LANGUAGE CENTER

STUDY GUIDE LEVEL 8

BOOK: Perspectives 3 (Units 6-10)

Notice: this study guide; is intended to be used as a tool for studying for yourMAKE
UP EXAM.
It includes all the topics of the semester. In no way does it reflect the actual
topics covered on the exam.

I. CONDITIONALS 1,2,3, AND MIXED.

The First Conditional
https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/first-conditional.html https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/conditional-
sentences
The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause:

• if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know what will happen in the future, but
this describes possible things, which could easily come true.

• If it rains, I won't go to the park.

• If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
• If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
• She'll be late if the train is delayed.
• She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
• If I see her, I'll tell her.

Put the verb into the correct first conditional form:

1. If I (go) out tonight, I (go) to the cinema.

2. If you (get) back late, I (be) angry.

3. If we (not / see) each other tomorrow, we (see) each other next week.

4. If he (come), I (be) surprised.

5. If we (wait) here, we (be) late.

6. If we (go) on holiday this summer, we (go)to Spain.

7. If the weather (not / improve), we (not /have) a picnic.

8. If I (not / go) to bed early, I (be) tiredtomorrow.

9. If we (eat) all this cake, we (feel) sick.

10. If you (not / want) to go out, I (cook)dinner at home.

The Second Conditional

https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/second-conditional.html https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-
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 up/grammar/conditional-sentences/type-2/exercises?02

/The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:

• if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing). It has two
uses.
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true. Maybe I'mimagining some
dream for example.

• If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
• If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
• She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
• She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)

Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not true. Is that
clear? Have a look at the examples:

• If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for me tocall him).
• If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.

How is this different from the first conditional?

This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a lot more unlikely.

For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with twenty bedrooms and a
swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's just a dream, not very real)

But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more likely that I'llhave enough
money to buy some shoes)

Complete the Conditional Sentences (Type II) by putting the verbs into the correct form. Use
conditional I with would in the main clause.

1. If we (have) a yacht, we (sail) the seven seas.

2. If he (have) more time, he (learn) karate.
3. If they (tell) their father, he (be) very angry.
4. She (spend) a year in the USA if it (be) easier toget a green card.
5. If I (live) on a lonely island, I (run) around naked allday.
6. We (help) you if we (know) how.
7. My brother (buy) a sports car if he (have) themoney.
8. If I (feel) better, I (go) to the cinema with you.
9. If you (go) by bike more often, you (be / not) soflabby.
10. She (not / talk) to you if she (be) mad at you.

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 The Third Conditional
https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/third-conditional.html https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-
up/grammar/conditional-sentences
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the pastparticiple in the
second part of the sentence:

• if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result ofthis situation.

• If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't studyand so
she didn't pass)
• If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).
• If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
• She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
• She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university
• He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine

What a match – your favourite team has lost again! So after the game, the supporters discuss whatcould have
been different.

Complete the Conditional Sentences Type III.

1. If the midfielders the ball more exactly, our team ___________ more chances to attack.
2. If the forwards faster, they more goals.
3. Their motivation if they a goal during the first half.
4. The fullbacks one or the other goal if they theiropponents.
5. If the goalie up, he the ball.
6. If the referee the foul, he a penalty kick to ourteam.
7. Our team in better form if they harder the weeksbefore.
8. The game better if the trainer a substitute in duringthe second half.
9. If it a home game, our team the match.
10. If our team the match, they up in the league.

MIXED CONDITIONALS
YOUUTBE VIDEO EXPLAINING.
https://youtu.be/PiBLQfNb8RQ

- PAST AND PRESENT Examples:

If I had won the lottery, I would be rich.
But I didn't win the lottery in the past and I am not rich now.
If I had taken French in high school, I would have more job opportunities.
But I didn't take French in high school and I don't have many job opportunities.
If she had been born in the United States, she wouldn't need a visa to work here.
But she wasn't born in the United States and she does need a visa now to work here.

- PAST AND FUTURE

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 Examples:
If she had signed up for the ski trip last week, she would be joining us tomorrow. But she
didn't sign up for the ski trip last week and she isn't going to join us tomorrow.If Mark had
gotten the job instead of Joe, he would be moving to Shanghai.
But Mark didn't get the job and Mark is not going to move to Shanghai.
If Darren hadn't wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas, he would go to Mexico with usnext month.
But Darren wasted his Christmas bonus gambling in Las Vegas and he won't go to Mexico with usnext month.

- PRESENT AND PAST

Examples:
If I were rich, I would have bought that Ferrari we saw yesterday.
But I am not currently rich and that is why I didn't buy the Ferrari yesterday.
If Sam spoke Russian, he would have translated the letter for you.
But Sam doesn't speak Russian and that is why he didn't translate the letter.If I didn't
have to work so much, I would have gone to the party last night. But I have to work
a lot and that is why I didn't go to the party last night.

EXERCISES
1.a. She will take care of the children for us next weekend because her business trip was canceled.
1.b. But, she (take, not) would not be taking care of the children for us next weekend if her business trip (be, not) had
not been canceled.

2.a. Tom is not going to come to dinner tomorrow because you insulted him yesterday.
2.b. But, he (come) if you (insult) him.

3.a. Marie is unhappy because she gave up her career when she got married.
3.b. But, Marie (be) happy if she (give, not) up her careerwhen she got married.

4.a. Dr. Mercer decided not to accept the research grant at Harvard because he is going to take sixmonths off to
spend more time with his family.
4.b. But, Dr. Mercer (accept) the research grant at Harvard if he (take,not) six months off to spend more
time with his family.

5.a. Professor Schmitz talked so much about the Maasai tribe because she is an expert on Africantribal groups.
5.b. But, Professor Schmitz (talk, not) so much about the Maasai tribe if she(be, not) an expert on African
tribal groups.

6.a. I am unemployed because I had a disagreement with my boss and I was fired.
6.b. But, I (be, not) unemployed if I (have, not) ___________adisagreement with my boss and I (be, not)
fired.

7.a. Nicole speaks Chinese fluently because she lived in China for ten years.
7.b. But, Nicole (speak, not) Chinese fluently if she (live,not) in China for ten years.

8.a. I will not help you study for your test because you have spent the last two weeks partying and wasting time.
8.b. But, I (help) you study for your test if you (spend, not) the last two weeks partying and wasting time.

9.a. Eleanor and Ben are not going skiing with us this year because Eleanor just had a baby.
9.b. But, Eleanor and Ben (go) skiing with us this year if Eleanor (have, not,just) a baby.

10.a. I am completely exhausted, so I will not go with you to the movies tonight.
10.b. But, if I (be, not) completely exhausted, I (go) withyou to the movies tonight.

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 I. REPORTED SPEECH
EXPLICATIVE VIDEO YOUTUBE: https://youtu.be/rcxytsa8CbI
Definition:
Reported Speech (also called Indirect Speech) is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using
the exact words. A few changes are necessary; often a pronoun has to be changed andthe verb is usually moved
back a tense, where possible.

https://agendaweb.org/verbs/reported-speech-english.html

II. REPORTED SPEECH

I. Verb + Verb patterns

In English, when a verb is followed by another verb, the second verb may be an infinitive (to go), bare
infinitive (go) or -ing form (going). It all depends on the first verb. Let's see all those different patterns.

VERB + VERB

PATTERNSV +

INFINITIVE

Most normal verbs use this construction.

I want to go
They decided to stay at
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 homeThey need to buy a
bigger car

V + BARE INFINITIVE

Special verbs (except Be, Have and Ought to): do, can/could, will/would, shall/should,may/might,
must
Josh can speak
FrenchI must go
She will come soon

V + -ING

Verbs of likes and dislikes: like, dislike, hate, detest, love, prefer, enjoy...
Ken likes reading
comicsI enjoy listening
to music
She hates walking in the
rainI love singing in the
shower

In modern English these verbs can also be used with infinitive with no real change of meaningI like to
dance tango
She loves to swim
But if these verbs are used with WOULD, you must always use the infinitive I'd like to
tell you a secret (not I'd like telling you...)
She would prefer to live in a bigger house

Other verbs: finish, mind, keep, practice, go on, consider, suggest ...
Would you mind opening the window?
When you finish studying, come with me
She suggested going to Cancun for the summer

VERB + OBJECT + VERB

V + O + inf

want, ask, invite, order, tell, teach, advise, allow, beg, cause, command, encourage, expect, force, need, order,
recommend, remind ....
I want you to go
She invited me to have
dinnerI told you not to do it
She taught him to do it the right way
V + O + bare inf

let, make, (help)

Please, let me
go She made
me do it
I’ll help you move the table (also: I'll help you to move the table)

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LISTS OF VERBS
-ING: Verb + -ing / Verb + O + -ing

admit, avoid, delay, deny, detest, excuse (me/my), feel like, finish, forgive (me/my), imagine, fancy,
keep, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice, can't stand, can't help, suggest, look forward to, be
used to, give up, resent, resist, risk...
He will never admit not knowing where Mickey Mouse lives
- You must avoid cutting your toe nails in bed
- I always delay buying my Christmas presents till after Christmas, when it’s much cheaper
- Do you still deny having killed Roger Rabbit?
- I detest sitting on the plain with a neurotic scaredy cat
- He enjoys pulling his head out of the car window while driving
- Excuse my interrupting you... but is this your underwear?
- I don't feel like taking your mother for a walk just now
- When you finish crying I’ll give you a good reason to continue
- please, forgive his talking too much, he’s a teacher
Verb + object + infinitive
advise, allow, ask, expect, forbid, force, invite, like, need, order, persuade, prefer, recommend,
request, remind, teach, tell, want, warn...

- I advise you not to touch a sleeping lion

- They allowed us to wear red socks
- He asked her to jump out of the window
- People expect him to tell the best jokes
- I forbid you to look at me in the eyes
- They forced me to wear that horrible handbag again
- She invited me to go to help her with the washing, which I declined
- I like people to suck their fingers

FURTHER PRATICE. AGENDA WEB: https://agendaweb.org/verbs/infinitives-gerunds-english.html

YOUTUBE VIDEO VERB PATTERNS: https://youtu.be/PaXNVF7W2Aw
III. Relative clauses What is a relative clause?
We can use relative clauses to join two English sentences, or to give more information aboutsomething.
I bought a new car. It is very fast.
→ I bought a new car that is very fast.
She lives in New York. She likes living in New York.
→ She lives in New York, which she likes.

Defining and Non-defining

A defining relative clause tells which noun we are talking about:
I like the woman who lives next door.
(If I don't say 'who lives next door', then we don't know which woman I mean).
A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don't need this information to
understand the sentence.
I live in London, which has some fantastic parks.
(Everybody knows where London is, so 'which has some fantastic parks' is extra information).

Defining relative clauses:

1: The relative pronoun is the subject:
First, let's consider when the relative pronoun is the subject of a defining relative clause.
We can use 'who', 'which' or 'that'. We use 'who' for people and 'which' for things. We can use 'that'for people or
things.
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The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We can't drop therelative
pronoun.

For example, (clause after the object of the sentence):

I'm looking for a secretary who / that can use a computer well.She
has a son who / that is a doctor.
We bought a house which / that is 200 years old.
I sent a letter which / that arrived three weeks later.

More examples (clause after the subject of the sentence):

The people who / that live on the island are very friendly. The man who / that phoned is my brother.
The camera which / that costs £100 is over there. The house which / that belongs to Julie is in London.

2: The relative pronoun is the object:

Next, let's talk about when the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. In this case we can drop the relative
pronoun if we want to. Again, the clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. Here are
some examples:
(Clause after the object)
She loves the chocolate (which / that) I bought.
We went to the village (which / that) Lucy recommended.
John met a woman (who / that) I had been to school with.
The police arrested a man (who / that) Jill worked with. (Clause after the subject)
The bike (which / that) I loved was stolen.
The university (which / that) she likes is famous.
The woman (who / that) my brother loves is from Mexico.
The doctor (who / that) my grandmother liked lives in New York.

Non-defining relative clauses:

We don't use 'that' in non-defining relative clauses, so we need to use 'which' if the pronoun refers toa thing, and
'who' if it refers to a person. We can't drop the relative pronoun in this kind of clause, even if the relative pronoun
is the subject of the clause.
(Clause comes after the subject)
My boss, who is very nice, lives in Manchester.
My sister, who I live with, knows a lot about cars.
My bicycle, which I've had for more than ten years, is falling apart.
My mother's house, which I grew up in, is very small.

(Clause comes after the object)

Yesterday I called our friend Julie, who lives in New York.
The photographer called to the Queen, who looked annoyed.
Last week I bought a new computer, which I don't like now.
I really love the new Chinese restaurant, which we went to last night.

Prepositions and relative clauses

If the verb in the relative clause needs a preposition, we put it at the end of the clause:For
example:
listen to
The music is good. Julie listens to the music.
→ The music (which / that) Julie listens to is good.
work with
My brother met a woman. I used to work with the woman.
→ My brother met a woman (who / that) I used to work with.go to
The country is very hot. He went to the country.
→ The country (which / that) he went to is very hot.

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come from
I visited the city. John comes from the city.
→ I visited the city (that / which) John comes from.apply for
The job is well paid. She applied for the job.
→ The job (which / that) she applied for is well paid.
Whose
'Whose' is always the subject of the relative clause and can't be left out. It replaces a possessive. It can be used
for people and things.
The dog is over there. The dog's / its owner lives next door.
→ The dog whose owner lives next door is over there.The
little girl is sad. The little girl's / her doll was lost.
→ The little girl whose doll was lost is sad.
The woman is coming tonight. Her car is a BMW.
→ The woman whose car is a BMW is coming tonight.
The house belongs to me. Its roof is very old.
→ The house whose roof is old belongs to me.
Where / when / why
We can sometimes use these question words instead of relative pronouns and prepositions. I live in a
city. I study in the city.

→ I live in the city where I study.

→ I live in the city that / which I study in.
→ I live in the city in which I study.
The bar in Barcelona is still there. I met my wife in that bar.

→ The bar in Barcelona where I met my wife is still there.

→ The bar in Barcelona that / which I met my wife in is still there.
→ The bar in Barcelona in which I met my wife is still there.
The summer was long and hot. I graduated from university in the summer.

→ The summer when I graduated from university was long and hot.
→ The summer that / which I graduated from university in was long and hot.
→ The summer in which I graduated was long and hot.
WHO VS WHOM
Find all the verbs in the sentence.
Find the subject that corresponds to each verb.
If who/whom is a subject (the one doing the action), use who.
If who/whom is an object (the one receiving the action), use whom.

- Relative clauses exercises links

https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/relative-clauses-exercise-1.html
https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/d_relative_clauses.htm https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/relative-
clauses-exercise-3.html https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/relative-clauses-exercise-2.html

IV. MODALS
A modal verb is a type of verb that is used to indicate modality – that is: likelihood, ability, permission,request,
capacity, suggestions, order, obligation, or advice.
Modal Auxiliaries/Verbs: There are 10 types of modal verbs.

can could shall

may should
might will
must would
ought to*

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 There are ten types of modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to.
Can (or cannot/can't) shows ability, in the sense of knowing how or being able to do something. In informal
situations, it expresses permission, in the sense of being allowed to do something. It also shows possibility,
in the sense that an action is theoretically possible. It expresses or inquires about willingness. Lastly, in the
negative, it shows inability or impossibility.

Could (or couldn't) shows ability in the past, and expresses or inquires about permission or willingness in a
politer form. It also identifies a possibility in the present, or a possibility in the future that is dependant
upon a present action.Lastly, it can be used to make requests or for giving suggestions.

May is used in formal situations to express permission, in the sense of being allowed to do something. It also expresses
possibility in the present and future.

Might is used in formal situations, and also to express permission in the sense of being allowed to do something. It also
expresses possibility in the present, future, and past.

Will (or won't) shows willingness or interest, expresses intention, and makes predictions. It is also used to reassure
someone or help them make a decision, to make a semi-formal request, to show habitual behavior, to make a promise or
a threat, and to talk about the future or the past with certainty.

Would (or wouldn't) enquires about willingness, shows habitual activity, comments on someone's characteristic
behavior, comments on a hypothetical possibility, and comments on a likely truth. It also is used for asking permission,
making a request, and to express preferences. It can be used to talk about thepast, talk about the future in the past,
or to talk about a situation that is dependant upon another action.

Shall is used in England, to form the simple present for I and we, and to indicate a promise in the future. It's used in the
United States to form polite questions that include a polite request for permission, and universally in formal or legal
situations. It can also be used for offering someone help, for suggestions, or for asking whatto do.

Should (or shouldn't) conveys the idea of an obligation or makes a suggestion.

Ought to: is used in the same situations as should, but with a stronger sense of obligation or intensity.

Must (or mustn't) makes a conjecture, but with some certainty. It also makes a command in a more respectful way, and
it is used in similar contexts to should and ought to, but with a sense of external obligation. It can also express prohibition
in the negative form.

https://youtu.be/Nk9nQwoCFigYOUTUBE VIDEO MODALS

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Further agenda web exercises http://usefulenglish.ru/grammar/modal-verbs-exercise-eight

Emphatic structures

https://englishelxna2.wordpress.com/2012/10/09/cleft-sentences/https://www.hornerschool.com/inversion-
negative-adverbials/

There are a number of ways to add emphasis to your sentences in English. Use these forms to emphasize
your statements when you are expressing your opinions,disagreeing, making strong suggestions, expressing
annoyance, etc.

Cleft sentences: It is/ It was

Sentences introduced by ‘It is’ or ‘It was’ are often used to emphasize a specific subject or object. The
introductory clause is then followed by a relative pronoun.

Examples:
It was I who received the promotion. It is the awful weather that drives him crazy.
Cleft Sentences: What
Sentences introduced by a clause beginning with ‘What’ are also used to emphasize a specific subject
or object. The clause introduced by ‘What’ isemployed as the subject of the sentence as is followed by
the verb ‘to be’.

Examples:
What we need is a good long shower. What he thinks isn’t necessarily true.
Exceptional Use of ‘Do’ or ‘Did’
You have probably learned that the auxiliary verbs ‘do’ and ‘did’ are not used in positive sentences – for
example: He went to the store. NOT He did go to the store. However, in order to emphasize something
we feel strongly these auxiliaryverbs can be used as an exception to the rule.
Examples:
No that’s not true. John did speak to Mary. I do believe that you should think twiceabout this situation.
Note this form is often used to express something contrary to what another personbelieves.

Inversion with Negative Adverbials

Negative adverbials are words or phrases used to be restrictive, emphatic, or dramatic. They are used at
the beginning of sentences and require one to invertthe following subject and verb.
Only then did I realise my error.

Never before have I seen such beauty.Seldom do I eat fast food.

Although more commonly used in written English, they are also used in spoken English. The most common
mistake people make with these structures is to fail to invert the subject and verb after the negative
adverbial. In this post, we will look at some of the common negative adverbials, how to use them in
sentences, andsome common mistakes.

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 Only

Only then, only later, only once, only by, only when, only if, only after, only now.

Only then did I realise that I had forgotten my key.

Only after waiting many hours did the train finally arrive.

No, Not, Never

Never, no longer, no sooner, never before, not only, not until, no more, in no way,on no account, no longer,
at no time

Not until I arrive shall I buy a ticket.

Not since I was in Belgium have I had such fun.

Rarely and Seldom.

Seldom do I make an apple tart.

Rarely do I have the chance to read fiction.

Typical Mistakes

Failure to invert subject and verb

Never before I have seen such minute detail on a sculpture.

Never before have I seen such minute detail on a sculpture.

Incorrect inversion

This is an easily made mistake as in some sentences we form a subordinate clause with the negative
adverbial and make the inversion in the main clause.

Only when had I arrived I realised I had left my dossier at the office.

Only when I had arrived did I realise I had left my dossier at the office.

EMPHATIC STRUCTURE - Rewrite the sentences starting them as suggested.

1. My father hardly trusted in my abilities. Hardly .

2. Some teens make a gap year after graduation.Only after .

3. Susan seldom spends a weekend without having to prepare her lessons. Seldom .

4. Governments rarely promote equal opportunities for man and women.Rarely .

5.He became a successful business consultant when he left his homeland.Only when .

6. Young people have never had such a degree of concern about their future.Never .

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EXPRESSING PAST ABILITY: COULD/MANAGED TO/ WAS/WERE ABLE TO/SUCCEEDED IN

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