MEE 311 LECTURE NOTES: PART 1

1.1 Basic Concepts of Kinematics

1.1.1 Kinematics
Kinematics is the description of the motion of a body in space with respect to time. Kinematics deals
with only the motion and does not concern itself with what causes the motion. It studies a body’s
displacement, velocity and acceleration. It is a prerequisite to an understanding of the relations
between forces and the accompanying motion.

1.1.2 Reference Frame

This is the geometric reference system by which the position of a body in space is determined.

1.1.3 The Absolute Reference Frame:

This is also known as the primary reference frame, the inertial reference frame or the astronomical
reference frame. It is an imaginary set of rectangular axes assumed to have no translation or rotation
in space and hence fixed. In Newtonian mechanics, measurements are made with respect to this
absolute reference frame. Measurements are valid in this reference frame as long as speeds are
negligible compared with the speed of light. For all practical purposes, we consider a reference
attached to the earth as absolute provided the speed is small. We must note, however, that the earth is
in motion and a reference attached to the earth must have a complicated motion. In calculating flight
trajectory of rockets and spacecrafts, the absolute motion of the earth becomes important.

1.1.4 Moving Reference Frame

Reference frame can be attached to anybody and calculations must consider the nature of the motion
of the body to which the reference frame is attached. For example, to determine the speed of a man
running inside a moving train, the speed of the train must also be considered. Another example is how
we perceive the speed of a car that overtakes a car in which we are travelling on a highway; the speed
of the former appears low to this observer while very high to someone standing by the roadside.

1.1.5 Coordinates
These are fixed lines about which a body’s position is referenced. There are two popular coordinate
systems. These are the Cartesian and the polar coordinate systems. The Cartesian coordinate consists
of orthogonal lines (lines at right-angle to each other). There are two lines in 2D representation, often
referred to as the x and y - axes. In 3D representation, there are three orthogonal lines, x, y and z –
axes. (Figures 1.1.1a and 1.1.1b)

Figure 1.1.1a: 2D Cartesian Coordinate Figure 1.1.1b: 3D Cartesian Coordinate

 Figure 1.1.2: Polar Coordinate
The polar coordinate system has bodies referenced by a line and an angle. The line, r, represents a
radial distance from a fixed point while the angle is the angular position measured from the fixed x-
axis. Figure 1.1.2 shows the polar coordinate system and the conversion to Cartesian coordinate and
vice versa.

1.1.6 Scalar
A quantity with which only magnitude is associated
1.1.7 Vector
A quantity that can only be fully defined when the magnitude and direction are specified.
1.1.8 Particle
A particle is an idealised abstraction in which a body is considered to have neither mass nr
dimensions. It is considered a point mass.
1.2 Motion of a Body
1.2.1 Rectilinear Motion and Curvilinear Motion
Rectilinear motion is motion considered to be in a straight line while curvilinear motion is a general
motion in which the path is a curve. 100m runners can be said to be in rectilinear motion while 200m
runner are in curvilinear motion. These are illustrated in Figure 1.2.1a and Figure 1.2.1b respectively.

Figure 1.2.1a: Rectilinear Motion

Figure 1.2.1b: Curvilinear Motion

1.2.2 Displacement
Distance covered by a body in a straight line. Displacement is a vector quantity. For example, a man
goes from his house to a shop following the path on blue; his displacement is the dashed-straight line
from start to finish (Figure 1.2.2).

Figure 1.2.2: Displacement

Figure 1.2.3: Displacement Symbols

A body moves from origin O to P and then to P′, the initial displacement is represented as S and the
extra displacement is ∆S as shown in Figure 1.2.4.

1.2.3 Velocity

Velocity is the rate of motion in a straight line. vav

Let time to move from P to P′ be ∆t,

Average Velocity is given as:
1.1

Instantaneous velocity is given as:

1.2

Graphically, velocity v is the slope of the path of motion:

Figure 1.2.4: Graphical View of Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

1.2.4 Acceleration
When a car is in motion and one steps on the gas pedal, the car revs up and the speed
increases. Acceleration is the increase in speed with respect to time in a defined direction.
The reverse is deceleration, which occurs when one stops firing or steps on the breaks.
Let the velocity at a time, t, when a body is at a point P be v.
Then the velocity at time t + ∆t = v + ∆v
Average acceleration, ᾱ is given as:
1.3

Instantaneous acceleration is:

1.4

Graphical representation of acceleration is given in Figure 1.2.5

 Figure 1.2.5: Instantaneous Acceleration

1.2.5 Modifications of Equations of Motion

(a) First Modification

1.5

(b) Second Modification

Hence,

1.6
(c) Third Modification
or 1.7
The equations of motion are differential equations.

1.2.6 Integrating Equation of Motion

The integration of the equations of motion reverses the action. When the velocity equation is
integrated, it yields the displacement while integration of the acceleration equation yields the
velocity. However, exact solutions depend on the states or boundary conditions.
(a) Integrating Velocity Equation
From Eqn. (1.2)

1.8

S2 – S1 = Area under the v – t curve

Figure 1.2.6: Integrating the v – t curve

(b) Integrating the a – t curve

Figure 1.2.7: Integrating a – t curve

From Eqn. (1.4)

1.9

v2 – v1 (Area under the a – t curve)

(c) Integrating a – s curve

Figure 1.2.8: Integrating a – s curve

From Eqn. (1.6):

(Area under the a – s curve)

1.10

The 2nd integrals of these different integrations depend on the velocities and accelerations of the body
being analysed; whether they are constants or they can be represented by some given functions. In
most cases, the relationships between displacement and velocity are unknown. Most often, however,
acceleration is determined from kinetics; from the forces and moments acting on the body.
Consequently, velocities and accelerations are determined from successive integration.
Let’s look at some different cases.
Case 1: Constant Acceleration
From Eqn. 1.11:

If and ,

Then, 1.11

From Eqn. 1.8:

Let’s replace v with Eqn. 11 and motion starting from 0 at time 0

1.12

From Eqn. 1.10

If ,
Then,

1.13
Equations 1.11 to 1.13 are the popular equations of motion in elementary physics when the
acceleration is constant.

Case 2: Acceleration as a function of time

1.14

Then, from Eqn. 1.9:

1.15

Case 3: Acceleration as a function of velocity

1.16

From Eqn. 1.11

or
1.17

From Eqn. 1.6:

 or
1.18

Case 4: Acceleration as a function of displacement

1.19

From Eqn.1.6:

Or 1.20
Cases 2 to 4 considered depend on the nature of the functions defining the acceleration and in
particular on the end conditions of the functions. If end conditions are not defined, then they become
indefinite integrals for which constants of integration are needed. Case 4, for example is encountered
in free vibration or oscillation, where acceleration is proportional to the distance from some
equilibrium position.
Sample Problem 1
The position of a body which moves along a straight line is defined by the relation

where S is expressed in metre (m) and time, t in seconds (s). Determine

(a) The time at which the velocity will be zero
(b) The position and distance travelled by the body at that time
(c) The acceleration of the body at that time
(d) The distance travelled by the body
Solution
Equation of motion

(1)

Differentiate S to get velocity, v

(2)
Differentiate v to get a

(3)
(a) To determine time when velocity is zero (v = 0)
Using Eqn. (2),
But t cannot be - ve after the start of motion, hence t = 5s

(b1) Position and distance travelled by body when v = 0 (t =5s)

Substitute for t in Eqn. (1)

(b2) Distance travelled in interval t = 0 and t = 5s

At t = o, So = +40
Distance travelled =
i.e., 100m in the negative direction
(c) Acceleration at time, t =5s
Using Eqn. (3):

(e) Distance travelled from t = 4s to t = 6s

Position, S, at t = 4s from Eqn. (1)
=
And from b1, S at t = 5s is , therefore, the body was moving in the direction from t4 to
t5.
Distance travelled from t4 to t5 =
Position, S, at t = 6s from Eqn. (1)

Distance travelled from t5 to t6 =

Total distance travelled: 8m + 10m = 18m

1.3 Angular Motion of a Line

The discussion on angular motion here is restricted to motion in a plane. Motion is described
with respect to the X – Y axes of the 2D Cartesian Coordinate.
Figure 1.3.1a: Rotating Line Figure 1.33.1b: Rotation from A to B

The line OA is rotated about the origin O in the counter clockwise direction, which is taken
as sense of rotation (this is the standard convention, though not compulsory).

1.3.1 Angular Displacement, θ

This is the angle, θ, made with the x – axis by convention; though θ can be measured from
any starting point and the x – y coordinates can take any orientation.

1.3.2 Angular Velocity, ω

This is defined as the first derivative of angular displacement with respect to time.
1.21

1.3.3 Angular Acceleration,

Angular acceleration is defined as the second derivative of angular displacement
1.22

1.3.4 Modifications
Eliminating dt between Eqn. 3.1 and 3.2, we have:

Hence,
Therefore,

or 1.23

Just remember that in these relations, we may only need to recall one set of equations, say the
rectilinear equations, to remember the other set by replacing S, v and a with θ, ω and α.
Rectilinear Equations of Motion Angular Equations of motion

or or

Points to Note:
1. Agular measurements may be expressed in degrees, revolutions or radians
2. Angular velocity is usually radians per second (rad/s) in SI Unit but the unit of
revolution per minute (rpm) is also popular
3. It must again be emphasised that the kinematic parameter: displacement, velocity and
acceleration are all vectors, though we tended to have treated them as scalars so far.
4. In rectilinear motion, the direction of the vector is the same as the direction of motion
or tangential to the curve of motion.
5. In angular motion, the vector is perpendicular to the plane of rotation and in
agreement with the right-hand rule. The vector notation for the angular motion is
represented by unit vector, multiplying the scalar quantity.

Sample Problem 2
The angular velocity, ω, of a rotating disc expressed in radian per second varies during an
interval of its motion according to the function, ), where the time, t is in seconds. Compute
the number of revolutions, N, through which the disc revolves during the interval from t = 2s
to t = 3s. Also, find the angular acceleration when t = 3s.

Solution
Given Eqn. of angular velocity of motion:
)
(a) To compute number of revolutions, N, in interval t = 2s to t = 3s
Integrate velocity equation to determine angular displacement

=
=
= rad
Now 1rev = 2π rad

in rev, N

(b) To determine angular acceleration when t = 3s

Given:
)
Differentiate to obtain acceleration:
)
)
)

1.4 Plane Curvilinear Motion

At this point, we will discuss the motion of a particle along a curved path in a plane.

Figure 1.4.1: Curvilinear Motion

We take an arbitrary fixed-point O. The position of a particle, P, is located by a position vector r
measured from our arbitrarily chosen fixed-point, O. After a period of time, the particle is at P′ and its
position vector is r + ∆r. The vector change of position, ∆r is called the displacement. The
displacement, ∆r is different from the scalar distance actually measured by the particle along the path
of motion from P to P′.
From Figure 1.4.1:

Average velocity from P to P′ in time ∆t is: =

While instantaneous velocity is given as:

1.24
And acceleration is:
 1.25
The evaluation of these vector equations depends on the coordinate system used. Three coordinate
systems are in popular use.

1.4.1 Curvilinear Motion in Rectangular Coordinates (X – Y) Axes

Figure 1.4.2: Motion in Rectangular X – Y Coordinates

In his coordinate system, the displacement, velocity and acceleration are resolved along the
x- and y- axes with the aid of unit vectors i and j in the 2D X – Y plane and unit vectors, i, j
and k in the 3D X-, Y- and Z- space. We will limit our discussion to the 2D plane motion.
The kinematic parameters are represented as:

r = xi + yj 1.26

1.27

1.28

So that , and ,
The magnitudes of the vectors are,

; 1.29

; 1.30

; 1.31
We must be very careful about the and directions of the coordinates. We should also note the
vectorial representations and know the arithmetic of vectors including addition, subtraction, dot-
multiplication and cross-multiplication.
Sample Problem 3

Figure 1: Sample question

A rocket was launched and when at position A, where it has a velocity, u at angle, θ to the horizontal,
it has expended all its fuel. It then begins unpowered flight and attained a maximum height B, after
travelling a horizontal distance, S from A. Determine,
(a) The expression for h and x
(b) The time, t of flight from A to B, and
(c) The equation of the flight path from A to B.
Assume that the earth is flat for the interval of the flight and a constant gravitational acceleration, g;
neglect any atmospheric resistance.
Solution
We use rectangular coordinates attached at A of the flight path.

At point A, the velocity can be resolved into and

and 1
Each of these are treated separately as if in rectilinear motion.
The only acceleration is, g in the y-direction and hence velocity in the x-direction is constant.
(a) To determine expression for h and x
Horizontal flight after A is at constant velocity, i.e.
2
Vertical flight is subject to acceleration due to gravity, with velocity = 0 at top of flight
Now, recall that:
 or 3
Again

Hence

Position B is reached when ,

(b) 5
Substituting Eqn. 5 into Eqn. 4, we have,

Horizontal flight: = 6
Path equation is obtained by eliminating time, t from the expression for x and y or S and h.

;
from x,
Substituting for t in y, gives,

1.4.2 Velocity in Curvilinear Motion in Normal and Tangential (n – t) Coordinates

Figure 1.4.3 (a) Normal and Tangential Velocities (b) Velocity Diagram
In this coordinate system, the components of the motion velocity are resolved along the tangential, t
and the normal, n, to the curved path at the instantaneous position of the body. The direction of n is
towards the centre of curvature, O, of the path.
The vector, v along the path is:
1.32
Where, = radius of curvature of the path at position considered.
From point A and A′, the vector change in velocity is:
1.33
From Figure 1.4.3(a) and (b), the n-component is due to change in direction of v and has magnitude .
The t-component is due to the change in the magnitude of v and is
It should be noted carefully that the magnitude of the differential change in the vector v is not the
same as the differential change dv in the magnitude of v. In other words, for a vector which changes
its direction, the magnitude of the derivative is not the same as the derivative of the magnitude.

1.4.3 Acceleration in n – t Coordinates

1.34
The n-component of acceleration is due to the change in the direction of v and has the magnitude:

1.35
The n-component of acceleration is always directed towards the centre of curvature.

The t-component of acceleration is due to change in magnitude of v.

1.36
But, measured along the path of motion. Therefore,

1.37
Where S is measured along the path.
We can also obtain the acceleration from direct differentiation of the velocity vector but the analysis
above is to enable us understand the physical and geometric picture of the vectors and their changes.

Let us now analyse the normal and tangential acceleration from vectorial differentiation for this plane
circular motion.
 Figure 1.4.4 (a): Using Unit Vectors (b): Unit Vector Analysis

Let us now analyse the normal and tangential acceleration from vectorial differentiation for this plane
curvilinear motion. Figures 1.4.4a and 1.1.4b are used to illustrate the analysis.
Let the body move along the curvilinear path in the plane. P is the position of the body at a given
instance and pointing in the direction of rotation.

Let’s attach unit vector, et, tangent to the path at P and pointing in the direction of motion. Again, let
be the unit vector corresponding to the position P of the body at a later instance. will be tangent to
the curve at that position P′.
Now, we draw both vectors from the same origin O, Figure 4.4b.
Vector addition will give us,
1.38

Since and are of unit length, their tips lie on the same circle of radius 1 and they subtend the angle
∆θ.
From elementary calculus,

1.39
And,

As , we have,
1.40

As can be seen from Figure 4.4b, the vector becomes a tangent to the unit circle as ∆θ
approaches zero, i.e., becomes perpendicular to the vector . Thus, the vector obtained in the limit
is a unit vector along the normal to the path of motion in the direction towards which turns.

Let’s write this vector as , then,

 1.41

Now, the velocity, v is tangent to the path and this can be expressed as:

Where, v is a scalar.

We differentiate v to obtain acceleration, a, i.e.,

1.42
We can write,

Now, we have, , where , and,

i.e., instantaneous velocity at P.
Hence,

1.43

What this means is that we can arrive at the same solution by just differentiating the vector , where v
is a scalar function of the unit vector, .
Substituting into Eqn. 1.4.19, we have,

1.44

Given scalar components of acceleration as:

and

The expression obtained means that the tangential component of acceleration is equal to the rate of
change of the speed of the body while the normal component is equal to the square of the speed
divided by the radius of curvature of the path at P. If the speed of the body increases, at is positive
and the vector component, a t points in the direction of motion. If the speed of the body decreases, a t

is negative and at points in opposite direction. The vector component, an, on the other hand, as
always, is directed towards the centre of curvature of the path. We conclude that the tangential
component of acceleration reflects a change in the speed of the body, while the normal component
reflects a change in direction of motion of the body. The acceleration of a body in curvilinear motion
will only be zero if both its components are zero.
In the special case of circular motion, the radius of curvature, ρ becomes the radius of the circle, r and
if we use and , then:
1.45
1.46
1.47
1.4.4 Curvilinear Motion Analysis using Polar Coordinates (r – θ)

Figure 1.4.5(a): Analysis in Polar Coordinates (b): Velocity Analysis

In many instances, body or particle locations are specified in their polar coordinates, r – θ. It also,
often become convenient to resolve their velocities and accelerations in this coordinate system. When
this is done, the parameters are said to be resolved in the radial and transverse directions.
Let the body be at point P and move to P′. then, the displacement differential is:
1.48
The differential change in length of , the differential change in θ-direction = diff arc rdθ.
The velocity equations are:

1.49

1.50
1.51

As the body moves from P to P′, both components of velocity, and will undergo a vector change as
shown in Figure 4.5(b) to and , where they can be seen to be changing both in magnitude and
direction.

1.4.5 Acceleration in Polar Analysis of Curvilinear Motion

The changes in velocities result in the following accelerations as shown in Figure 4.6. Cross-reference
this with the velocities in Figure 4.5(b)
 Figure 1.4.6: Elemental changes in velocity diagram in Polar Coordinates
In Figure 4.6, the red lines are the velocity components at the instant at P. The green lines are the
elemental changes in the radial and transverse directions as the body translates and turns in curvilinear
motion to P′. The components of velocity changes are as given below.
Components of :
in r-direction 1.52

in θ-direction 1.53
Components of :
in θ-direction 1.54
in r-direction 1.55
The acceleration is obtained by dividing the elemental velocity changes by dt in the different
directions.
Hence, we will have the following components

in r-direction

in θ-direction
+ in θ-direction
n r-direction

We collect components in the same direction, to give

1.56

1.57

1.58
Again, this approach helps us to appreciate the physical and geometric bases of the derivation,
otherwise, the derivation can be achieved by direct differentiation of the velocity vector.

1.4.6 Analysis by Vector Differentiation

Now, we proceed to get the same result through direct differentiation.
 Figure 1.4.7: Differentiation using unit vectors on Polar Coordinates
The diagram Figure 4.7 shows the position of a body in a curvilinear motion. The position vector of
the body is resolved along the radial and transverse direction and denoted by unit vectors er and eθ.
Now the differentiation of the unit vector with respect to θ rotates the vectors counter-clockwise as
follows:

, 1.59
Now,

1.60

1.61
Now,

where r is a scalar function 1.62

Hence, Velocity, v is:

1.63
Acceleration is:

1.64a

1.64b

1.64c
Summarising magnitudes, we have:

Velocity: ;
Acceleration: ;