3 Signal Processing and Its Applications

3.1.1 Types of Signal Processing

Signal processing is classified into different categories based on the types of signals.
These categories are analog signal processing, digital signal processing, nonlinear
signal processing, and statistical signal processing. The information of basic types
of signals are as per below:
• Analog Signal Processing: A continuous signal has not been digitized. In this
case, its values are typically represented as a voltage, an electric current, or an
electrical charge around components. There are many applications in the real
world where analog signal processing is still relevant, and even when sampling
and discretizing signals for digital processing, it is still the first step.
• Digital Signal Processing: Signals that have been digitized and sampled dis-
cretely in time. Digital circuits such as specialized digital signal processors
(DSPs), FPGAs, or ARM chips perform processing to convert an analog signal
into a digital version [1]. In many applications, digital processing offers several
advantages over analog processing, such as error detection and correction, data
compression, and error correction in transmission. Digital wireless communica-
tion and navigation systems are also based on this technology.
• Nonlinear Signal Processing: Because linear methods and systems are easy to
interpret and implement, classical signal processing relies on linear methods
and techniques. Some applications, however, would benefit from nonlinear
processing methods being included in the methodology. Several nonlinear signal
processing methods have proven efficient in addressing real-world challenges,
including wavelet and filterbank denoising, sparse sampling, and fractional
processes.
• Statistical Signal Processing: Modeling the system under study is often benefi-
cial for many applications. However, unlike physical models such as a swinging
pendulum, it is impossible to predict the behavior of most signals of interest with
100% accuracy. It will be necessary to include as many “broad” properties as
possible, such as the variation and correlation structure, to develop a model for
such a signal. Mathematics and stochastic processes are best used to describe this
phenomenon. It is possible to express optimality criteria and evaluate achievable
performance using these models.

3.1.2 Types of Different Systems

The systems can be classified in different ways such as linear and nonlinear
systems, time-variant and time-invariant systems, linear time-variant and linear
time-invariant systems, static and dynamic systems, causal and non-causal systems,
and stable and unstable systems. The system can be analyzed using various signals,
such as analog and digital.
3.2 Transforms Used for Analysis of Signals and Systems 21

Transmission of information (including audio and video) is usually carried out

via analog or digital signals. Analog technology translates information into electric
pulses of varying amplitudes, while digital technology converts it into binary format
(either 0 or 1). The analog and digital systems are called continuous- and discrete-
time systems. Due to the better utilization of various parameters such as power,
memory, hardware, and cost in digital systems compared to analog systems, it is
widely used nowadays. Now onward, we are discussing digital or discrete-time
systems in detail in terms of their analysis methods and various usages of them
in various industries.
An electronic system that uses discrete-time signals to operate is called a
discrete-time or digital system. Signals with square waveforms are used in digital
systems. Using a sampling technique, digital systems transform analog signals into
digital ones. The system produces a desired output once the equivalent digital signal
has been produced. Compared to analog systems, digital systems are slower because
of this conversion process. However, digital systems have several advantages,
including noise-free data transmission, efficiency, ease of implementation, cost-
effectiveness, reliability, etc. As a result of all these advantages, digital systems
are becoming more popular.

3.2 Transforms Used for Analysis of Signals and Systems

An output signal is generated by transforming the original signal into the resulting
signal, which is a mathematical model. A complex operation can be decomposed
into a sequence of simpler ones, although it is often convenient to describe a
complicated operation using this concept. According to the Unified Signal Theory,
the output domain can differ from the input domain. Additionally, multidimensional
signals can be transformed between different dimensions. Various transforms such
as Laplace, Z, Fourier, and wavelet are used to analyze various kinds of systems
where inputs and outputs are some kinds of signals.

3.2.1 Laplace Transform

In 1980, Laplace proposed the Laplace transform (LT). This operator transforms
signals in the time domain into signals in a complex frequency domain called
the “S” domain. In this case, “S” represents the complex frequency domain, and
“s” represents the complex frequency variable. The complex frequency S can be
likewise defined as:

s = σ + jω
. (3.1)

where .σ is the real part of s and j.ω is the imaginary part of s.

22 3 Signal Processing and Its Applications

Mathematicians define complex numbers as mathematical abstractions used for

analyzing signals and systems. It simplifies mathematics. In the same way, complex
frequency planes are also useful abstractions for simplifying mathematics. Except
for the fact that it converts a time-domain signal into a complex frequency-domain
signal, the Laplace transform has no physical significance. Signals and systems can
be easily analyzed using it for simplifying mathematical computations. Knowing
the Laplace domain transfer function of a system reveals its stability directly.
Differential equations can be solved using LT.

3.2.2 Z-Transform

In mathematical terms, the Z-transform converts difference equations from the time
domain to the algebraic domain. Z-transforms are very useful tools for analyzing
linear shift-invariant systems (LSIs). Different equations are used to represent LSI
discrete-time systems. To solve these time-domain difference equations, the Z-
transform is first used to convert them into algebraic equations in the z-domain.
Then the algebraic equations are manipulated in the z-domain, and then the result
is converted back into the time domain by using the inverse Z-transform. There are
two types of Z-transform: unilateral (one-sided) and bilateral (two-sided).
Mathematically, if .x(n) is a discrete-time signal or sequence, then its bilateral or
two-sided Z-transform is defined as:
∞

Z[x(n)] = X(z) =
. x(n)z−n (3.2)
n=−∞

A complex variable z can be expressed as follows:

.z = r · ej ω (3.3)

In Eq. 3.3, a circle’s radius is defined by r. In addition, the unilateral Z-transform

is defined as follows:
∞

Z[x(n)] = X(z) =
. x(n)z−n (3.4)
n=0

One-sided or unilateral Z-transforms are very useful when dealing with causal
sequences. Furthermore, it is primarily used to solve differential equations with
initial conditions. It is called the region of convergence (ROC) of the Z-transform
.X(z) when the Z-transform of a discrete-time sequence .x(n) converges for a set of

points in the Z-plane. It is possible for the Z-transform to converge or not for any
discrete-time sequence. The sequence .x(n) has no Z-transform if the function .X(z)
does not converge in the Z-plane. The Z-transform has the following advantages:
3.2 Transforms Used for Analysis of Signals and Systems 23

• A discrete-time system can be analyzed more easily with the Z-transform by

converting its difference equations into simple linear algebraic equations.
• In the z-domain, convolution is converted to multiplication.
• There is a Z-transform for signals that cannot be transformed by the discrete-time
Fourier transform (DTFT).
Z-transforms have the primary disadvantage of not being able to obtain the
frequency-domain response and plot it.

3.2.3 Fourier Transform

Fourier transforms decompose waveforms, or functions of time, into their frequen-

cies. Fourier transforms produce complex-valued functions of frequency. Fourier
transforms represent the frequency values present in the original function, and their
complex arguments represent the phase offset of the sinusoidal. It is also known as
a generalization of the Fourier series. This term encompasses both a mathematical
function and a frequency-domain representation. With the Fourier transform, any
function can be viewed as a sum of simple sinusoids, which allows the extension
of the Fourier series to non-periodic functions. The Fourier transform of a function
.x(k) is given by:


N −1
X(k) =
. x(n) · e−2j π nk (3.5)
n=0

where .x(k) is the input signal in a time domain and .X(k) is the transformed signal
in the frequency domain.
Fourier transforms have the following properties:
• This is a linear transformation. In this example, we can calculate the Fourier
transform of the linear combination of a and b if .a(k) and .b(k) are two Fourier
transforms given by .A(k) and .B(k).
• Timeshift is one of its properties. As a result of the Fourier transform of x(t–a),
the magnitude of the spectrum is also shifted by the same amount as the shift in
the original function.
• It has the property of modulation. When a function is multiplied by another
function, it is modulated by that function.
• Parseval’s theorem is used in its formulation. Fourier transforms are unitary, so a
function .a(k) ’s square root equals its Fourier transform .A(k).
• It has the property of duality. The Fourier transform of .a(k) is .A(−k) if .a(k) has
the Fourier transform .A(k).
There are two types of Fourier transform: discrete-time or discrete Fourier
transform (DTFT or DFT) and fast Fourier transform (FFT).
24 3 Signal Processing and Its Applications

3.2.3.1 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

Mathematically, the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) transforms an equally spaced

sequence of samples of a function into an equally spaced sequence of discrete-
time Fourier transforms (DTFT), which are complex-valued functions of frequency.
Digital signal processing relies heavily on the discrete Fourier transform (DFT).
Frequency-domain (spectral) representations of signals are derived from them.
The discrete Fourier transform is very similar to the Fourier transform in
mathematics. Specifically, given a vector of n input amplitudes such as .f0 , .f1 ,
.f2 ,. . . ,.fn−2 , .fn−1 , the discrete Fourier transform yields a set of n frequency

magnitudes. The DFT is defined as such:


N −1
−j 2π kn
X[k] =
. x[n]e N (3.6)
n=0

where .X(k) is used to denote the Fourier transformed signal, x[n] is used to denote
the original signal, and N is the length of the sequence to be transformed.
The inverse DFT is defined as such:
N −1
1 
.x[n] = X[k]WN−kn (3.7)
N
k=0

where .WN is defined as:

−j 2π
WN = e
. N (3.8)

3.2.3.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

Fourier transforms can be generated more efficiently using the fast Fourier transform
(FFT). FFT’s main advantage is speed, which reduces the number of calculations
required to analyze a waveform. In addition, it is used to design electrical circuits,
solve differential equations, process signals, analyze signals, and filter images.

3.2.4 Wavelet Transform

We can use wavelets to extract more useful information from any signal by trans-
forming it from one representation to another. It is known as a wavelet transform.
Wavelet transforms can be mathematically represented as convolutions between
wavelet functions and signals. Signals in time-frequency space can be analyzed
with the wavelet transform (WT) to reduce noise while preserving significant
components. Signal processing has benefited greatly from WT in the past 20 years.
3.3 Designing of Discrete-Time Systems 25

With wavelet analysis, mathematics, physics, and engineering problems are

solved in an exciting new way. Wave propagation, data compression, signal
processing, image processing, pattern recognition, computer graphics, aircraft and
submarine detection, and other medical imaging applications are some of the many
applications of wavelet analysis. Composing complex information into elementary
forms, such as music, speech, images, and patterns, can be reconstructed with high
precision using wavelets.

3.3 Designing of Discrete-Time Systems

Software or hardware implementations of linear time-invariant discrete-time sys-

tems are described in this section. This popular class of linear time-invariant
discrete-time systems is defined by the general linear constant-coefficient difference
equation.


N 
M
b(n) = −
. pk b(n − k) + qk a(n − k) (3.9)
k=1 k=0

Z-transforms and the rational system function also describe linear time-invariant
discrete-time systems as below:
M −k
k=1 qk z
.H (z) = N (3.10)
1+ −k
k=1 pk z

It is possible to convert the equations obtained by rearranging (3.9) into a

program that runs on a computer if the system is to be implemented as software.
A block diagram implies a hardware configuration for implementing the system.
For the system to be designed, various factors must be considered, including
computational complexity, memory requirements, and finite word length effects.
Complicated systems require more arithmetic operations to compute an output
value. Inputs, outputs, and any intermediate computed values are stored due to
memory requirements. The term finite word length effect refers to quantization
effects that are inherent to all digital implementations of the system, both hardware
and software.
Three major factors influence our choice of implementing a system of the
type described in Eqs. 3.9 and 3.10. However, other factors may also play a role
in determining which implementation to use, such as whether the structure or
realization lends itself to parallel processing or whether the computations can be
pipelined. Digital signal processing algorithms are usually more complex when
these additional factors are considered. Any discrete-time system can be designed or
realized using two types of filters: finite impulse response (FIR) and infinite impulse
response (IIR).
26 3 Signal Processing and Its Applications

3.3.1 Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filter

The general equation for the FIR filter can be given below:


M−1
b(n) =
. pk a(n − k) (3.11)
k=0

or equivalently by system function:


M−1
H (z) =
. pk z−k (3.12)
k=0

Further, the unit sample response of the FIR filter can be described below:

pn , 0  n  M − 1
h(n) =
. (3.13)
0, otherwise

The length of the FIR filter is set to M. The direct method is a simple structure
used in the literature for implementing a FIR system [2]. The FIR filter can
be realized using different structures such as cascades, frequency sampling, and
lattices. The following are the primary advantages of FIR filters:
• A linear phase can be achieved by them.
• It is always stable with them.
• There is generally a linear approach to design.
• It is feasible to implement them in hardware efficiently.
• There is a finite duration to the filter startup transients.
A major disadvantage of FIR filters is that they typically require much higher
filter orders to achieve the same performance levels as IIR filters. Consequently,
these filters are often much slower than IIR filters with equal performance. The FIR
filter can be designed using various methods such as windowing, multiband with
transition bands, constrained least squares, arbitrary response, and raised cosine [3].

3.3.2 Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filter

A system described by Eqs. 3.11 and 3.12 can be realized using an IIR system using
direct-form, cascade, lattice, and lattice-ladder structures similar to FIR filters. One
difference is that the IIR filter is realized parallel rather than serially in the FIR filter
[2]. An IIR filter is generally more cost-effective than a corresponding FIR filter
since it meets a set of specifications with a much lower filter order [4]. The IIR filter
can be designed using various methods such as analog prototyping, direct design,
3.4 Industrial Applications of Signal Processing (SP) 27

generalized Butterworth design, and parametric modeling [4]. The IIR filter types
such as classical IIR filters, Butterworth, Chebyshev Types I and II, elliptic, and
Bessel are available in the literature [4].

3.4 Industrial Applications of Signal Processing (SP)

The IEEE Signal Processing Society’s Industry Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
Standing Committee (IDSP-SC) focuses on identifying and evaluating emerging
digital signal processing applications and technologies [5]. There are several signal
processing applications and technologies recommended by the committee, includ-
ing digital and software radio frequency (RF) processing, single-chip solutions,
nanoscale technology, cognitive and reconfigurable radar, the Internet of Things,
cloud computing, service computing, and new-generation TV (smart TV, 3D TV,
4K TV, UHD TV), and perception by autonomous systems [5].

3.4.1 SP for Digital Front End and Radio Frequency

Radar, sonar, digital broadcasting, and wireless communication rely heavily on

software and digital processing at the front end. These techniques offer low power
consumption, low costs, fast time to market, and flexibility. Unlike baseband pro-
cessing, the front end is tightly connected to the RF layer, which imposes significant
limitations and difficulties on digital processing speed, memory, computational
capability, power, size, data interfaces, and bandwidths. This suggests that digital
processing and circuit implementation of the front end are challenging tasks that
require huge efforts from industry, research, and regulatory authorities.

3.4.2 Development of Chip for All DSP

Signal processing algorithms have been converted to silicon using three different
computing platforms: application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), digital signal
processors (DSPs), and field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). A single appli-
cation device usually incorporates a variety of signal processing algorithms. This
suggests that this single application device needs different computing platforms/IC
chips, which is practically inefficient.
An ASIC-based solution’s power consumption and performance are excellent;
however, this solution cannot support multiple standards and applications. The
performance of digital processing systems is highly dependent on signal process-
ing algorithms, which cannot be upgraded using an ASIC-based solution. The
flexible nature of FPGA- and DSP-based solutions allows them to meet several
28 3 Signal Processing and Its Applications

standards (or models or applications) and support a wide range of signal processing
algorithms. However, FPGA/DSP-based solutions could be more efficient from
a power consumption and cost perspective. In some cases, these two solutions
can be combined and viewed as an accelerator-based platform, producing some
advantages in both performance and flexibility. This third solution, however, has a
significant problem in that it is difficult to program/port different algorithms into
its platform, primarily because its control units, computational units, data units,
and accelerators have heterogeneous interfaces. A single-chip solution is highly
desirable by combining power efficiency, cost reduction, time to market, flexibility,
and programming ability.

3.4.3 Usage of SP in Nanotechnology

Many technologies are in the nanoscale area, including nanonetworks, nanorobotics,

nanosecond processors (GHz scale), nanoscale CMOS circuits and sensors, and
three-dimensional (3D) integrated circuits. Research and applications in signal
processing will be greatly impacted by nanotechnology. Several signal process-
ing algorithms (like matrix inversion in MIMO communication systems) can be
performed in nanoseconds when using a processor with a nanosecond instruction
period or clock cycle time. Both consumer electronics and military instruments use
CMOS-based nanoscale image sensors and related processing to offer much better
image systems.
The most significant benefit of nanonetworks is that they are capable of
computing, data storage, sensing, and actuating specific tasks because they are
interconnected micromachines or devices. Nanonetworks enable the development
of more complex systems, such as nanorobots and computing devices incorporating
nanoprocessors, nano-memory, or nano-clocks. Nevertheless, signal processing
(coding, transmission, implementation) needs to be rethought and redesigned since
nanonetworks differ from traditional communication networks in a number of ways,
including signal type, coding and the message carried, propagation speed, noise
sources, and a limit on a nanoscale size, complexity, and power consumption, among
others.

3.4.4 Development of Reconfigurable and Cognitive Radar

An adaptive scheduler, adaptive data product generation, adaptive transmit and

receive chain, and enhanced real-time adaptability enable reconfigurable and cog-
nitive radar to adapt intelligently to its environment based on many potential
information sources. Research and development of reconfigurable and cognitive
radars are related to two signal processing aspects.
3.4 Industrial Applications of Signal Processing (SP) 29

Several aspects include adaptive power allocation, knowledge-aided process-

ing, learning, environmental dynamic databases, and data mining. Differentiation
technology can be applied across time, frequency, spatial, and embedded domains.
Various radar degree-of-freedom (DoF) and channel numbers can be optimized for
RF digitization, processing, and digital arbitrary waveform generators (DAWG).
A high-performance computing platform is also necessary to implement cognitive
radar in real time and reconfigurable. As an example, a computing platform of
this type should be not only able to perform all the computations required by the
various algorithms for estimating adaptive channel parameters (such as eigenvalue
decomposition, matrix inversion, and QR decomposition) in real time but also
be able to take advantage of all information sources through knowledge-aided
coprocessing capabilities.

3.4.5 SP in Smart Internet of Things

A wide range of devices and places are expected to become IP-enabled and be
integrated into the Internet soon. Various examples of intelligent objects include
mobile phones, personal health devices, appliances, home security, and entertain-
ment systems. In addition, there are RFID, industrial automation, smart metering,
and environmental monitoring systems. There are many benefits that the intelligent
Internet of Things can offer. These include environmental monitoring, energy
savings, intelligent transportation, more efficient factories, better logistics, smart
agriculture, food safety, and better healthcare.
The following related areas will greatly depend on signal processing technology
and practice: wireless embedded technology, ubiquitous information acquisition
and sensing, RFID algorithms and circuit integration, signal and data coding and
compression, security authentication, key management algorithms, and routing
algorithms. In the smart grid, a number of significant components are involved in the
signal processing process: bulk generation, transmission, distribution, customers,
operations, markets, and service providers. Three layers are included: a power
and energy layer, a communication layer, and an information technology/computer
layer. There is no doubt that signal processing will be primarily used in the second
layer, encompassing smart metering and its wireless communication architecture,
microcontrollers with ultralow power consumption, models for power grid data and
state estimation, and algorithms for fault detection, isolation, recovery, and load
balancing in real time.

3.4.6 SP for Cloud and Service Computing

A cloud computing service is a method of computing and processing that utilizes

virtualized, dynamic resources (software, multimedia, data access, and storage
30 3 Signal Processing and Its Applications

services) without the need for end users to know the physical location or reconfigure
the systems for delivering the services from a business or information service stand-
point. Dynamic allocation of cloud resources is essential to maximize the system’s
performance. Therefore, designing and implementing dynamic resource allocation
algorithms will be a crucial signal processing topic in cloud computing. Among
the issues discussed are algorithms and real-time implementations for compression,
coding, storage, processing, security, privacy, IP management, communication,
streaming (ultrahigh bandwidth), modeling, and evaluating the quality of services
and experiences [5].

3.4.7 SP for Digital TV Technology

From sensing to transmission to display, digital TV systems and services involve

signal processing at every stage. Several signal processing topics are discussed,
including digital broadcasting baseband processing, white space, and dynamic
spectral management, embedded SoC implementation, cross-layer coding, multi-
viewer coding, recording and tracking, representation and segmentation, display
technology and color formats, SDR and broadcasting, and human factors and
perceptual quality assessment, along with algorithms for managing electronic
copyright.

3.4.8 SP for Autonomous System Perception

The long-term goal of machine perception is to allow machines to understand

objects, events, and processes in the environment and communicate this understand-
ing to humans. There is a trend to integrate multiple input methods into machine
perception. This includes sensors such as radar and microphone arrays. However,
machine perception was often synonymous with machine vision, which processes
data from cameras operating in the visible range. Currently, sensors are being used
as the base layer in a layered model, which includes front-end processing, object
localization, object recognition, context recognition, and spatiotemporal perception.
Among the main technical challenges are (1) constructing robust real-world algo-
rithms for mid-level tasks, (2) generating “complete” ontologies of scenes/scenarios
of interest, and (3) identifying and describing events beyond the trained set [5].
The challenges associated with autonomous systems are computation, scalability
across robot platforms, interfacing with machine intelligence, and human-robot
interaction. Multichannel processing of multimodal sensor outputs, cueing and
behavior inference, and symbolic representations are among the signal processing
problems presented by the field.
References 31

References

1. R.C. Gonzalez, R.E. Woods, Digital Image Processing (Pearson Education India, Upper Saddle
River, 2008)
2. J.G. Proakis, D.G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms, and Applica-
tions (Pearson Education India, Noida, 2007)
3. FIR Filter Design. Web Link: https://www.mathworks.com/help/signal/ug/fir-filter-design.html.
Last Access February 2023
4. IIR Filter Design. Web link: https://www.mathworks.com/help/signal/ug/iir-filter-design.html.
Last Access February 2023
5. F.L. Luo, W. Williams, R.M. Rao, R. Narasimha, M.J. Montpetit, Trends in signal processing
applications and industry technology [in the spotlight]. IEEE Signal Proc. Mag, 29(1), 184–174
(2011)
Chapter 4
Image Processing and Its Applications

Whenever we look at a digital image, we see many elements, each with a specific
location and value [1]. Pixels, picture elements, and image elements are examples of
these elements. Digital images are commonly represented by pixels. What happens
when we look at an object? The process begins with the eye capturing the object and
sending signals to the brain. The brain decodes these signals and obtains valuable
information. Image processing is the process of converting images into useful data.
We begin processing images as soon as we are born and continue doing so
until the end, which is an integral part of our lives. Therefore, combining the eye
and the brain creates the ultimate imaging system. In image processing, algorithms
are written to process images captured by a camera. Here the camera replaces the
eye, and the computer does the brain’s work. Image processing involves changing
the nature of an image to either (1) improve its visual information for human
interpretation or (2) make it more suitable for autonomous machine perception.
Today, image processing is used around the world. Image processing applications
can be classified based on the energy source used to generate images. The principal
energy source for images today is the electromagnetic energy spectrum, and other
energy sources may be acoustic, ultrasonic, and electronic [1]. Figure 4.1 shows the
electromagnetic energy spectrum. For example, the image generated by gamma-ray
is called gamma-ray imaging. The image created by an X-ray is called an X-ray
image. These images are widely used in medical science to inspect the human body.
Gamma-ray imaging is primarily used in nuclear medicine and astronomy.
A single image can be processed using image processing at one end and viewed
through computer vision at the other end. There are three basic types of image
processing:
• Low-Level Image Processing: Basic operations such as noise reduction, con-
trast enhancement, and sharpening are included in low-level image processing.
These processes use images as inputs and outputs.
• Medium-Level Image Processing: Object classification, image segmentation,
and description of objects presented in an image are operations included in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 33

R. Thanki, P. Joshi, Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8_4
34 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

Fig. 4.1 Electromagnetic energy spectrum

medium-level image processing. This process utilizes images as inputs and

extracts edges and contours from these images as outputs.
• High-Level Image Processing: Analyzing images is part of this process.
Images’ features are inputs to this process, and images’ features are outputs.
In basic image processing steps, images are acquired, enhanced, restored, pro-
cessed in color, processed with wavelets, compressed, morphologically analyzed,
segmented, represented, and described, and objects are recognized. A processed
image of a sensed object is acquired as the first step in image processing. Image
processing can be applied to images as inputs or to the attributes of images as
outputs.

4.1 Most Commonly Used Images

An image is interpreted as a 2D or 3D matrix by a computer, where each pixel

represents the amplitude of that pixel or its “intensity.” We generally deal with 8-
bit images, with amplitude values ranging from 0 to 255. A computer perceives an
image as a function .I (x, y) or .I (x, y, z), where “I” represents the intensity of a
pixel and .(x, y) or .(x, y, z) represents its coordinates (for binary/grayscale or RGB
images, respectively). A computer deals with images in different ways depending on
their function representation. Let’s discuss it. Here we give information on the most
commonly used images in the real world. The images may be binary, grayscale, or
color images.
4.1 Most Commonly Used Images 35

Fig. 4.2 Examples of binary images. (a) Chessboard. (b) Logo

4.1.1 Binary Image

The image has only two intensity levels, such as 0 for black and 1 or 255 for white,
which is called a binary image. This image is widely used in image segmentation
and highlights certain regions in a color image. The examples of binary images are
shown in Fig. 4.2.

4.1.2 Grayscale Image

An 8-bit grayscale image comprises 256 unique colors, with 0 corresponding to

black and 255 representing white. The other 254 values represent shades of gray
in between. This image is widely used in most image processing methods. The
examples of grayscale images are shown in Fig. 4.3 [2].

4.1.3 Color Image

In our modern world, we are used to seeing RGB or colored images that are 16-bit
matrices. Each pixel can have 65,536 different colors. RGB refers to an image’s red,
green, and blue channels. We used to have images with a single channel up until now.
36 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

Fig. 4.3 Examples of grayscale images. (a) Lena. (b) Rose

Fig. 4.4 Examples of color images. (a) Peppers. (b) Baboon

In other words, any value of a matrix could be defined by two coordinates. However,
to specify the value of a matrix element, we require three unique coordinates for
three equal-sized matrices (called channels), each with a value between 0 and 255.
When a pixel value is (0, 0, 0) in an RGB image, it is black. It is white when it
is (255, 255, 255). Any combination of numbers between those two can create all
the colors in nature. For example, (255, 0, 0) corresponds to red (since only the red
channel is active here). The colors (0, 255, 0) and (0, 0, 255) are green and blue,
respectively. The examples of grayscale images are shown in Fig. 4.4 [2].
4.2 Fundamental Steps of Image Processing 37

4.2 Fundamental Steps of Image Processing

The fundamental steps of image processing are described as follows [1]:

4.2.1 Image Acquisition

Cameras capture images, which an analog-to-digital converter digitizes (if not

automatically digitized).

4.2.2 Image Enhancement

The acquired image is manipulated in this step to meet the specific requirements
of the task for which it is intended. Usually, these techniques highlight hidden
or significant details in an image, such as adjusting contrast and brightness. The
process of image enhancement is highly subjective.

4.2.3 Image Restoration

In this step, the appearance of an image is improved, and a mathematical or

probabilistic model is used to explain the degradation. An example would be
removing noise from an image or blurring it.

4.2.4 Color Image Processing

During this step, colored images are processed, such as color correction or model-
ing.

4.2.5 Wavelets and Multi-Resolution Processing

A wavelet is a unit for representing images with different levels of resolution. For
data compression and pyramidal representation, images are subdivided into smaller
regions.
38 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

4.2.6 Image Compression

Images must be compressed to be transferred between devices or accommodate

computational and storage constraints. Images are also highly compressed when
displayed online; for example, Google provides thumbnails of highly compressed
versions of the originals. Images are shown in their original resolution only when
you click on them. In this way, the servers can save bandwidth.

4.2.7 Morphological Processing

Image components must be extracted for processing or downstream applications

to represent and describe shapes. The morphological process gives us the tools to
accomplish this (which are mathematical operations). Sharpening and blurring the
edges of objects in an image are achieved using erosion and dilation operations.

4.2.8 Image Segmentation

This step divides an image into different parts to simplify and/or make it easier to
analyze and interpret. As a result of image segmentation, computers can focus their
attention on the important parts of an image, thereby improving the performance of
automated systems.

4.2.9 Representation and Description

This step of the image segmentation procedure involves determining whether the
segmented region should be displayed as a boundary or a complete region. The
purpose of the description is to extract attributes that provide some quantitative
information of interest or can be used to differentiate one class of objects from
another.

4.2.10 Object Detection and Recognition

As soon as the objects have been segmented from an image, the automated system
needs to assign a label to the object that humans can use to understand what the
object is.
4.3 Image Processing Methods 39

4.2.11 Knowledge Base

The information in images relevant to knowledge is highlighted using some

methods, such as finding the bounding box coordinates. Anything relevant to solving
the problem can be encoded in a knowledge base.

4.3 Image Processing Methods

In image processing, unwanted objects can be removed from an image or even

completely different images can be created. A person’s picture can be rendered
in the foreground using image processing to remove the background. There are a
variety of algorithms and techniques that can be used in image processing to achieve
a variety of different results. The purpose of this section is to describe different
image processing methods [3].

4.3.1 Image Enhancement

The task of image enhancement, or improving an image’s quality, is one of the

most common tasks in image processing. It plays a crucial role in computer vision,
remote sensing, and surveillance. The contrast is typically adjusted to make the
image appear brighter and more contrasted. Contrast refers to the difference between
an image’s brightest and darkest parts. An image can be more visible by increasing
its contrast, which increases its brightness. In an image, brightness refers to how
light or dark it is. Images can be made brighter by increasing brightness, making
them easier to see. Most image editing software allows you to adjust contrast
and brightness automatically, or you can do it manually. Image enhancement is
performed in two domains such as the spatial domain and the transform domain.

4.3.1.1 Image Enhancement in Spatial Domain

In the spatial domain, images are represented by pixels. Spatial domain methods
process images directly based on pixel values. A general equation can be applied to
all spatial domain methods.

g(x, y) = P (f (x, y))

. (4.1)

An input image is f (.x, y), a processed image is g (.x, y), and a processing
operation is P. Pixels (.x, y) within the neighborhood of (.x, y) are generally
considered neighborhood pixels. Each position in the sub-image is processed by
40 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

Fig. 4.5 Point processing

applying the processing operation P at each point position to generate processed

points. Figure 4.5 shows image processing in the spatial domain. This processing is
divided into two types: point processing and neighborhood processing [1, 4].
• Point Processing: It is the simplest form of spatial image processing. In other
words, it is a transformation of gray levels. Here, P is 1 .× 1, which means that
the value of f (.x, y) depends only on the original value of g (.x, y). As a result,
P becomes a gray-level transformation function.

.S = P (R) (4.2)

In Eq. (4.2), S is the gray level of the processed image g (.x, y). R represents
the gray level of the original image f (.x, y). The common operations for
this processing are identity transformation, image negative, contrast stretching,
contrast thresholding, gray-level slicing, bit plane slicing, log transformation,
power law transformation, and histogram processing [1].
• Neighborhood Processing: Neighborhood processing extends level transforma-
tion by applying an operating function to a neighborhood pixel of every target
pixel. The mask process is used in this process. This method will create a new
image with pixel values based on the gray-level values under the mask. Figure 4.6
shows this process.
4.3 Image Processing Methods 41

Fig. 4.6 Neighborhood

processing

Fig. 4.7 Image filtering in spatial domain

An image filter combines a mask with an operating function. This filter

is called a linear filter if it produces a new gray-level value using linear
operations. The filter can be implemented by multiplying all values in the mask
by corresponding values in neighboring pixels and adding them together. Let us
consider a .3 × 5 mask, as shown in Fig. 4.7. This process is known as spatial
filtering. It is used in the convolution layer of a convolutional neural network
(CNN).
42 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

4.3.1.2 Image Enhancement in Transform Domain

Gray-level values change with distance, creating a frequency. A high-frequency

coefficient is defined by large changes in gray levels over a short distance, for
example, noise and edges. Small changes in gray-level values over large distances
define low-frequency coefficients, i.e., background. Based on these frequencies,
low-pass and high-pass spatial filters are used for image enhancement in the
spatial domain. High-pass filters pass high-frequency coefficients while blocking
low-frequency coefficients. Backgrounds and skin textures are removed using this
filter. Low-pass filters pass low-frequency coefficients and eliminate high-frequency
coefficients. This filter removes noise and edges from the image. The low-pass filter
is the smoothing filter, and the high-pass filter is the sharpening filter. The Fourier
domain is used to enhance images in the frequency domain. An image is filtered
in the spatial domain by convolving the original image with a filter mask. Signal
processing fundamentals say a frequency-domain filter process would be an image
multiplied by a filter transfer function to get the filtered image.

4.3.2 Image Restoration

Images obtained through the acquisition process are not the exact same information
as represented objects in the image, but there is some degradation in the acquired
images. During the acquisition process of an image, many sensors or devices can
cause degradation. For example, in remote sensing and astronomy, images are
degraded due to various atmospheric conditions, various lighting conditions in
space, and the camera position of satellites. In many applications, point degradations
(due to noise) and spatial degradations (due to blurring) are commonly used to
degrade images. Restoration of an image is restoring an original image from a
degraded one. Rotation appears similar to image enhancement by definition, but
there are some differences between the two processes.
• The image enhancement process is subjective, while the image restoration
process is objective.
• Image enhancement procedures utilize the psychophysical aspects of the human
visual system (HVS) to manipulate an image. To reconstruct the original image,
images are restored by modeling degradation and applying inverse processes.
• Quantitative parameters cannot be used to measure image enhancement. Quanti-
tative parameters can be used to measure image restoration.
• Contrast stretching is an example of image enhancement. Removing blur from
an image is an example of image restoration.
4.3 Image Processing Methods 43

4.3.3 Image Morphology

Various image processing operations that deal with the shape of features in an
image are known as morphological image processing (or morphology) [1, 5]. A
binary image can be corrected with these operations by correcting the image’s
imperfections. Variously shaped structuring elements can extract shape features
(such as edges, holes, corners, and cracks) from an image. This process is used
in industrial computer vision applications, such as object recognition, image
segmentation, and defect detection. This process involves various operations, such
as erosion, dilation, opening, closing, etc., used to process images.

4.3.4 Image Segmentation

Segmentation involves splitting an image into constituent parts based on some

image attributes. This process reduces excessive data while only important data
is retained for image analysis. Additionally, this process converts bitmap data
into more readable structured data. Segmenting images using the similarity and
discontinuity properties of pixels is possible. A similarity property in pixels means
that targeted pixels have the same gray-level intensity. In contrast, a discontinuity
property means that boundary pixels have different gray levels in targeted pixel
groups. During the image segmentation process, three features are extracted from
the image: lines, points, and edges. In a similar way to mask processing, detection
features are detected. The operations such as line detection, point detection, and
edge detection are associated with the image segmentation process. The various
edge detectors, such as Prewitt, Sobel, Roberts, and Canny, are used in real-world
applications according to their requirement in the use case.

4.3.5 Image Compression

A digital image compression process reduces the amount of redundant and irrelevant
information in the image data to store or transmit it efficiently. Redundancy in
the image can be classified into coding redundancy, interpixel redundancy, and
psychovisual redundancy.
• Coding Redundancy: In images, a few bits are used to represent frequently
occurring information. An image is represented by its pixel values. It is called
a code when these symbols are used. Each pixel value in an image is assigned
a code word. Usually, look-up tables (LUTs) are used to implement this type of
code. Huffman codes and arithmetic coding are examples of image compression
methods that explore coding redundancy.
44 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

• Interpixel Redundancy: It refers to the correlation between pixels next to each

other in the image. The term spatial redundancy is also used to describe it. Here,
the information carried by an individual pixel is almost related to its nearest
pixels. Run-length encoding (RLE) and many predictive coding methods, such
as differential pulse code modulation (DPCM), explore this redundancy.
• Psychovisual Redundancy: As a result of the human visual system’s (HVS’s)
ignoring of data, this redundancy occurs. Psychovisual redundancy is reduced
using the quantization process. JPEG encoding standard explores this redundancy
through image compression.
There are two types of image compression: lossy and lossless. A lossless
compression method is preferred for archival purposes and is often used for medical
imaging, technical drawings, clip art, or comic books. It is common for lossy
compression methods to introduce compression artifacts, mainly when used at low
bit rates. In applications where a small loss of fidelity (sometimes invisible) is
acceptable to reduce bit rates substantially, lossy methods are ideal for native images
like photographs. In some cases, visually lossless compression may be called lossy
compression which produces negligible differences. Compressing data with lossy
methods such as transform coding, discrete cosine transform, color quantization,
chroma subsampling, and fractal compression is possible. Several lossless compres-
sion methods exist, including run-length coding, area image compression, predictive
coding, entropy coding, and adaptive dictionary algorithms like Lempel-Ziv-Welch
(LZW), DEFLATE, and chain coding.

4.3.6 Image Registration

Registration of images involves transforming different sets of data into one coordi-
nate system. The data may be multiple photographs, data from various sensors, data
from multiple depths, or data from different viewpoints. The technology is used
in computer vision, medical imaging, automatic target recognition in the military,
and compiling and analyzing satellite images. This data must be registered to be
compared or integrated. Image can be registered using various methods such as
point matching, feature matching (e.g., scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT)),
etc.

4.3.7 Object Detection

Object detection identifies objects in an image and is commonly used in surveillance

and security applications. Nowadays, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are
widely used for object detection, but other algorithms like region-based CNN (R-
CNN), fast R-CNN, and you only look once (YOLO) can also be implemented for
this purpose.
4.4 Industrial Applications of Image Processing 45

4.3.8 Image Manipulation

Image manipulation is the process of altering an image to change its appearance.

There may be several reasons for this, such as removing unwanted objects from
images or adding objects not present in the image. Graphic designers use this
process to create posters, films, etc.

4.4 Industrial Applications of Image Processing

Many industries rely on digital image processing, including advertising, marketing,

design, photography, etc. In the medical field, digital image processing is used for
many applications, such as X-ray imaging, CT scans, etc. With satellites, remote
sensing scans the Earth and records its features. Machine vision or robot vision is
an application of digital image processing that uses the software. It takes a lot of
time and effort to process digital images, but it will result in a higher quality of life
for humans.
A wide variety of industries can benefit from image recognition technology.
Several enterprises have adopted this technology due to better manufacturing,
inspection, and quality assurance tools and processes, making them more time-
efficient and productive. Large corporations and startups, such as Google, Adobe
Systems, etc., rely heavily on image processing techniques daily. Over the next few
years, AI (artificial intelligence) will advance this technology significantly. Here,
information regarding a few industries is given where image processing significantly
improves some operations.

4.4.1 Agriculture

A large amount of image processing is also used in agriculture. This technology

offers the advantage of being nondestructive, providing insight into crops without
touching them. Irrigation and pest control are two of the first aspects of crop
management. This can be achieved by various image processing with the help of
machine learning.
Nowadays, image processing is commonly used to identify diseased plants in
agriculture. Traditionally, an expert would be consulted for this task. The good
news is that image processing technology can save the day in this case. In the
preprocessing phase, the digital images are improved in terms of resolution, noise,
and color. A database will be used to refer the enhanced image to related images
once it has been segmented. Afterward, the segmented image is compared to a
reference image to determine if it contains defects.
46 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

4.4.2 Manufacturing

Digital image processing has many possible industrial applications; therefore,

many industries are interested in it. Quality assurance in manufacturing, outgoing
inspections, and other areas are some of the main applications of industrial quality
assurance. The technologies cover a broad spectrum, from physical inspection of
surfaces to 3D optical measurements, X-rays, heat flow thermography, terahertz
measurements, and nondestructive testing [6]. The various industrial areas where
image processing can be used and pointed by the Fraunhofer Research Institute,
Germany [6], such as:
• Detection of defects in various industrial parts such as complex structures,
contamination, and production line components
• Quality inspection of product and other important components related to produc-
tion such as carbon fibers, belt material, heat flow thermography, etc.
• Sorting of various materials used in manufacturing
• Visualization of various structures related to production and measure distance
and position of different components during production

4.4.3 Automotive

Almost every automotive system has a camera and image processing system [7].
High-speed systems must detect micrometer variations from the target value to
achieve 100% quality control on the production line. Intelligent imaging systems
also provide insights into other fields, such as automobile driving, traffic control,
crash laboratories, and wind tunnels. With robust housings and electronics, high-
speed cameras can capture all possible angles inside and outside the crashed
vehicles, capturing the scene from every possible angle. The HD quality of the
images ensures that engineers can follow every detail of the deformation of
car bodies. Fast-moving manufacturing processes require high-speed cameras to
analyze faults in detail. A camera’s superiority is clear when it comes to high-
speed processes. Imaging systems are increasingly taking over quality and process
control in mainstream processing. Image processing ensures brilliant surfaces
around the clock, micrometer-accurate assembly tolerances, and defect-free circuits
on increasingly prevalent chips and microcontrollers.
The cost of errors is synonymous with the cost of production for automotive man-
ufacturers. Automotive materials are produced with glass-like transparency using
cameras and laser systems. Engine developers are gaining a deeper understanding of
the processes behind injection and combustion that are not visible to the naked eye.
Camera systems can see and analyze even the slightest turbulence in wind tunnels.
Colleagues use laser systems for interior design, tire development, and vehicle body
design to detect and assess vibrations and structure-borne sounds. It is not only
4.4 Industrial Applications of Image Processing 47

used for diagnosis but also for measuring and documenting the effectiveness of their
measures.
Fully automated processes become more flexible with robotics. Image processing
software calculates the location and plans based on the images captured by
cameras. A sensor cluster containing several cameras allows highly accurate 3D
coordinates to be determined for large objects. The Six Sigma approach to quality
management in the automotive industry matches 100% real-time inspection on the
production line. According to the control loop define-measure-analyze-improve-
control, manufacturers and major suppliers strive to achieve a zero defect objective.
This is made possible by camera systems combined with downstream analysis
software.

4.4.4 Healthcare

Image processing in healthcare is mainly called medical image processing or

analysis. Nowadays, applications and research are developing in the healthcare
sector using different kinds of medical images. Analyzing medical images is often
done using computational methods to extract meaningful information. The task
of medical image analysis involves visualizing and exploring 2D images and 3D
volumes and segmenting, classifying, registering, and reconstructing 3D images. A
variety of imaging modalities may be used for this analysis, including X-ray (2D and
3D), ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
and nuclear imaging (PET and SPECT).

4.4.5 Robotics Guidance and Control

A robot uses images for certain robotic tasks. Imagery equipment and the necessary
programming and software can be available from robotics specialists to handle
visual input encountered by robots. Robots are taught to recognize and respond
to images as part of the programming and teaching process. Software suites are
available from some companies for direct installation on equipment, or you may
program your own. In robotics, a camera system is used for navigation as an example
of image processing. There are many ways to teach robots to follow lines, dots,
or other visual cues, such as lasers. Targets in the surrounding environment are
identified and tracked using a crude camera and image processing system. In a
factory, this can be helpful for automating processes like collecting and delivering
products by robots.
48 4 Image Processing and Its Applications

4.4.6 Defense and Security

Several digital image processing applications are widely used in defense and
security, including small target detection and tracking, missile guidance, vehicle
navigation, wide-area surveillance, and automatic/aided target recognition [8]. In
defense and security applications, image processing can reduce the workload of
human analysts so that more image data can be collected in an ever-increasing
volume. Researchers who work on image processing also aim to develop algorithms
and approaches to facilitate autonomous systems’ development. This will enable
them to make decisions and take action based on input from all sensors.

References

1. R.C. Gonzalez, R.E. Woods, Digital Image Processing (Pearson Education India, Upper Saddle
River, 2008)
2. The University of South Carolina SIPI Image Database. http://sipi.usc.edu/database/database.
php. Last Access January 2023
3. R. Kundu, Image Processing: Techniques, Types, & Applications (2023). Weblink: https://www.
v7labs.com/blog/image-processing-guide. Last Access Jan 2023
4. R.C. Gonzalez, R.E. Woods, Digital Image Processing Using MATLAB (TATA McGraw-Hill
Education, New York, 2009)
5. N. Efford, Digital Image Processing: A Practical Introduction Using JAVA (Pearson Education,
London, 2000)
6. Application of Industrial Image Processing. Web link: https://www.vision.fraunhofer.de/en/
application-of-industrial-image-processing.html. Last Access Jan 2023
7. Image Processing in the Automotive Industry (2019). Web link: https://www.industr.com/en/
image-processing-in-the-automotive-industry-2356834. Last Access Jan 2023
8. E. Du, R. Ives, A. van Nevel, J.H. She, Advanced image processing for defense and security
applications. EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Proc. 2010(1), 1–1 (2011)
Chapter 5
Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

Artificial intelligence is a computer system that can accomplish tasks normally

handled by humans. Machine learning and deep learning are used to power these
systems. The field of machine learning (ML) falls under the umbrella of artificial
intelligence (AI) [1]. Machine learning algorithms enable systems to learn auto-
matically. This system allows learners to improve their learning experience without
learning complex programming techniques. A precious aspect of machine learning
is developing a new model based on computer systems and programs that access
information and use it to learn for themselves [1]. These algorithms determine
unique features or patterns in the input data to make better decisions. Several
applications use these algorithms, including medical image processing, computer
vision, recognition of biometrics, object detection, and automation, among others.
Supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning are all types of machine
learning [1, 2].
In real-time applications related to machine learning, various kinds of data, such
as text, images, videos, speech signals, etc., are used as input data. The basic
steps of the machine learning algorithm are given in Fig. 5.1. Training and testing
are two phases of the machine learning algorithm. First, the model learns unique
features or patterns from the input image during the training phase. Then, the model
produces specific outputs based on learner features or patterns in the testing phase.
For example, an image may have features such as edges, a region of interest, etc.,
which can be extracted using various feature extraction methods. The selection of
extraction methods depends on the type of input data and the specific output of the
model.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 49

R. Thanki, P. Joshi, Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8_5
50 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

Fig. 5.1 Basic operation of

machine learning

5.1 Types of Learning Methods

The details of different learning methods are covered in this section.

5.1.1 Supervised Learning

This type of learning is often used using real-time applications and practical
approaches. The model learns information by analyzing the previous experiences
it has had with the information provided. This type of learning involves mapping an
input (x) to an output (y) by an algorithm that gives a mapping function (f) like this:

y = f (x)
. (5.1)

Classification and regression are two types of supervised learning related to

problems. There are three classification problems: value, group, and category. As
an example, classification of “cat” or “dog”. The regression problem involves
a continuous or real value as the output, like temperature or currency. Various
methodologies are used to predict the output of supervised learning algorithms [3].

5.1.2 Unsupervised Learning

An algorithm that learns by itself attempts to discover a unique pattern or feature

without prior knowledge of the pattern or feature. A mathematical model with input
(x) but no corresponding output is considered this type of learning. An unsupervised
5.2 Types of Machine Learning Algorithms 51

learning system finds its answer to input but does not provide the correct answer.
Association and clustering problems are typically solved using algorithms based on
unsupervised learning.

5.1.3 Reinforcement Learning

A machine or system learns by taking a particular action to maximize output given

a given input. Various software and algorithms determine the machine’s optimal
possible outcome or behavior. Unfortunately, machine learning algorithms are not
suitable for all real-time applications. The task of finding practical algorithms is,
therefore, a trial-and-error one. To solve this problem, researchers [1–5] recommend
that the algorithm choice depends on the input data type and size. As a result,
machines are used for reinforcement learning in practice. In this type of learning,
the algorithm is continuously exposed to it and trained to predict output better.

5.1.4 Deep Learning

Deep learning is a subset of artificial intelligence and a newly developed learning

method that uses neural networks [6] for output prediction. Nowadays, researchers
in the literature propose many models based on this learning. In 1971, Dr. Robert
Hecht-Nielsen, the inventor of the first neurocomputer, introduced the first neural
network (NN) [6]. Artificial neural networks (ANN) are basically these networks.
In his definition, a neural network is a computer system comprised of many
simple, highly interconnected processing elements whose dynamic states respond
to external inputs [6]. Application areas for this network include Big Data analysis,
person recognition, and data prediction. The forwarding neural network (FNN)
is also called this network. The network uses neurons arranged in tiers based
on parallel operations. Figure 5.2 shows a simple artificial neural network. Input,
hidden, and output layers are the main layers of the network. A neuron’s or node’s
number depends on the size of its inputs and outputs. Nodes are fully connected
to each other. Links with specific weighting values connect two nodes of adjacent
layers.

5.2 Types of Machine Learning Algorithms

The details of different machine learning algorithms are covered in this section.
52 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

Fig. 5.2 Basic structure of artificial neural network

5.2.1 Supervised Learning-Based Algorithms

For the testing of this algorithm, prior knowledge of the dataset is essentially
necessary. It is the analyst’s responsibility to gather this dataset knowledge. Here
are the steps in this algorithm [7]:
• For each input data class, identify the training areas.
• It identifies the data’s mean, variance, and covariance.
• The data is then classified.
• Finally, the input class has been mapped.
These algorithms have the advantage of detecting and correcting errors dur-
ing evaluation. Time-consuming and costly are the main disadvantages of these
algorithms. Additionally, the researcher, scientist, or analyst may not consider all
conditions affecting the dataset’s quality when selecting a training dataset. This led
to human error in the performance of these algorithms.

5.2.1.1 Statistical Learning-Based Algorithms

Based on mathematical theories, statistical learning-based classifiers aim to predict

some meaningful output by finding relationships between classes. On smaller
datasets with fewer attributes, these classifiers are applied. There are several
statistical learning-based classifiers, such as minimum distance (MD), Mahalanobis
distance (MhD), and maximum likelihood classifiers (MXL), available in the
literature [8]. These classifiers are discussed in detail in Lillesand and Keifer [9].
Based on Bayesian probability theory, MXL is widely used in image classification.
This algorithm uses a matrix of Gaussian distributed dataset patterns and its
covariance matrix to calculate the probability of the input dataset.
5.2 Types of Machine Learning Algorithms 53

5.2.1.2 Nearest Neighbor (NN) Algorithm

A famous machine learning algorithm for data classification is nearest neighbors.

For example, it classified the types of images based on the input dataset of their
nearest neighbors in the image dataset. It predicts that objects near each other have
similar characteristics. It is a nonparametric algorithm that does not require any
assumptions about the distribution of the input dataset. For the identification of
relevant attributes, some prior knowledge of the input dataset is required.

5.2.1.3 Naive Bayes Algorithm

An algorithm for supervised machine learning based on Bayes’ theorem and the
“naive” assumption of independent features from each training and test dataset is
presented [10].

5.2.1.4 Support Vector Machine (SVM) Algorithm

Vapnik proposed the support vector machine (SVM) in 1995 [11]. A boundary
decision (hyperplane) is used in this classifier to separate input data belonging to one
class from input data belonging to another class. With linear functions separating
input data from output data, an SVM’s optimized hyperplane has the largest margin.
The loss function is used if the input data is separated by a nonlinear function.
Not linearly separated data is transformed into linearly separated data by SVMs
using different kernel transforms. An SVM commonly uses three kernel functions:
polynomial learning machines, radial-based function networks (RBFN), and two-
layer perceptions. RBFN is generally used for training classifiers because it is more
powerful and effective than the other two kernel functions [11, 12]. A classifier like
this can effectively classify input data into two classes but can also classify data into
multiple classes using error-correcting output codes. It is very easy to understand
and has been proven to be accurate.

5.2.1.5 Decision Tree Algorithm

The decision tree algorithm can solve regression and classification problems [13].
Learning decision rules from the training dataset creates a model that can classify
classes. This algorithm is very simple to understand compared to other supervised
learning algorithms. A tree structure representation is used in this algorithm to solve
the problem. Tree nodes represent dataset attributes, and leaf nodes represent class
labels. A decision tree is a classifier capable of classifying multiclass input datasets.
Several decision tree algorithms are available in the literature [14], such as ID3,
C4.5, C5.0, and CART. Ross Quinlan developed ID3 in 1986, also known as Iterative
Dichotomiser 3. There are multiple trees for each categorical feature of the data
54 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

given by the algorithm. A C4.5 algorithm replaces ID3 and converts trained trees
into if-then rules. The C5.0 algorithm is the latest version of the ID3 algorithm.
Classification and regression trees, called CART, are similar to the C4.5 algorithm.
However, they support numerical target variables and do not require computing sets
to construct trees.

5.2.1.6 Random Forest Algorithm

It is based on constructing multiple decision trees using the random forest algorithm
[15–17]. The input value for each class should be placed on each tree of the
forest when classifying a novel class from an input dataset using a random forest
algorithm. An average value is calculated and assigned a new classification based on
each tree’s classification. A random forest algorithm consists of two stages: creating
the random forest and predicting the classifier based on the generated random forest.

5.2.1.7 Linear Regression Algorithm

A linear regression model analyzes the relationship between an independent variable

(x) and a dependent variable (y) by modeling their linear relationship. Linear refers
to a straight line between independent and dependent variables. Other things are to
be kept in mind. As x increases/decreases, y also changes linearly. Mathematically,
the relationship can be expressed as follows:

y = Ax + B
. (5.2)

In Eq. 5.2, A and B are the constant factors. In the supervised learning process
using linear regression, the goal is to find the exact value of constants “A” and “B”
using the datasets. Using these values, i.e., the constants, you can predict the future
value of “y” for any value of “x.” Specifically, a simple linear regression involves
a single independent variable, whereas multiple linear regression is used if there is
more than one independent variable.

5.2.1.8 Logistic Regression Algorithm

The logistic regression algorithm is often used for classification in supervised

machine learning. The name “regression” can be misleading, so let’s not consider
it a regression algorithm. Logistic regression takes its name from a special function
called the logistic function, which plays a central role in the process. The logistic
regression model can be described as a probabilistic model. The probabilities of
an instance belonging to a certain class can be determined using this method.
The output is between 0 and 1 since it is probabilistic. We can consider positive
and negative classes whenever we use logistic regression as a binary classifier
5.2 Types of Machine Learning Algorithms 55

(classification into two categories). The probability is then calculated. If the

probability is greater than 0.5, it is more likely to fall into the positive category.
We can also classify this as negative if the probability is low (less than 0.5).

5.2.2 Unsupervised Learning-Based Algorithms

Clustering algorithms are also known as unsupervised learning algorithms. In

contrast to supervised methods, these algorithms require a minimum amount
of input data to be analyzed. Using these algorithms, the data is grouped into
groups containing the same information. Instead of categorizing the training user
data, the system selects the mean and covariance of the class. This algorithm is
called unsupervised classification because the classification process depends on the
system. A user can define how many classes or clusters to create. Each cluster can
then be assigned key information for easy analysis after classification. Researchers
have developed many clustering algorithms in terms of accuracy and decision-
making rules. To achieve optimal output in these algorithms, iterative calculation
of input data is used.
It is possible to perform these algorithms in two steps [18]:
• Identify possible clusters within a dataset or image in the first step.
• Using the distance measure, assign each pixel a cluster based on the distance
between the data or on an individual pixel basis [18].
The general steps for this algorithm are as follows [18]:
• This algorithm requires the following information: radius for cluster area,
merging parameters for the cluster, and number of pixels evaluated. Cluster
identification is the process of identifying groups of clusters within a data or
an image.
• Various labeling is assigned to clusters within a data or image for proper analysis.

5.2.2.1 K-means Clustering Algorithm

The K-means algorithm [18–26] is a well-known method for predicting unsuper-

vised data. This algorithm classifies all pixels based on their distance from the
cluster mean [1].
Once classification is done, the updated mean vectors for each cluster are
calculated. This process will be performed for a number of iterations until there is no
variation in the location of cluster mean vectors between two successive iterations
[18]. The main objective of this algorithm is to estimate variation within a cluster.
The K-means algorithm performs two steps: the location of initial cluster centers
and subsequent cluster merging.
56 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

5.2.2.2 Principal Component Analysis

Principal component analysis (PCA) [27], also known as Karhunen-Loeve analysis,

transforms the data into new transforms that better interpret the original data. It
compresses the data information into a few principal components of data. The
description of PCA is beautifully described by Schowengerdt [28] and Gonzales-
Wood [29].

5.2.2.3 Independent Component Analysis

Clustering can be improved using independent component analysis (ICA) [30–

32]. This is accomplished by assuming non-Gaussian pixel values and statistical
independence between the subcomponents. An ICA method is used to segment
images blindly.

5.2.2.4 Singular Value Decomposition

Many unsupervised classification approaches use singular value decomposition

(SVD) [33–35]. The SVD method is widely used in data clustering as a prepro-
cessing and dimensionality reduction method. SVD will reduce the data and then
classify it [33].

5.2.2.5 Gaussian Mixture Models

Gaussian mixture models (GMMs) [36–40] can be used to cluster, recognize

patterns, and estimate multivariate density [39, 40]. This algorithm offers the
advantages of being easy to implement, being computationally fast, and giving
tighter clusters.

5.2.2.6 Self-Organizing Maps

Using self-organizing maps (SOMs) [41–47], data can be visualized on hexagonal

or rectangular grids. These tools are used in various fields, including meteorology,
oceanography, project prioritization, and oil and gas exploration. Kohonen maps
[41] and self-organizing feature maps (SOFMs) are also self-organizing maps.
Neurons are arranged in a multidimensional network in this algorithm.
5.2 Types of Machine Learning Algorithms 57

5.2.3 Reinforcement Learning-Based Algorithms

Reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms [48–50] are machine learning algorithms

that allow machines to automatically determine data’s behavior in a specific manner
to increase its performance. These algorithms have the main limitation in that they
require some learning agent. A reinforcement learning algorithm is designed to
solve a specific type of problem. Depending on its current state, an agent is supposed
to decide what is the appropriate solution. A Markov decision process occurs when
this process is repeated. Many reinforcement learning algorithms are available in
the literature [48], including Q-learning, temporal difference, and deep adversarial
networks. The following are the steps that should be followed for these algorithms:
• The agent observes the input state.
• Agents perform actions based on their decision-making functions.
• The agent receives a reward or reinforcement after the action has been performed.
• Information about the state-action pair is stored.

5.2.3.1 Basic of RL Algorithm and Q-Learning Algorithm

A learning agent and an environment are the two components of any RL algorithm.
Agents refer to the RL algorithm, while environments refer to objects they act on.
Initially, the environment sends a state to the agent, responding to it based on
its knowledge. The environment sends the agent a pair of next-state values and
rewards in the next step. The agent uses a reward returned by the environment to
evaluate its last action by updating its knowledge. Loops continue until an episode
is terminated by the environment. Q-learning algorithms is an off-policy, model-free
RL algorithm.

5.2.3.2 State-Action-Reward-State-Action (SARSA) Algorithm

There are many similarities between SARSA and Q-learning. SARSA is an on-
policy algorithm, whereas Q-learning is not. Instead of learning the Q-value based
on greedy policy actions, SARSA learns it based on current policy actions.

5.2.3.3 Deep Q Network (DQN) Algorithm

The main weakness of Q-learning is its lack of generality, although it is a very

powerful algorithm. A dynamic program is similar to Q-learning because it operates
on numbers in a two-dimensional array (action space .+ state space). Q-learning has
no idea what action to take for states it has never seen before. Hence, Q-learning
agents can’t estimate values for unseen states. DQN introduces neural networks as
58 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

a solution to this problem. The DQN estimates the Q-value function using a neural
network. The network outputs the corresponding Q-value for each action based on
the input current.

5.3 Types of Deep Learning Algorithms

The details of different deep learning algorithms are covered in this section.

5.3.1 Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are the most commonly used deep learning
neural networks for image-related applications [51–54]. The CNN has three layers:
an input, an output, and many hidden layers. Figure 5.3 shows CNN’s basic
architecture. Several operations are carried out in the hidden layer of CNN, such
as feature extraction, flattening of features, and classification of features.

5.3.1.1 Feature Extraction Operation

As part of the feature extraction operation, features are convolutioned, rectified

linear units (ReLUs) are constructed for nonlinearity, and pools are created. The
following is a description of how each task is performed:
• Convolution: In CNN, the first step is convolution, which is the process of
extracting features from an input image. The process is similar to the spatial
filtering of an image, using small information from an input image to determine

Fig. 5.3 Basic architecture of CNN

5.4 AI-Based Research in Various Domains 59

the relationship between pixels. Based on math, it is an output that uses two
input values: the value of the image pixel and the value of the filter mask.
Strides and padding are also used to extract the features more effectively after the
convolution process. The operation of the steps is used to get better features from
input images. Padding may be necessary when a filter is not applied perfectly to
an input image. The filter works effectively on images with zero values in this
operation.
• Nonlinearity ReLU: Nonlinearity ReLUs are rectified linear units with nonlin-
ear operations performed on convolved features. In essence, it removes negative
values from the convolved features. It can perform various operations, such as
maximum, minimum, mean, etc.
• Pooling: Pooling operation such as upsampling or downsampling reduces the
dimensions of each feature by reducing the dimension size. To reduce the
dimensions of extracted features, CNN uses pooling operations such as max,
sum, and average.

5.3.1.2 Classification Operation

Three different operations are involved in this operation: flattening, prediction of

features, and activation. In flattening, features are extracted from the input image
and converted to vectors. For the prediction of the input feature vector, a fully
connected network, such as a neural network, is fed this vector. As a final step,
the predicted output of the neural network is classified using an activation function
like softmax or sigmoid.

5.3.2 Other Deep Learning Algorithms

Image-related applications are investigated using a variety of deep learning (DL)

algorithms [6]. Among these algorithms are convolutional neural networks (CNNs),
deep autoencoders (DA), recurrent neural networks (RNN), deep belief networks
(DBN), and deep neural networks (DNN), along with deep conventional extreme
machine learning (DC-EML) techniques available in the literature [6]. The advan-
tage and disadvantages of these models are given in Table 5.1. The various types
of CNN architectures, such as AlexNet [55], LeNet [56], faster R-CNN [57],
GoogLeNet [58], ResNet [59], UNet [60], etc., are available for different types of
real-time applications.

5.4 AI-Based Research in Various Domains

In the last 10 years, research and development have been conducted in AI-
based systems within various areas, such as developing new learning algorithms
60 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

Table 5.1 Advantage and disadvantage of deep learning algorithms

Sr. no. Deep learning model Advantages Disadvantages
1 DNN Widely used Required more training time
2 CNN Fast learning process Required Big Data
3 RNN Used in sequential Required Big Data
4 DBN Greedy norm used in prediction Complex algorithm
5 DA No labeled data required Required pre-training process
6 DBM More robust against interference Not used for Big Dataset

and models, computer vision, natural language processing, robotics, recommender

systems, the Internet of Things, and Advanced Game Theory. The details of each
research domain where AI is used nowadays are given below [61, 62]:

5.4.1 Development of New Algorithms and Models

Various algorithms or models are being developed for machine learning and deep
learning everywhere. Due to the development of new models, more data availability,
and fast computing capabilities, AI applications have increased exponentially.
Healthcare, education, banking, manufacturing, and many other industries have AI
applications. A major challenge in AI-based projects is improving model perfor-
mance. A single structured process cannot guarantee success when implementing
ML and DL applications in business at this time. A model’s performance is one of
the most important factors in developing an AI model. It is mainly a technical factor
that determines model performance. Deploying a machine learning or deep learning
model that isn’t accurate enough for the output makes no sense for many use cases.

5.4.2 AI in Computer Vision

In computer vision, computers and systems can detect and interpret meaningful
information from digital images, videos, and other visual signals and then take
appropriate actions or recommend further actions. The following are a few research
areas of well-known computer vision tasks [63]:
• Image Classification: Seeing an image, image classification can classify it (a
dog, an apple, a face). The algorithm is capable of accurately predicting what
class an image belongs to. It might be useful to a social media company to
automatically identify and filter objectionable images uploaded by users.
• Object Detection: Images and videos can be classified using image classification
to identify a certain type of image, which can then be detected and tabulated. A
5.4 AI-Based Research in Various Domains 61

typical example would be detecting damage on an assembly line or identifying

machinery that needs maintenance.
• Object Tracking: An object is tracked once it has been detected by object
tracking. The task is frequently performed by capturing images in sequence
or viewing live video feeds. Autonomous vehicles must classify and detect
pedestrians, other cars, and road infrastructure and track them in motion to avoid
collisions and adhere to traffic laws.
• Content-Based Image Retrieval: With content-based image retrieval, images
are browsed, searched, and retrieved from large data stores based on their
content rather than their metadata tags. A technique that replaces manual image
tagging with automatic annotation can be incorporated into this task. Digital
asset management systems can use these tasks to improve search and retrieval
accuracy.

5.4.3 AI in Natural Language Processing

Artificial intelligence that uses computer software to understand text and speech
input in the form of natural language is known as natural language understanding
(NLU). In NLU, humans and computers can interact with each other. Computers
can understand commands without the formal syntax of computer languages by
comprehending human languages, such as Gujarati, Hindi, and English. In addition,
NLU allows computers to communicate with humans in their own language. Two
main techniques are used in natural language processing: syntax and semantic
analysis. The syntax of a sentence determines how words are arranged to make
grammatical sense. Language processing uses syntax to determine meaning from
grammatical rules within a language. The main research areas in AI-based NLU are
text processing, speech recognition, and speech synthesis.

5.4.4 AI in Recommender Systems

Several information filtering systems, including recommender systems (sometimes

called recommendation engines or platforms), provide users with suggestions for
items relevant to their needs. In most cases, the suggestions relate to how to
make decisions, such as buying something, listening to music, or reading online
news. A recommendation system can be beneficial when a person chooses an item
from many options a service offers. Video and music services use recommender
systems to create playlists, online stores use product recommenders, and social
media platforms use content recommenders to recommend content. There are a
variety of recommender systems available. These systems can operate with a single
input, such as music, or multiple inputs, such as news, books, and search queries,
within and across platforms. Restaurants and online dating sites also have popular
62 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

recommendation systems. Recommendations and systems have also been developed

to assist researchers in searching for research articles, experts, collaborators, and
financial services. A few hot research topics for AI in recommender systems are [64]
the development of algorithm-based deep learning and reinforcement learning, the
development of knowledge graph-based algorithms, and explainable recommender
systems.

5.4.5 AI in Robotics

Most problems associated with robotic navigation have been solved, at least when
working in static environments. Currently, efforts are being made to train a robot
to interact with the environment in a predictable and generalizable manner. Among
the topics of current interest is manipulation, a natural requirement in interactive
environments. Due to the difficulty of acquiring large labeled datasets, deep learning
is only beginning to influence robotics. Reinforcement learning, which can be
implemented without labeled data, could bridge this gap. However, systems must
be capable of exploring policy spaces without harming themselves or others. A
key enabler of developing robot capabilities will be advanced in reliable machine
perception, including computer vision, force, and tactile perception. These advances
will be driven in part by machine learning.

5.4.6 AI in the Internet of Things

Sensory information can be collected and shared by interconnecting various devices.

Research into this idea is growing. A device in this category would include an
appliance, vehicle, building, camera, etc. In addition to using wireless networking
and technology to connect the devices, AI can utilize the data produced for
intelligent and useful purposes. The current array of communication protocols used
by these devices is bewildering. This research problem might be solved by artificial
intelligence.

5.4.7 AI in Advanced Game Theory

A growing body of research examines artificial intelligence’s economic and social

dimensions, including incentive structures. Many academic institutions have studied
distributed AI and multi-agent systems since the 1980s, and their popularity
increased following the Internet’s arrival in the late 1990s. Ideally, systems must
be able to handle conflicts of interest among participants or companies, such as
self-interested humans or automated AI agents. Various topics are being explored,
5.5 Industrial Applications of AI 63

including computational mechanism design, computational social choice, and

incentive-aligned information elicitation.

5.4.8 AI in Collaborative Systems

A collaborative system is an autonomous system that can collaborate with other

systems and humans using models and algorithms. Formal collaboration models are
developed in this research, and the capabilities needed for systems to be effective
partners are examined. Humans and machines can work together to overcome the
limitations of AI systems, and agents can augment human abilities and activities. As
a result, diverse applications have emerged that utilize the complementary strengths
of humans and machines.

5.5 Industrial Applications of AI

AI can be used for anything from solutions relevant to consumer-friendly to highly

complex industrial applications, such as predicting the need for manufacturing
equipment maintenance. Examples from several industries illustrate the breadth and
depth of AI’s potential [65, 66].

5.5.1 Financial Applications

In the consumer finance area as well as in the global banking sector, artificial
intelligence has many applications. In this industry, artificial intelligence can be
found in the following applications:
1. Fraud Detection: In recent years, financial fraud has been committed on a
massive scale and daily. These crimes cause major disruptions for individuals
and organizations.
2. Stock Market Trading: Stock market floor shouting is a thing of the past. Most
major trading transactions on the stock markets are handled by algorithms that
make decisions and react much faster than humans ever could.
A unique application of artificial intelligence can be found in the insurance world
within the broader financial services landscape. A few examples are:
1. AI-Powered Underwriting: There have been a lot of manual processes used to
make underwriting decisions for decades, and data inputs like medical exams
have been added to the mix. As a result of artificial intelligence, insurance com-
64 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

panies use massive datasets to assess risks based on factors such as prescription
drug history and pet ownership.
2. Claims Processing: Artificial intelligence can handle simple claims today. A
simple example of it is chatbots. Human involvement in claims decisions will
likely decrease as machine vision and artificial intelligence capabilities increase.

5.5.2 Manufacturing Applications

AI adoption is highest in the industrial manufacturing industry, with 93% leaders

claiming their companies use it moderately or more. Manufacturers’ most common
challenges are equipment failure or delivery of defective goods. As manufacturers
take steps toward digital transformation, AI and machine learning can improve
operational efficiency, lunch new or updated products, customize product designs,
and plan future financial actions. Machine learning and AI are well suited to
manufacturing data. The manufacturing industry generates many analytical data
that machines can analyze more easily. Machine learning models can predict the
impact of individual variables in such complex situations, even for variables that
are very difficult to interpret for humans. A lack of human capabilities prevents
machines from being adopted in other industries involving language or emotions.
COVID-19 also led manufacturers to become more interested in AI applications.
The common use cases of AI in manufacturing are predictive maintenance, gen-
erative design, price forecasting of raw materials, robotics, edge analytics, quality
assurance, inventory management, process optimization, product development, AI-
power digital twin, design customization, performance improvement, and logistic
optimization [66].

5.5.3 Healthcare and Life Sciences Applications

Human labor has traditionally been a big part of healthcare, but artificial intelligence
is becoming an increasingly vital component. Artificial intelligence offers a wide
range of healthcare services, including data mining, diagnostic imaging, medication
management, drug discovery, robotic surgery, and medical imaging, to identify
patterns and provide more accurate diagnoses and treatments. Technology giants
like Microsoft, Google, Apple, and IBM significantly contribute to the healthcare
sector.
It’s unsurprising that artificial intelligence has a wide range of potential appli-
cations in the life sciences because they generate large amounts of data through
experiments. This involves discovering and developing new drugs, conducting more
efficient clinical trials, ensuring treatment is tailored to each patient, and pinpointing
diseases more accurately.
5.5 Industrial Applications of AI 65

In the information age, new technologies have affected many industries. Exten-
sive use of artificial intelligence technology is reported by CB Insights in a 2016
report. A US $ 54 million investment in artificial intelligence is expected by 2020 by
these companies. Here are a few examples of how artificial intelligence is impacting
the healthcare industry today and in the future [67]:
• Maintaining Healthcare Data: Data management has become a widely used
application of AI and digital automation in healthcare due to the necessity of
compiling and analyzing information (including medical records). Using AI-
based systems, data can be collected, stored, reformatted, and traced more
efficiently and consistently.
• Doing Repetitive Jobs: AI systems can perform data entry, X-rays, CT scans,
and other mundane tasks faster and more accurately. It takes a lot of time and
resources to analyze data in cardiology and radiology. In the future, cardiologists
and radiologists should only consider human monitoring in the most critical
cases.
• Design of Treatment Method: The use of artificial intelligence systems helps
physicians select the right, individually tailored treatment for each patient based
on notes and reports in their patients’ files, external research, and clinical
expertise.
• Digital Consultation: AI-powered apps, such as Babylon in the United King-
dom, provide medical consultations based on a user’s medical history and general
knowledge of medicine. The app compares user symptoms with a database of
illnesses using speech recognition. Babylon recommends actions based on the
user’s health history.
• Virtual Nurses: It is possible to monitor patients’ health and follow treatments
between doctor’s visits with the help of startups that have developed digital
nurses. Using machine learning, this program helps chronic illness patients.
Parents of sick children can access basic health information and advice from
Boston Children’s Hospital’s Alexa app. A doctor’s visit is suggested based on
symptoms; the app can answer questions about symptoms.
• Medication Management: An app created by the Patient Institute of Health
monitors the use of patients’ medications. Patients can automatically verify
that they are taking their medications using the smartphone’s webcam and
artificial intelligence. Patients with serious medical conditions, patients who
ignore doctors’ advice, and clinical trial participants are most likely to use this
app.
• Drug Creation: The development of CE actions requires billions of dollars
and more than a decade of research. Increasing the speed and efficiency of
this process can change the world. A computer program powered by artificial
intelligence is being used to scan existing drugs in search of ones that can be
redesigned to combat the Ebola virus. This type of analysis often takes months
or years to find two actions that reduce the risk of Ebola infection in one day.
This analysis typically takes months or years to discover a difference that can
save thousands of lives.
66 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

• Precision Medicine: DNA information is used in genetics to find mutations and

links to diseases. A body scan using AI can predict health risks based on people’s
genes and detect cancer and vascular diseases in advance.
• Health Monitoring: Heart rate and activity level can be monitored by wearable
health trackers such as Fitbit, Apple, Garmin, and others. Physicians (and AI
systems) can use this information to better understand patient needs and habits
by sending alerts to users to exercise more.
• Healthcare System Analysis: Ninety-seven percent of healthcare invoices in
the Netherlands are digital. Using artificial intelligence, a Dutch company
identifies inefficiencies in treatment and workflow in healthcare systems to avoid
unnecessary hospitalizations.

5.5.4 Telecommunication Applications

The telecommunications industry is highly complex and requires constant adjust-

ments even though most of us take the Internet and communication access for
granted. These needs can be met in several ways with the help of artificial
intelligence. Using artificial intelligence in the telecom industry, rapid responses to
customer inquiries can be automated, networks can be managed, and customized
products can be designed. Telecom companies can benefit from AI by building
stronger customer relationships and providing better services. Customers can obtain
faster and smarter connections from many telecom operators in today’s digital
world. Telecommunications companies will acquire AI solutions that will guide
many businesses toward success in the future. The main areas of this industry are as
follows [68]:
• Conversational Virtual Assistants: Virtual assistants have been developed by
many researchers for the telecom industry. Businesses and customers benefit
from this technology by reducing expenses associated with customer service.
Also, artificial intelligence has made it possible to interact with customers using
natural speech processing. Artificial intelligence (AI) can solve various business
problems by reducing human effort and creating a prosperous future.
• Network Optimization: The use of artificial intelligence has become increas-
ingly popular among telecom businesses to improve their network infrastructure.
AI enables network traffic management to benefit providers. In this way, network
providers can predict and resolve issues before they occur. Also, AI monitoring
systems can now track and trace the operations of telecom companies. Machine
learning manages the data collected, and the network infrastructure is well-
designed.
• Predictive Maintenance: Utilizing AI solutions to predict the future to manage
malfunctions and resource utilization, predictive maintenance assists telecom
5.5 Industrial Applications of AI 67

businesses in predicting the future cost-effectively. Artificial intelligence solu-

tions can monitor complex communication hardware systems such as set-top
boxes and cellphone towers to reduce operational costs and improve customer
service. Artificial intelligence-powered drones have helped telecom operators
capture and provide adequate resources during natural disasters by capturing
damages to cell towers.
• Robotic Process Automation (RPA): Automating repetitive tasks with robots is
very similar to automating business processes with artificial intelligence (AI) to
improve operational efficiency. In addition to providing better customer service,
RPA and AI innovations have improved workflow structures for managing
sales orders, calls, emails, and psychographic profiling. This has led telecom
companies to generate capital. Workers have also improved productivity and
customer experience with AI-driven solutions for telecom businesses.

5.5.5 Oil, Gas, and Energy Applications

There is little room for error in the oil, gas, and energy sector because of safety and
environmental concerns. Energy companies are turning to artificial intelligence to
increase efficiency without incurring costs.

5.5.6 Aviation Applications

It is critical to use data effectively to optimize individual flights and the more com-
prehensive aviation infrastructure to maintain safe, efficient aviation, particularly in
the context of rising fuel prices. This sector uses AI in the following ways:
• Identify Routes with High Demand: Providing enough flights between specific
destinations while avoiding flying too many routes is crucial to maximizing
profits while retaining customer loyalty. Airlines can use AI models to make
informed decisions about route offerings based on factors like Internet traffic,
macroeconomic trends, and seasonal tourism data.
• Service to Customers: The staffing capacity of most airlines is insufficient to
handle individual customer queries and needs during major disruptions, such as
those caused by massive weather events. AI is increasingly being incorporated
into automated messaging to extract critical information from customer messages
and respond accordingly. The customer may be directed to information about
reporting lost luggage, for instance, if he or she inquires about their luggage.
68 5 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications

5.6 Working Flow for AI-Powered Industry

The AI-powered industry has performed various steps to achieve business goals in
any use case. These working steps for an AI-powered industry are shown in Fig. 5.4
and are described below:
• Data Collection Process: This is a very important and basic step for any industry
to find appropriate data for specific use cases or projects. The data can be
obtained from various sources such as publicly available platforms, collaborating
with relevant authorities, etc. The data collection involves various steps, such as
selecting, synthesizing, and sourcing the dataset.
• Data Engineering and Model Development: This second step is for product
development and contains the process of data engineering and model develop-
ment. In the data engineering process, various steps, such as data exploration,
data clearing, data normalizing, feature engineering, and scaling, are performed
to get suitable datasets for model development, while, in the model development
process, model selection, model training, performance evaluation of the model,
and model tuning are performed to get the correct trained model which can be
used for developing a product.
• Production: In this step, the operation of the trained model is tested in various
conditions to check its generalization usage and working ability in various condi-
tions. This process contains various steps: registration, deployment, monitoring,
and retraining.
• Legal Constraints: This is the most important process during product develop-
ment using AI technology for any business case. This process contains various
steps, such as legal and ethical approval, security, and product acceptance in
terms of generalization.

Fig. 5.4 Working flow of AI-powered industry

References 69

Once any AI-trained model or system fulfilled all required conditions for specific
business use cases as a consumer product, the company can launch this model or
system as a product that can be sold anywhere in the world.

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Chapter 6
Advanced Technologies for Industrial
Applications

Technology is rapidly evolving today, allowing for faster change and progress and
accelerating the rate of change. Emerging technology is exciting, especially when
it gives a field unexplored possibilities. Each year, new technologies grow more
ubiquitous, and the digital tools that will be available in the future will be no
exception. AI-as-a-Service and edge computing are only two examples of new tools
that allow businesses to complete tasks in novel ways. The world is undergoing the
fourth industrial revolution based on advanced technologies such as AI, machine
learning, the Internet of Things, blockchain, etc. Researchers discovered ways to
maintain and grow capacity, work securely, and meet the needs of important areas
like medical devices and producing the ordinary things that keep the world running.
In many respects, technology-enabled manufacturers handle problems, with
features like automation and remote monitoring and operation leading the way and
allowing them to ramp up operations while keeping people safe and healthy.
In this chapter, we will discuss a few key and extremely valuable tools for
industries in a number of different ways.

6.1 Industrial IoT (IIoT)

Industries are undergoing rapid technological transformations, particularly since the

introduction of Industry 4.0, the fourth industrial revolution. Machines are now
networked in a collaborative approach, with cyber-physical systems and analytical
intelligence working together in a new way of production management, producing
major industrial changes.
The current COVID-19 catastrophe, which has led to a global epidemic of life-
threatening illnesses, has left over 800 million people without access to basic
healthcare. Although there have reportedly been over 55,000 fatalities and an
additional 2 million people are sent to hospitals each week, this issue is not going

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 73

R. Thanki, P. Joshi, Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8_6
74 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

away soon. Mobile applications, robots, Wi-Fi cameras, scanners, and drones are
being used to stop the spread of viruses. The significant contribution of digital
technology to pandemic control has been impacted by Industry 4.0.
However, due to the diverse range of Industry 4.0 technologies, such as mobile,
cloud computing, Big Data, analytics tools, machine-to-machine (M2M), 3D print-
ing, and robots, the route to digital transformation is not easy, although these were
some of the technologies that sparked Industry 4.0 much broader.
The term “Industrial Internet of Things” was created to explain the Internet
of Things (IoT) as it is used in a variety of industries, including manufacturing
(Industry 4.0), logistics, oil and gas, transportation, energy/utilities, mining and
metals, aviation, and other industrial sectors, as well as the use cases that are specific
to these industries.
These technologies are part of the industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), one of
the most well-known technology concepts. In an industrial context, the IIoT is a
physical network of things, objects, or devices (that have embedded technology) for
sensing and remote control, allowing better integration between the physical and
cyber worlds.

6.1.1 Internet of Health Things

To create an even more complicated system that includes people, robots, and
machines, the Internet of Everything (IoE) generalizes machine-to-machine (M2M)
connections for the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT in healthcare is generally called
IoHT (Internet of Healthcare Things) or the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT).
IoHT primarily focuses on the wireless connecting of a network of medical
equipment and body sensors with the cloud to gather, analyze, organize, and process
health data. The proper protocols are used for secure connections and effective
machine-to-machine data transfer by health devices that collect data in real time.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of smart devices, wireless sensors, and
systems that combine several recent technological advancements. In the healthcare
industry, low-power, low-latency technologies are in high demand. With the devel-
opment of wireless communications, the network structure has significantly changed
in this time period. Additionally, some research investigates how the Internet
of Things (IoT) will support the next-generation network architecture, indicating
how embedded devices can quickly connect with one another. The configuration
of wireless and low-power, low-latency medical equipment for IoT devices will
fundamentally alter healthcare.
Continuous monitoring of the health of an unexpectedly large number of patients
throughout both the pre- and post-infection stages is highly essential during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Both carers or healthcare practitioners and patients have
effectively adopted remote patient monitoring, screening, and treatment via tele-
health facilitated by the Internet of Health Things (IoHT). Smart devices powered by
the Internet of Things (IoHT) are proliferating everywhere, especially in the midst
6.1 Industrial IoT (IIoT) 75

Fig. 6.1 Examples of Internet of Health Things (IoHT) applications

of a global epidemic. However, healthcare is seen as one of the IoT’s most difficult
application sectors due to a large number of needs. The graphical overview of IoHT
is shown in Fig. 6.1.

6.1.1.1 Recent Case Study and Enabling Technologies Overview

IoHT has a great ability to produce good results with the aid of cutting-edge
technologies. In the field of medicine, it has become a new reality of an original
concept that offers COVID-19 patients the greatest care and conducts accurate
surgery. During the ongoing pandemic, complicated situations are readily managed
and controlled digitally. IoHT takes on fresh issues in the medical industry to
develop top-notch assistance programs for physicians, surgeons, and patients. To
implement IoHT successfully, certain process steps are carefully identified. These
steps included the setup of networking protocols and the acquisition of sensor data
with a secured transmission system.
IoHT integrates machines, tools, and medical supplies to produce intelligent
information systems that are tailored to the needs of each COVID-19 patient. An
alternative interdisciplinary strategy is required to maximize output, quality, and
understanding of emerging diseases. IoHT technology tracks change in critical
patient data to get pertinent data. The various IoHT technologies that were useful in
healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic are covered in Table 6.1.
76 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

Table 6.1 Emerging technologies for implementation of Internet of Health Things

Sr. no. Technologies Description
1 Fog computing – Fog computing is a type of computing archi-
tecture where a network of nodes continuously
receives data from IoHT devices
– With millisecond response times, these nodes
process data in real time as it comes in
– The nodes periodically transmit to the cloud
analytical summary data

2 Edge computing – Edge computing enables IoHT data to be

acquired and processed locally rather than
sending the data back to a data center or cloud
– Edge computing is a strategy for computing on
location where data is received or used
– A potent technique to quickly examine data in
real time is by combining edge computing and
IoT

3 Wireless/node based The upcoming technology, the cloud computing

solution known as Function-as-a-Service, or FaaS,
enables developers to create, launch, and manage
application packages as functions without having
to maintain their infrastructure
4 ML/AI Machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL),
traditional neural networks, fuzzy logic, and
speech recognition are only a few of the subsets of
artificial intelligence that have distinct skills and
functions that can enhance the performance of
contemporary medical sciences
5 Digital twin A digital twin is a representation of a physical
product, procedure, or service in the digital world
6 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) The Bluetooth Special Interest Group created and
promoted Bluetooth Low Energy, a wireless
personal area network technology with new uses in
the home entertainment, fitness, security, and
healthcare sectors

6.2 Autonomous Robots

Robotics is the study of robots, which are electromechanical devices used for
various tasks. Due to their popularity and ability to accomplish activities that people
cannot do, the most common robots are used in dangerous environments. For the
past 15–20 years, the most common uses of robotics have involved basic industrial
or warehouse applications or teleoperated mobile robots with cameras to see objects
out of reach. For instance, flying robots (also known as drones) are used for disaster
response, in addition to automated guided vehicles (AGVs) for material movement
6.2 Autonomous Robots 77

in factories and warehouses, and underwater robots are employed to search for and
find shipwrecks in the deepest parts of our oceans.
Despite the fact that using robots in this way has been very successful over the
years, the usage of completely autonomous robots is in no way represented by these
examples. Some robots can do activities independently, while others require human
assistance to complete or direct them. Robots can be employed in various industries,
including the medical area, military applications, and space communication.
Based on the control system it features, an automatic robot is a sort of
manipulated robotic system regarded as one of the early robotic systems. Automatic
robots are categorized into four basic groups based on their traits and intended
uses.
1. Programmable robots
2. Non-programmable robots
3. Adaptive robots
4. Intelligent robots (collaborative robots and soft robots)
Here, in the next sections are surveys of use cases of intelligent robots: cobots and
soft robots. The main goal of this chapter is to focus on the advanced technologies
used in different industrial domains. Many businesses and organizations comprise
the automotive industry, which aims to design, develop, market, manufacture, and
sell automobiles using human interface robots.

6.2.1 Collaborative Robots (Cobots)

A type of robotic automation known as collaborative robots is designed to function

securely alongside human workers in a shared, collaborative workspace. In most
situations, a collaborative robot handles monotonous, menial chores, while a human
employee handles more difficult, thought-intensive jobs. Collaborative robots are
accurate, reliable, and repeatable to supplement human workers’ intelligence and
problem-solving abilities.
The notion of Industry 4.0 includes collaborative robots and how they might be
used in assisted assembly. They can do simple manipulations or boring, repetitive
assembly activities in the same workstation as human workers. Due to the small
number of actual applications in production processes at the moment, this area
is still open to fresh research, methodological development, and determination of
fundamental needs.
The primary benefit of deploying collaborative robots during assembly is a short
transfer time for parts between manual and automated activity. Some advantages
include a built-in vision system for further manual operation inspection, the ability
to give an interface for digital data collecting from sensors, and connectivity to
external cloud platforms.
78 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

Compared to industrial robots, collaborative robot designs are very different.

Collaborative robots are, first and foremost, made for safety, with rounded edges,
force constraints, and light weights. Most collaborative robots are outfitted with
various sensors to prevent accidents with human employees and safety mechanisms
to shut down in the event of any unintended contact.
Industrial and collaborative robots may completely automate a process without
involving people, whereas cobots collaborate with humans. This is the main
distinction between the two types of robots. Additionally, cobots cannot accomplish
some demanding manufacturing tasks that an industrial robot needs to handle [1].

6.2.2 Soft Robotics

In the subject of robotics, known as “soft robotics,” compliant materials, as opposed

to rigid linkages, are used to design, manufacture, and control robots. The soft
robotics name itself suggests not in terms of soft but movable and adjustable. In
Industry 5.0, it is clear that people have smart everything with the Internet of
Everything (IoE), and the soft robotics will also play a vital role.
In Healthcare 4.0, many recent cases have been authored with wearable and hap-
tic vibrotactile devices [2]. However, this enhancement still lacks communication
with end-to-end latency and reliability. For simplicity, it has been assumed that
augmented reality and virtual reality-based robotics have stability and transparency,
but the M2M interface and E2E latency still need to be improvised. Those issues
and gaps can be sorted out via 6 G-enabled technologies because, somehow, 3GPP
architecture is adopted via 6 G-enabled networking technologies.
In automotive industries, various arm-based robots have been implemented
with different applications, for instance, car manufacturing, drone manufacturing,
agriculture-based manufacturing, and many more. It is also possible that cobots
are used in some applications. Still, soft robotics with multiple degrees of freedom
(DoF) has been included in operations where human operators do not require it.
For instance, FANUC robots have multiple use cases which are easy to use and
sufficient for modest powder-coating operations while being delicate enough for
vehicle painting. Finally, their mid-range arms may do anything from pick-and-
place to welding and machine tending.
Physical treatment and rehabilitation have been investigated using soft robots
in healthcare and medical applications [2]. Apart from that, teleoperations and
telerobotic surgeries have been implemented using robotic simulators, which are
also robust and feasible. Many comparative studies show that blood loss during
teleoperations is lower than performed by human operators. Figure 6.2 examines
how seniors with moderate cognitive impairment [3] interact with humanoid robot-
accessed serious games as part of a cognitive training program.
Different robots and their specific use have been shown in Table 6.2.
Soft robots find it challenging to provide sensory input [1] since deformation can
occur in any direction. The difficult part is deciding which parameters to measure
and how to measure them. For soft robots, visual feedback is one possible sensing
6.2 Autonomous Robots 79

Fig. 6.2 Example of soft robotics (Source: Humanoid robot on mild cognitive impairment older
adults)

Table 6.2 Different soft robots with their specific use case
Sr. no. Type of soft robot Purpose of soft robot
1 Soft robotic catheters Navigate complicated, curved blood tubes or other
bodily par
2 Soft robotic exoskeletons Help mobility-impaired people recover
3 Soft robotic prosthetic devices To be more flexible and patient-friendly than typical
prosthetic systems
4 Soft robotic endoscopes Explore complicated bodily cavities
5 Octobot Underwater exploration and monitoring
6 Soft robotic puppets For entertainment purposes, such as in theme parks
or interactive exhibits

Table 6.3 KPIs for soft robots and target audience

KPI Robot Task of robot Patients Year of study
Position ALTER-EGO Augmented Elders 2019
accuracy reality/visual
reality
Latency NAO, Qbo, and Live streaming Elders and kids 2017
Hanson robot
Retainability Doro Reminder action Elders with 2017
(Total operation and medical chronic
time) guidance issues [20]
Throughput Domestic Doro Augmented Elders 2016
reality
Reliability or Cloud robot Monitoring Elders 2015
workload [21, 22] important
indication

method. The resulting motion may be observed on an external picture or video

capture device. A tactile deformable sensor offers a potential means of obtaining
sensory feedback.
NASA set an example of teleoperation in space to solve the technical problem in
the robotic models [19]. Telerobots are also used in maritime applications to study
and observe marine life. However, soft robots have a few challenges and issues as
shown in Table 6.3.
Current rehabilitation [4–6], surgical, and diagnostic soft robot concepts are
grouped by application and appraised for functionality.
80 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

Fig. 6.3 Soft robotic hand

with smooth fingertips
(Source: Recent research
studies in Istituto Italiano di
Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy)

Fig. 6.4 A fully automotive

robot with soft arm (Source:
Recent research studies in
Istituto Italiano di
Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy)

The first prototype of the Pisa/IIT SoftHand [7], a highly integrated robot hand
with a humanoid shape, robustness, and compliance, is displayed and described.
Extensive grab cases and grasp force measurements finally support Fig. 6.3’s hand.
A dual-arm mobile platform called ALTER-EGO [8], designed by its authors
using soft robotic technology for the actuation and manipulation layers, is shown
in Fig. 6.4. The flexibility, adaptivity, and robustness of this type of technology’s
6.4 Human and Machine Interfacing (HMI) 81

features enable ALTER-EGO to interact with its surroundings and objects and
improve safety when the robot is near people.

6.3 Smart and Automotive Industries

In today’s world, automation and control have replaced human work, which is
also an advancement toward smarter cities. The automotive industry is one of
the reputed examples of smart manufacturing units. Various organizations and
companies provide smart manufacturing in automotive industries by giving robotic
solutions and decreasing manpower in field sites.
ABB is a Swiss company with over 130 years of technical innovation. ABB is a
pioneer in Industry 4.0 and a leader in industrial digitization today. Robots made
by ABB are robust, adaptive, and versatile thanks to their single- and dual-arm
designs. An extensive selection of industrial robots is available from KUKA. No
matter the application’s difficulty, you will always discover the appropriate one.
Also, Rockwell automation provides feasible and efficient solutions for various
automotive industries.
Industrial robotics is becoming more and more prevalent due to their effec-
tiveness and precision, especially in the manufacturing business, even though full
automation and the employment of robots in a residential setting are still the
exceptions rather than the rule. The Statista Technology Market Forecast predicts
that by 2021, over 500,000 industrial robot systems will be in use worldwide.
According to Fig. 6.5, based on the corresponding dataset, sales of robots targeted
toward two industries in particular account for the largest portion of total revenue.
By introducing edge computing and beyond 5G networking, it becomes easy
to be everything available at remote sites faster and with the minimum end-to-end
transmission delay. The Internet of Things enables better transportation efficiency,
cutting-edge vehicle management capabilities, and a superior driving experience in
the automotive sector, paving the path for autonomous cars, which were formerly
thought to be a future vision.
More complicated improvements will become available as embedded vehicle IoT
systems develop. Additionally, the ability of linked car technology and the speed at
which mobile communications develop allow automakers to keep introducing fresh
and intriguing services.

6.4 Human and Machine Interfacing (HMI)

HMIs are user interfaces or dashboards that connect people to machines, systems,
and devices. HMI is most commonly used in industrial processes for screens that
allow users to interact with devices. Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and human-
machine interfaces (HMIs) have some similarities but differ. GUIs are often used
82 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

Fig. 6.5 Industrial robot revenues. Source: Statista Technology Market Outlook

for visualization in HMIs. The main purpose of HMI examples is to provide insight
into mechanical performance and progress, regardless of the format or the term you
use to refer to them. HMIs can be used in industrial settings to:
• Data visualization.
• You can track the time, trends, and tags associated with your production.
• Monitor key performance indicators.
• Monitor the outputs and inputs of the machine.
Most industrial organizations use HMI technology to interact with their machines
and optimize their industrial processes. Operators, system integrators, and engineers
use HMIs the most, especially control system engineers [9]. For these professionals,
HMIs are essential tools for reviewing and monitoring processes, diagnosing
problems, and displaying data. HMI is used in the following industries:
• Energy and power
• Food
• Manufacturing and production
• Gas and oil
• Transportation
• Water processing
• And many more
6.5 AI Software 83

Technology developments in HMI have occurred due to changing business and

operational needs in the past decade. Human-machine interfaces are becoming
increasingly evolved as time passes. Many types of HMIs are available as in current
AI world, including traditional, high-performance and touch screens. Modernizing
equipment interfaces allows us to interact with it and analyze it more effectively.

6.5 AI Software

Artificial intelligence software enables humans to employ artificial intelligence (AI)

to process large quantities of data to solve tasks that would otherwise require human
intelligence. Such tasks include image, video, voice, text, and natural language
processing. There is exponential growth in the strategic importance of artificial
intelligence across a wide range of industries. Many businesses are exploring and
investing in AI solutions to stay competitive [10, 11].
• Viso Suite Platform: It is the only comprehensive platform for computer vision
applications available worldwide. It enables AI vision applications to be devel-
oped, deployed, scaled, and secured using software infrastructure. Computer
vision applications from the world’s largest companies are delivered and main-
tained using the Viso platform. By integrating Viso Suite, you can avoid spending
time and money on integrating point solutions for each computer vision project.
The platform supports a complete AI lifecycle, including data collection, image
annotation, model training, application development, deployment, configuration,
and monitoring.
• Content DNA Platform: The Content DNA software platform specializes
in video content analysis using artificial intelligence. The product performs
video-related tasks for broadcasters and telecom companies, including scene
recognition, anomaly detection, and metadata enrichment. No matter your
background, you can learn and use the platform easily.
• Jupyter Notebooks: Code-first users can write and run computer code using
Jupyter Notebooks, an open-source software. As the name suggests, Jupyter
supports Julia, Python, and R as its three core programming languages. The
Notebook allows you to run code cells and see the output without writing extra
code. Due to these advantages, Jupyter Notebooks are popular for developing AI
applications, exploring data, prototyping algorithms, and implementing vision
pipelines.
• Google Cloud AI Platform: It offers many machine learning tools. Google
Cloud Platform (GCP) is one of the most popular platforms for scientists and
developers. Machine learning projects can be performed more quickly and
efficiently using the AI software tools Google Cloud provides. ML applications
related to computer vision, translation, natural language, and video can be built
using pre-trained cloud APIs. PyTorch, TensorFlow, and scikit-learn are the
open-source frameworks that Google Cloud supports.
84 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

• Azure Machine Learning Studio: You can create and deploy robust machine
learning models with the Azure Machine Learning Studio. TensorFlow, PyTorch,
Python, R, and other open-source frameworks and languages are among those
supported by the platform. A wide range of users, including developers and
scientists, can benefit from Microsoft AI software.
• Infosys Nia: Businesses and enterprises can simplify AI implementation with
Infosys Nia, an AI software platform. A wide range of tasks is possible with it,
such as deep learning, natural language processing (NLP), data management, etc.
Companies can automate repetitive tasks and schedule responsibilities with AI on
existing Big Data using Infosys Nia. Thus, organizations can be more productive,
and workers can accomplish their tasks more efficiently.
• Salesforce Einstein: Businesses can use Salesforce Einstein to build AI-enabled
applications for their customers and employees with Salesforce’s analytics AI
platform for CRM (customer relationship management). Predictive models can
be built using machine learning, natural language processing, and computer
vision. Model management and data preparation are not required with artificial
intelligence tools.
• Chorus.ai: Specifically designed for sales teams on the verge of growth,
Chorus.ai offers conversation intelligence features. The application assists you in
recording, managing, and transcribing calls in real time and marking important
action items and topics.
• Observe.AI: With Observe.AI, businesses can transcribe calls and improve
performance by using automated speech recognition. User-friendly automation
tools are available in both English and Spanish. Using the most recent speech and
natural language processing technology allows businesses and organizations to
analyze calls effectively. Other business intelligence tools can also be integrated
with the tool.
• TensorFlow 2.0: For developers, TensorFlow (TF) is an open-source machine
learning and numerical computation platform based on Python. Artificial intelli-
gence software TensorFlow was created by Google.
• H2O.ai: Businesses can easily train ML models and apps with H2O.ai, an end-to-
end platform. Using AutoML functionality, beginners and experts can create or
train AI models. Besides tabular data, the platform can handle text, images, audio,
and video files. Businesses can manage digital advertising, claims management,
fraud detection, and advanced analytics and build a virtual assistant with the
open-source machine learning solution for enterprises.
• C3 AI: As a provider of AI SaaS (software as a service), C3 AI provides AI
software as a service (SaaS) to accelerate digital transformation and build AI
applications. The C3 AI Suite and C3 AI applications are available from C3.ai
as software solutions for artificial intelligence. This AI platform company offers
a variety of commercial applications, including energy management, predictive
maintenance, fraud detection, anti-money laundering, inventory optimization,
and predictive CRM.
• IBM Watson: Using IBM Watson, companies and organizations can auto-
mate complex machine learning processes, predict future results, and optimize
6.5 AI Software 85

employee productivity. To make sense of data, recognize patterns, and predict

the future, IBM offers a broad AI portfolio that includes pre-trained models and
custom machine learning models.
• DataRobot: Organizations can fast-track the development of predictive models
and uncover insights using DataRobot’s automated machine learning platform.
This tool can create and deploy machine learning models quickly and efficiently
for data scientists, developers, and business analysts.
• Tractable: Tractable is an AI-driven platform that offers automated and efficient
accident assessment solutions to the automotive, industrial, and insurance indus-
tries. As a result, it is easier to assess damaged vehicles, claims are processed
faster, and operations are streamlined.
• Symantec Endpoint Protection: A company’s cybersecurity needs to be evalu-
ated if it conducts any part of its business online. Symantec Endpoint Protection
uses machine learning technology to secure digital assets. In time, the program
can learn to distinguish between safe and malicious files on its own as it encoun-
ters different security threats. Symantec’s website explains that the platform’s AI
interface can alleviate the need to configure software and run updates manually
by automating updates and learning from security threats.
• Outmatch: Using AI-enabled technology, Outmatch aims to streamline the
entire recruiting process. Recruiting teams can reduce spending by up to 40%
using Outmatch’s AI-enabled hiring workflow. Using Outmatch’s tools, users
can schedule interviews, check references, and screen candidates behaviorally
and cognitively.
• Tableau: Business strategy and industry forecasts can be developed using
Tableau’s visualization software. Users access data insights faster with Tableau’s
AI and augmented analytics features than they would through manual methods.
• Oracle AI: Developed specifically for developers and engineers, Oracle AI
analyzes customer feedback and creates accurate predictive models using the
extracted information. According to the company’s website, developers do not
have to create applications from scratch with Oracle’s platform because it
automatically pulls data from open-source frameworks. A chatbot tool on its
platform connects customers with appropriate resources or support based on their
needs.
• Caffe: It is an open-source framework for defining, designing, and deploying
machine learning applications. Caffe is a digital project launcher developed
by Berkeley AI Research, incorporating Python for modeling, testing, and
automatically resolving bugs.
• SAS: SAS is a data management system based on open-source and cloud-
enabled technologies that help businesses grow and progress. According to
SAS’s website, the platform can help companies better control their direction
through customer intelligence, risk assessment, identity verification, and business
forecasting.
• Theano: Developers can use Theano to successfully create, optimize, and launch
code projects using an AI-powered library that integrates with Python. According
86 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

to the product’s website, Theano uses machine learning to diagnose bugs and fix
malfunctions independently, with minimal support from outside.
• OpenNN: OpenNN, an open-source software library that uses neural network
technology, can interpret data more quickly and accurately. OpenNN claims to be
faster than its competitors at analyzing and loading massive datasets and training
models, according to its website.
• Tellius: Tellius, an AI-driven software, helps businesses better understand
their strategies, successes, and growth opportunities. Using Tellius’s platform,
employees can access an intelligent search function that organizes data and
makes it easier to understand. Their business outcomes can be analyzed and
understood through this process.
• Gong.io: Gong.io, an AI-driven platform, analyzes customer interactions, fore-
casts future deals, and visualizes sales pipelines.
• Zia by Zoho: With Zoho’s Zia, companies can gather organizational knowledge
and turn customer feedback into strategies using a cloud-based AI platform.
According to Zia’s website, its AI tools can analyze client schedules, sales
patterns, and workflow patterns to improve employee performance.
• TimeHero: Users can manage their projects, to-do lists, and schedules using
TimeHero’s AI-enabled time management platform. According to TimeHero’s
site, the platform’s machine learning capabilities can notify employees when
meetings occur, when emails are due, and when projects are due.

6.6 Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR)

Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are two different technologies used
to enhance the experience of interacting with the digital world. Augmented reality
(AR) is a technology that overlays digital information in the real-world environment.
This technology can be experienced through smartphones, tablets, smart glasses,
or headsets. It enhances real-world experiences by adding digital elements such as
images, videos, sounds, and 3D models to the physical world.
Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that creates a simulated, computer-generated
environment that can be experienced through a headset or a display. VR immerses
the user in an artificial environment, creating the illusion of being in a different
world. The user can interact with the environment and other objects through physical
movements and controllers. Augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR) have significant
potential to transform numerous industries and bring about innovative solutions to
challenges faced by various sectors. Here are some examples of how AR/VR is
being used in different sectors:
1. Education: AR/VR can create immersive and interactive learning environments
that enhance student engagement and knowledge retention. For example, VR can
be used to simulate scientific experiments or historical events, while AR can be
used to provide real-time feedback to students during a lesson.
6.6 Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR) 87

2. Healthcare: AR/VR is used in medical training to simulate surgical procedures,

anatomy, and patient diagnosis. VR can also be used to manage pain and help
patients overcome phobias or anxiety.
3. Retail: AR/VR is being used to enhance customer experiences, such as allowing
customers to virtually try on clothing or see how furniture would look in their
homes before making a purchase.
4. Manufacturing: AR/VR can assist with product design and prototyping, allow-
ing engineers to visualize and test designs in a virtual environment before
manufacturing.
5. Construction: AR/VR can be used in architecture and construction to visualize
and plan projects, allowing designers to create virtual models of buildings and
test different materials and designs.
6. Entertainment: AR/VR creates immersive gaming experiences, allowing play-
ers to interact with virtual environments and objects.
7. Military and Defense: AR/VR is used for training simulations and providing
real-time information to field soldiers.
Overall, AR/VR has the potential to revolutionize the way various industries
operate, improving efficiency, reducing costs, and enhancing the overall customer
experience. Various methods are used in augmented and virtual reality to create
immersive experiences. Here are some of the most common methods:
1. Marker-Based AR: This method uses markers or triggers, such as QR codes
or images, to create augmented reality experiences. When the device’s camera
is pointed at the marker, the app overlays digital information on top of the real-
world image.
2. Location-Based AR: This method uses the device’s GPS to create location-
based augmented reality experiences. For example, an AR app can provide
information about a historical landmark or provide directions to a nearby store.
3. Projection-Based AR: This method projects digital information onto real-world
surfaces, such as walls or floors, to create an augmented reality experience.
4. Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs): HMDs, such as VR headsets, are worn on
the head and immerse the user in a virtual reality experience by displaying
computer-generated graphics in front of their eyes.
5. Room-Scale VR: This method uses multiple sensors and cameras to create a
virtual reality experience that allows the user to move and interact with objects
in a designated physical space.
6. 360-Degree Video: This method captures video from all angles and allows the
user to view the video in a 360-degree immersive environment.
7. Hand Tracking and Controllers: This method uses hand tracking technology
or handheld controllers to allow users to interact with digital objects in a virtual
environment.
These are just some of the methods used in augmented and virtual reality.
Technology constantly evolves, and new methods are being developed to create even
more immersive experiences.
88 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

6.7 Blockchain and Cybersecurity

Blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that allows for secure and transparent
transactions between parties without needing a trusted intermediary. Conversely,
cybersecurity protects computer systems and networks from unauthorized access,
theft, damage, and other threats. Blockchain technology has a significant potential
in the realm of cybersecurity. Here are some ways that blockchain can enhance
cybersecurity:
1. Immutable Record-Keeping: Blockchain technology’s decentralized and
immutable nature makes it difficult to tamper with data stored on a blockchain,
providing greater security and integrity.
2. Cryptographic Security: Blockchain uses cryptography to secure transactions
and protect sensitive data. The use of cryptographic techniques can make it
difficult for attackers to access or manipulate data.
3. Distributed Security: Because blockchain is a distributed technology, there is
no central point of failure, and the network is less vulnerable to hacking or other
forms of cyber-attacks.
4. Decentralized Identity Management: Blockchain technology can be used for
decentralized identity management, where individuals can control their personal
data and authenticate their identity without relying on a central authority.
5. Smart Contract Security: Smart contracts, which are self-executing contracts
with the terms of the agreement written into code, can be used to automate
transactions and reduce the risk of fraud or human error.
Overall, blockchain technology can provide greater security and transparency
in the realm of cybersecurity. By creating a decentralized and secure environment,
blockchain has the potential to reduce the risk of cyber-attacks and protect sensitive
data. However, it is important to note that blockchain technology is not a panacea for
all cybersecurity issues, and proper implementation and management are essential
to ensure its effectiveness.
Various methods are used in blockchain and cybersecurity to ensure the security
and integrity of data stored on a blockchain network. Here are some of the most
common methods:
1. Encryption: Encryption is the process of converting plain text data into a coded
form that can only be read by authorized parties. This technique is commonly
used in blockchain to protect sensitive data.
2. Hashing: Hashing transforms data into a fixed-length string of characters
representing the original data. This technique is used in blockchain to create a
unique identifier for each data block, ensuring the data’s integrity.
3. Digital Signatures: Digital signatures are used to authenticate the sender’s
identity of a message or transaction. In the blockchain, digital signatures are
used to ensure that only authorized parties can access and modify data stored on
the blockchain.
6.7 Blockchain and Cybersecurity 89

4. Multi-factor Authentication: Multi-factor authentication requires users to pro-

vide two or more forms of identification to access a system or network. This
technique can be used to protect access to blockchain networks and ensure that
only authorized users can access the data.
5. Consensus Mechanisms: Consensus mechanisms are used in blockchain to
ensure that all parties on the network agree on the validity of transactions and data
stored on the blockchain. There are several consensus mechanisms, including
proof of work and proof of stake.
6. Firewalls and Intrusion Detection Systems: Firewalls and intrusion detection
systems are used to protect computer systems and networks from unauthorized
access and cyber-attacks. These techniques can be used in conjunction with
blockchain technology to provide greater security.
7. Penetration Testing: Penetration testing involves testing the security of com-
puter systems and networks by attempting to exploit vulnerabilities. This tech-
nique can be used to identify and address security weaknesses in blockchain
networks.
These are just some of the methods used in blockchain and cybersecurity. The
use of these techniques and others can help ensure the security and integrity of data
stored on blockchain networks.
Blockchain technology and cybersecurity are significant because they provide
enhanced security and integrity for digital transactions and data. Here are some of
the main reasons why blockchain and cybersecurity are important:
1. Security: Blockchain technology provides a secure and transparent environment
for digital transactions and data storage. Because of its decentralized nature, it
is more difficult for hackers to compromise the network, steal data, or disrupt
transactions.
2. Transparency: Blockchain provides transparency by allowing all parties on the
network to view and verify transactions. This transparency can help prevent fraud
and increase trust in transactions.
3. Immutability: Blockchain is immutable, meaning that once data is stored on the
network, it cannot be changed or deleted. This feature provides greater security
and helps prevent data tampering.
4. Decentralization: Blockchain is a decentralized technology, meaning no central
authority controls the network. This feature provides greater security by elimi-
nating single points of failure and reducing the risk of cyber-attacks.
5. Trust: Blockchain technology can help build trust between parties in digital
transactions by providing a secure and transparent environment for exchanging
data and assets.
6. Cost Savings: Blockchain technology can reduce costs by eliminating the need
for transaction intermediaries and reducing the risk of fraud and other forms of
financial loss.
7. Innovation: Blockchain technology can drive innovation by enabling new
business models and providing a platform for developing new applications and
services.
90 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

Overall, blockchain and cybersecurity are significant because they provide

enhanced security, transparency, and trust in digital transactions and data storage.
By leveraging these technologies, businesses and organizations can reduce costs,
increase efficiency, and drive innovation. Blockchain technology and cybersecurity
have many potential application areas across various industries. Here are some
examples:
1. Financial Services: Blockchain technology can be used in the financial industry
to securely store and transfer digital assets, such as cryptocurrencies, and
streamline payment processing and settlement.
2. Supply Chain Management: Blockchain technology can be used in supply
chain management to track and verify the authenticity of products as they move
through the supply chain, providing greater transparency and reducing the risk of
counterfeit products.
3. Healthcare: Blockchain technology can be used in healthcare to securely store
and share patient data, ensuring patient privacy and facilitating the exchange of
medical records between healthcare providers.
4. Voting: Blockchain technology can be used in voting systems to increase
transparency and security in elections by creating a tamper-proof record of votes
and preventing voter fraud.
5. Intellectual Property: Blockchain technology can be used to protect intellectual
property rights by providing a secure and transparent platform for registering and
tracking patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property.
6. Cybersecurity: Blockchain technology can enhance cybersecurity by creating
a secure and decentralized platform for storing and sharing sensitive data and
providing a tamper-proof record of cyber-attacks and security breaches.
7. Energy Management: Blockchain technology can be used in energy manage-
ment to facilitate peer-to-peer energy trading and securely manage energy supply
and demand.
These are just a few examples of blockchain technology and cybersecurity
application areas. As these technologies continue to evolve and mature, we can
expect to see even more innovative use cases across various industries.

6.8 Challenges and Open Research Problems in Various

Domains

Researchers can work together as a community to address some of the biggest

challenges and opportunities in real-world problems in the coming years [12].
Here are a few of the open problems that the participants highlighted: machine
learning, medical imaging, natural language processing, robotics, and wireless
communications.
6.8 Challenges and Open Research Problems in Various Domains 91

6.8.1 Machine Learning

Deep learning was first applied to real-world tasks in our signal processing
community for speech recognition [13] and was followed by computer vision,
natural language processing, robotics, speech synthesis, and image rendering [14].
Although deep learning and other machine learning approaches have shown impres-
sive empirical success, many issues remain unsolved. In contrast to conventional
linear modeling methods, deep learning methods are typically not interpretable.
Although deep learning methodologies achieve recognition accuracy similar to
or better than humans in many applications, they consume much more training
data, power, and computing resources. Furthermore, despite statistically impressive
results, individual accuracy results are often unreliable. Additionally, most of the
current deep learning models lack reasoning and explanation capabilities, making
them susceptible to catastrophic failures or attacks without the ability to anticipate
and prevent them.
Fundamental as well as applied research is needed to overcome these challenges.
Developing interpretable deep learning models could be a breakthrough in machine
learning to create new algorithms and methods that can overcome the limitations
of machine learning systems in not being able to explain actions, decisions, and
prediction outcomes to human users while promising to perceive, learn, decide,
and act independently. By understanding and trusting the system’s output, users
can predict future behavior and understand the system’s outputs. Machine learning
systems should be capable of creating models that explain how the world works
when neural networks and symbolic systems are integrated. Their prediction and
decision-making processes will be interpretable in symbolic and natural language
by them as they discover the underlying causes or logical rules that govern them.
New algorithms for reinforcement learning and unsupervised deep learning
could be a breakthrough in machine learning research, which use weak or no
training signals paired with inputs to guide the learning process. By interacting with
adversarial environments and with themselves, reinforcement learning algorithms
can allow machines to learn. However, unsupervised learning has remained the
most challenging problem for which no satisfactory algorithm has been developed.
There has been a significant delay in developing unsupervised learning techniques
compared to supervised and reinforcement deep learning techniques. Recent devel-
opments in unsupervised learning enable training prediction systems without labels
by utilizing sequential output structures and advanced optimization methods.

6.8.2 Biomedical Imaging

In today’s world, a variety of imaging technologies provide great insights into the
body’s anatomical and functional processes, including magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), optical
92 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

coherence tomography (OCT), and ultrasound. There are still fundamental trade-
offs between these aspects due to operational, financial, and physical constraints,
even though such imaging technologies have improved significantly over time
regarding resolution, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and acquisition speed. Because of
noise, technology-related artifacts, poor resolution, and contrast, the acquired data
can be largely unusable in raw form. Due to its complexity, it is also challenging for
scientists and clinicians to interpret and analyze biomedical imaging data effectively
and efficiently. Biomedical imaging researchers are developing new and exciting
ways to resolve issues associated with the imaging of the human body, helping
clinicians, radiologists, pathologists, and clinical researchers visualize, diagnose,
and understand various diseases.

6.8.3 Natural Language Processing

Although natural language processing is a powerful tool, it still has limitations and
issues: homonyms and contextual words, synonyms, sarcasm and irony, ambiguous
situations, speech or text errors, slang and colloquialisms, languages specific to a
particular domain, and languages with low resources [15].
A machine learning system requires a staggering amount of training data to work
correctly. As a result, NLP models become more intelligent as they are trained on
more data. Despite this, data (and human language!) are only increasing, as are
machine learning techniques and algorithms tailored to a particular problem. More
research and new methods will be needed to improve all these problems. NLP
techniques, algorithms, and models can be developed using advanced techniques
like artificial neural networks and deep learning. We will likely be able to come
up with solutions to some of these challenges shortly as they grow and strengthen.
Many of the limitations of NLP processing can be significantly eased with SaaS text
analysis platforms like MonkeyLearn. In addition to automating customer service
processes and collecting customer feedback, MonkeyLearn’s no-code tools offer
huge NLP benefits to streamline customer service processes.

6.8.4 Robotics

This section describes some open challenges when any robot is designed for
specified applications [16]. These challenges are as per below:
1. Developing a Motion Plan: A robot must reach from one point to another
without getting stuck anywhere along the way. Since the robot’s surrounding
environment is always dynamic, it is still an open research question. The
robots must fetch this information and adapt to changing environments. Open
6.8 Challenges and Open Research Problems in Various Domains 93

research problems include obtaining information about environmental changes

and working spaces and adapting to them.
2. Multiple Usage: Suppose you design a robot for sorting different equipment.
Now you want to teach the same robot for another task, such as the delivery
of equipment. Then you are required to design new equations of motion and
singularities, etc. It is a problem of being under-constrained and how to deal with
it. It’s still an open problem in designing robots for multiple uses.
3. Simultaneous Location Mapping: The human brain knows about body move-
ment when they enter any environment and adjust according to it [18]. Therefore,
the human brain is capable of creating surrounding maps and situations. How-
ever, it is challenging for robots to make this adjustment because it is designed for
a specific environment. Therefore, creating simultaneous locations and mapping
for the robot to adjust and adapt to any environmental changes is hard. That’s
why it is still an open problem and challenging to design simultaneous location
mapping.
4. Location Identification: Many robots don’t know how to deal with it when they
lose track of their location. The method needs to design to deal with this situation.
The technique depends on usage and specific application of the robot. It’s likely
if I created my robot, which can travel in different locations in the room, but what
would happen if I put this robot on the staircase?
5. Object Identification and Haptic Feedback: It is not done 100 % yet. The robot
manipulators with haptic feedback or even manipulated natural world objects
with the help of object recognition are nowhere near tasks performed by the
human hand. For example, lots of research has been published for picking up
a stationary object. However, what happens if I designed my robots to grasp
bananas from the bucket, but if I ask the same robot to fetch an orange, I need
more time to get it? Also, in many cases in healthcare, the robot’s performance
could be better to the level of acceptance mark with objects which are not stable.
6. Depth and Position Estimation: Robots with vision can poke objects and see
them move pretty easily. Moving objects are difficult to estimate if the robot
doesn’t know its distance from the object. It’s very much an open problem.
7. Real-Time Environment Understanding: Suppose you are driving a car on
the road and see your friend walking on the street path. Then you applied your
intelligence to change the car’s direction near the roadside by seeing traffic on the
road and applied a break to stop the car at the roadside. This type of intelligence
must be designed for robots to make them more efficient.

6.8.5 Wireless Communications

We live in a fully connected society thanks to wireless communications, which

enable tetherless connectivity between people and the Internet. With the intro-
duction of advanced transmission technologies such as multicarrier transmission,
channel-adaptive transmission, and multiple antenna transmission and reception
94 6 Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications

(MIMO), mass-offering mobile broadband (MBB) access to the Internet has been
the dominant theme of wireless communications for the past two decades. As the
Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry 4.0 emerge, wireless communications will face
new technical challenges. For example, multisensory virtual reality and UltraHD
video increase spectral efficiency and explore extreme frequency bands.
Future wireless systems must simultaneously accommodate rapidly growing
enhanced MBB services, mission-critical equipment, and IoT devices. A high
degree of reliability, low latency, and energy efficiency are required for advanced
IoT applications. In addition, multidimensional sensing and accurate localization
will be essential for human-centric services in the future. The computing, com-
munication, and control operations in Industry 4.0 must be fully integrated with
artificial intelligence and machine learning. Costa and Yang identified various
wireless communication challenges mentioned below [17]:
1. Security and privacy
2. Utilization of spectrum
3. Development of communication infrastructure
4. Enhancement in energy efficiency
5. Integration of wireless information and power transfer
6. Development of wireless access techniques
7. Analysis of dynamic architecture and network function
8. Coding and modulation
9. Resources and interference management

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Index

A F
Adaptive .κ-nearest neighbor algorithm, 12–13 Financial, 62–64, 89, 90, 92
Advanced technologies, vii, 3, 5, Finite impulse response (FIR) filter, 25, 26
73–94 Fourier transform, 23–24
Agriculture, 17, 29, 45, 78
Artificial intelligence (AI), vii, viii 1, 3–5, 45,
49–69, 73, 76, 83–86, 94 H
Autonomous robots, vii, 76–81 Healthcare, 1–4, 29, 47, 60, 64–66, 73–76, 78,
87, 90, 93

B I
Biomedical imaging, 5, 91–92 Image compression, 38, 43–44
Blockchain, 3, 5, 73, 88–90 Image processing, 3, 4, 25, 33–49
Industrial applications of time varying system,
15–17
C Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), 73–76
Collaborative robots (Cobots), 77–78 Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter, 25–27
Computer vision, vii, 4, 33, 39, 43, 44, 49,
60–62, 83, 84, 91 M
Convolutional neural network (CNNs), 41, 44, Machine learning (ML), 1–5, 45, 49–60, 62,
58–60 64–66, 73, 76, 83–86, 91–92, 94
Cybersecurity, 5, 85, 88–90 Manufacturing, 2, 15, 45, 46, 60, 63, 64, 74,
78, 81–83, 87

D
N
Deep learning (DL), 49, 51, 58–60, 62, 76, 84,
Nanotechnology, 28
91, 92
Natural language processing (NLP), 5, 60, 61,
Defense, vii, 48, 87
83, 84, 90–92
Digital image, 4, 21, 33, 43, 45, 46, 48,
60
Digital TV technology, 30 O
Discrete signal, 20–22 Object detection, 38, 44, 49, 60–61

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 97

R. Thanki, P. Joshi, Advanced Technologies for Industrial Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33238-8
98 Index

R T
Robust control method, 12–15 Time varying system identification, 7, 8, 10–13

S W
Signal processing, vii, 3, 4, 19–30, 42, 91 Wavelets, 20, 21, 24–25, 34, 37
Soft robotics in automotive industries, 78–81 Wireless communications, 16, 27, 29, 74,
System identification, vii, viii 3, 7–17 93–94