Unit III Basic Computer Architecture

Introduction to Computer Architecture

Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware
technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In short, computer
architecture refers to how a computer system is designed and what technologies it is
compatible with.

As with other contexts and meanings of the word architecture, computer architecture is
likened to the art of determining the needs of the user/system/technology, and creating a
logical design and standards based on those requirements.

A very good example of computer architecture is von Neumann architecture, which is still
used by most types of computers today. This was proposed by the mathematician John von
Neumann in 1945. It describes the design of an electronic computer with its CPU, which
includes the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, memory for data and instructions,
an input/output interface and external storage functions.

There are three categories of computer architecture:

a) System Design: This includes all hardware components in the system, including data
processors aside from the CPU, such as the graphics processing unit and direct
memory access. It also includes memory controllers, data paths and miscellaneous
things like multiprocessing and virtualization.

b) Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): This is the embedded programming language of the
central processing unit. It defines the CPU's functions and capabilities based on what
programming it can perform or process. This includes the word size, processor register
types, memory addressing modes, data formats and the instruction set that
programmers use.

c) Microarchitecture: Otherwise known as computer organization, this type of

architecture defines the data paths, data processing and storage elements, as well as
how they should be implemented in the ISA.

History of Computer Architecture

The first document of Computer Architecture was a correspondence between Charles
Babbage and Ada Lovelace, that describes the analytical engine. Here is the example of other
early important machines: John Von Neumann and Alan Turing.
Computer architecture is the art of determining the needs of the user of a structure and then
designing to meet those needs as effectively as possible with economic status and as well as
the technological constraints. In ancient period, computer architectures were designed and
prepared on the paper and then, directly built into the final hardware form. Later, in today`s
computer architecture, prototypes were physically built in the form of transistor logic (TTL)
computer such as the prototypes of the 6800 and the PA-RISC tested, and tweaked before
committing to the final hardware form.

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Harvard Architecture
The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and
signal pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard Mark I, which
stored instructions on punched tape and data in electro-mechanical counters. These early
machines had data storage entirely contained within the central processing unit, and provided
no access to the instruction storage as data. It required two memories for their instruction
and data. Harvard architecture requires separate bus for instruction and data.

Von Neumann architecture

Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945.
His computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs.
Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where
instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in
most computers produced today.
The modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John Von
Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in a separate
storage unit called memories and are treated the same. Von Neumann architecture requires
only one bus for instruction and data.

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Overview of Computer Organization
Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnection that realize
the architecture specification. Computer organization deals with physical aspects of computer
design, memory and their types and microprocessors design. Computer organization is
concerned with the way the hardware components operate and the way they are connected
together to form a computer system.

It describes how the computer performs. Ex, circuit design, control signals, memory types and
etc.

Computer Organization vs Architecture

1) Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact
on the logical execution of a program. Examples:
- the instruction set
- the number of bits used to represent various data types
- I/O mechanisms
- memory addressing techniques

Computer Organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that
realize the architectural specifications. Examples are things that are transparent to the
programmer:
- control signals
- interfaces between computer and peripherals
- the memory technology being used.

2) So, for example, the fact that a multiply instruction is available is a computer
architecture issue. How that multiply is implemented is a computer organization issue.

3) Architecture is those attributes visible to the programmer

- Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation, I/O mechanisms,
addressing techniques. e.g. Is there a multiply instruction?

Organization is how features are implemented

- Control signals, interfaces, memory technology. e.g. Is there a hardware multiply
unit or is it done by repeated addition?

4) Computer architecture is concerned with the structure and behavior of computer

system as seen by the user.
Computer organization is concerned with the way the hardware components operate
and the way they are connected together to form a computer system.

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Memory Hierarchy
The memory unit Is an essential component in any digital computer since It Is needed for
storing programs and data. A very small computer with an unlimited application may be able
to fulfill its intended task without the use of additional storage capacity. Most general purpose
computers would run more efficiently if they were equipped with additional storage beyond
the capacity of the main memory. There is just not enough space in one memory unit to
accommodate all the programs used in a typical computer. Moreover, most computer users
accumulate and continue to accumulate large amounts of data-processing software. Not all
accumulated information is needed by the processor at the same time. Therefore, it is more
economical to use low-cost storage devices to serve as a backup for storing the information
that is not currently used by the CPU.
The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called the main memory.
Devices that provide backup storage are called auxiliary memory. The most common auxiliary
memory devices used in computer systems are magnetic disks and tapes. They are used for
storing system programs, large data files, and other backup information. Only programs and
data currently needed by the processor reside in main memory. All other information Is stored
in auxiliary memory and transferred to main memory when needed.

The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized as being a hierarchy of

components. The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices employed in a
computer system from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary memory to a relatively faster main
memory, to an even smaller and faster cache memory accessible to the high-speed processing
logic. Above Figure illustrates the components in a typical memory hierarchy. At the bottom
of the hierarchy are the relatively slow magnetic tapes used to store removable files. Next are
the magnetic disks used as backup storage. The main memory occupies a central position by
being able to communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through
an I/O processor. When programs not residing in main memory are needed by the CPU, they
are brought in from auxiliary memory. Programs not currently needed in main memory are
transferred into auxiliary memory to provide space for currently used programs and data.

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Cache Memory
A special very high speed memory called a Cache is sometimes used to increase the speed of
processing by making current programs and data available to the CPU at a rapid rate. The
cache memory is employed in computer systems to compensate for the speed differential
between main memory access time and processor logic. CPU logic is usually faster than main
memory access time, with the result that processing speed is limited primarily by the speed
of main memory. A technique used to compensate for the mismatch in operating speeds is to
employ an extremely fast, small cache between the CPU and main memory whose access time
Is dose to processor logic dock cycle time. The cache is used for storing segments of programs
currently being executed in the CPU and temporary data frequently needed in the present
calculations.
If the active portions of the program and data are placed in a fast small memory, the average
memory access time can be reduced, thus reducing the total execution time of the program.
Such a fast small memory is referred to as a cache memory. It is placed between the CPU and
main memory as illustrated in Fig. below. The cache memory access time is less than the
access time of main memory by a factor of 5 to 10. The cache is the fastest component in the
memory hierarchy and approaches the speed of CPU components.
The basic operation of the cache is as follows. When the CPU needs to access memory, the
cache is examined. If the word is found in the cache, it is read from the fast memory. If the
word addressed by the CPU is not found in the cache, the main memory is accessed to read
the word. A block of words containing the one just accessed is then transferred from main
memory to cache memory. The block size may vary from one word (the one just accessed) to
about 16 words adjacent to the one just accessed. In this manner, some data are transferred
to cache so that future references to memory find the required words in the fast cache
memory.

The main memory can store 32K words of 12 bits each. The cache is capable of storing 512 of
these words at any given time. For every word stored in cache, there is a duplicate copy in
main memory. The CPU communicates with both memories. It first sends a 15-bit address to
cache. If there is a hit, the CPU accepts the 12-bit data from cache. If there is a miss, the CPU
reads the word from main memory and the word is then transferred to cache.

Organization of Hard Disk

A hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile computer storage device containing magnetic disks
or platters rotating at high speeds. It is a secondary storage device used to store data
permanently. Non-volatile means data is retained when the computer is turned off. A hard
disk drive is also known as a hard drive.

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A hard drive consists of the following:

Magnetic platters - Platters are the round plates in the image above. Each platter holds a
certain amount of information, so a drive with a lot of storage will have more platters than
one with less storage. When information is stored and retrieved from the platters it is done
so in concentric circles, called tracks, which are further broken down into segments called
sectors.

Arm - The arm is the piece sticking out over the platters. The arms will contain read and write
heads which are used to read and store the magnetic information onto the platters. Each
platter will have its own arm which is used to read and write data off of it.

Motor - The motor is used to spin the platters from 4,500 to 15,000 rotations per minute
(RPM). The faster the RPM of a drive, the better performance you will achieve from it.

When a computer wants to retrieve data off of the hard drive, the motor will spin up the
platters and the arm will move itself to the appropriate position above the platter where the
data is stored. The heads on the arm will detect the magnetic bits on the platters and convert
them into the appropriate data that can be used by the computer. Conversely, when data is
sent to the drive, the heads will this time, send magnetic pulses at the platters changing the
magnetic properties of the platter, and thus storing your information.

Instruction Code
An instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the computer to perform a specific
operation. It is usually divided into parts, each having its own particular interpretation. The
most basic part of an instruction code is its operation part. The operation code of an
instruction is a group of bits that define such operations as add, subtract, multiply, shift, and
complement. The number of bits required for the operation code of an instruction depends
on the total number of operations available in the computer.

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Instruction codes together with data are stored in memory. The computer reads each
instruction from memory and places it in a control register. The control then interprets the
binary code of the instruction and proceeds to execute it by issuing a sequence of micro
operations. Every computer has its own unique instruction set. The ability to store and
execute instructions, the stored program concept, is the most important property of a
general-purpose computer.
The operation part of an instruction code specifies the operation to be performed. This
operation must be performed on some data stored in processor registers or in memory. An
instruction code must therefore specify not only the operation but also the registers or the
memory words where the operands are to be found, as well as the register or memory word
where the result is to be stored.

Stored Program Organization

The simplest way to organize a computer is to have one processor register and an instruction
code format with two parts. The first part specifies the operation to be performed and the
second specifies an address. The memory address tells the control where to find an operand
in memory. This operand is read from memory and used as the data to be operated on
together with the data stored in the processor register.
Below figure depicts this type of organization. Instructions are stored in one section of
memory and data in another. For a memory unit with 4096 words we need 12 bits to specify
an address since 212 = 4096. If we store each instruction code in one 16-bit memory word,
we have available four bits for the operation code (abbreviated opcode) to specify one out of
16 possible operations, and 12 bits to specify the address of an operand. The control reads a
16-bit instruction from the program portion of memory. It uses the 12-bit address part of the
instruction to read a 16-bit operand from the data portion of memory. It then executes the
operation specified by the operation code.

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Indirect Address
It is sometimes convenient to use the address bits of an instruction code not as an address
but as the actual operand. When the second part of an instruction code specifies an operand,
the instruction is said to have an immediate operand. When the second part specifies the
address of an operand, the instruction is said to have a direct address. This is in contrast to a
third possibility called indirect address, where the bits in the second part of the instruction
designate an address of a memory word in which the address of the operand is found.
In register indirect addressing mode, the data to be operated is available inside a memory
location and that memory location is indirectly specified by a register pair.
Example:
MOV A, M (move the contents of the memory location pointed by the H-L pair to the
accumulator)

Computer Registers
Registers are the fastest and smallest type of memory elements available to a processor.
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit
register", "32-bit register" or a "64-bit register" (or even with more bits). A processor often
contains several kinds of registers, which can be classified according to their content or
instructions that operate on them.

Common Bus System

The basic computer has eight registers, a memory unit, and a control unit. Paths must be
provided to transfer information from one register to another and between memory and
registers. The number of wires will be excessive if connections are made between the outputs
of each register and the inputs of the other registers. A more efficient scheme for transferring
information in a system with many registers is to use a common bus.

Four registers, DR, AC, IR, and TR, have 16 bits each. Two registers, AR and PC, have 12 bits
each since they hold a memory address. When the contents of AR or PC are applied to the 16-
bit common bus, the four most significant bits are set to O's. When AR or PC receive
information from the bus, only the 12 least significant bits are transferred into the register.

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The input register INPR and the output register OUTR have 8 bits each and communicate with
the eight least significant bits in the bus. INPR is connected to provide information to the bus
but OUTR can only receive information from the bus. This is because INPR receives a character
from an input device which is then transferred to AC. OUTR receives a character from AC and
delivers it to an output device. There is no transfer from OUTR to any of the other registers.
The 16lines of the common bus receive information from six registers and the memory unit.
The bus lines are connected to the inputs of six registers and the memory. Five registers have
three control inputs: LD (load), INR (increment), and CLR (clear).

The input data and output data of the memory are connected to the common bus, but the
memory address is connected to AR. Therefore, AR must always be used to specify a memory
address. By using a single register for the address, we eliminate the need for an address bus
that would have been needed otherwise. The content of any register can be specified for the
memory data input during a write operation. Similarly, any register can receive the data from
memory after a read operation except AC.
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Timing and Control
The timing for all registers in the basic computer is controlled by a master clock generator.
The clock pulses are applied to all flip-flops and registers in the system, including the flip-flops
and registers in the control unit. The clock pulses do not change the state of a register unless
the register is enabled by a control signal. The control signals are generated in the control unit
and provide control inputs for the multiplexers in the common bus, control inputs in
processor registers, and micro operations for the accumulator.

Instruction Cycle
Time required to execute and fetch an entire instruction is called instruction cycle. A program
residing in the memory unit of the computer consists of a sequence of instructions. The
program is executed in the computer by going through a cycle for each instruction. Each
instruction cycle in turn is subdivided into a sequence of sub cycles or phases. In the basic
computer each instruction cycle consists of the following phases:

1. Fetch an instruction from memory.

2. Decode the instruction.
3. Read the effective address from memory if the instruction has an indirect address.
4. Execute the instruction.

Upon the completion of step 4, the control goes back to step 1 to fetch, decode, and execute
the next instruction. This process continues indefinitely unless a HALT instruction is
encountered.

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