• No slides on web yet … sorry about that.

• Tutorial: Monday at 4pm? Monday at 5pm?

From Tuesday: Summary & Reading List

• Summary: the Standard Model is our current model for particle
physics. But it doesn’t explain all observations.

• Experiments are underway to try to

make precise measurements and
search for new phenomena.

• Key point from today: learn the

Standard Model particles and
forces.

Highly suggested reading:

• Today’s lecture: Griffiths 1.1 -1.5
• Friday’s Lecture: Griffiths chapter 2

2
 Hunting Down the Higgs
• At the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) the
Higgs boson may be produced in the proton-
proton collisions.
• Higgs is searched for through its decays,
• primarily: H!"", H!W+W#, H!ZZ
• also: H!$+$#, H!bb̅

Hint of something
about mH~125 GeV??

http://www.atlas.ch/multimedia/2-photon-event.html
http://www.atlas.ch/news/2011/status-report-dec-2011.html
3

Hunting Down the Higgs

Higgs boson mass (mH) is now
constrained:
• mH > 114.4 GeV (by previous LEP
collider)
• 127 GeV < mH < 600 GeV (ATLAS
& CMS at LHC)
• mH < ~200 GeV is favoured by
other measurements

• Not enough data has been collected

and analysed to say anything definite
about 115 < mH < 127 GeV.
• LHC might collected 4 times more
data in 2012, should be enough to
say something definite

http://press.web.cern.ch/press/
PressReleases/Releases2011/PR25.11E.html
4
Charge-Parity Symmetry Violation in Charm Decays

• Charge-Parity Symmetry examines the difference between matter and

anti-matter
• LHCb experiment at the LHC looked for difference in the decays of an
anti-matter pair of D-mesons:
• D0 = cu̅; D̅0 = c̅u
• % is the decay rate, how quickly this decay takes place (units of energy)
0 0
Γ(D0 → K + K − ) − Γ(D → K + K − ) Γ(D0 → π + π − ) − Γ(D → π + π − )
ACP = 0 − 0
Γ(D0 → K + K − ) + Γ(D → K + K − ) Γ(D0 → π + π − ) + Γ(D → π + π − )

• LHCb measured:
ACP = [−0.82 ± 0.21(stat) ± 0.11(syst)]%

• Clear different between

behaviour of D0 and D̅0!

http://lhcb-public.web.cern.ch/lhcb-public/
5

Superluminal Neutrinos

• Neutrinos produced in CERN in proton

collisions: p+Be!&++X; &+!µ+'µ
• Collimated beam of neutrinos aimed at Gran
Sasso underground laboratory in Italy.
• Hoping to observe neutrino mixing 'µ! '$
• OPERA detector measures an interactions of
the neutrinos in the detector:
'µ n!p µ+ or '$ n!p $+

• Measures the time the protons hit the target

at CERN vs muons detected in Gran Sasso
• No problems (yet) found with method or
analysis… stay tuned.

http://press.web.cern.ch/press/PressReleases/Releases2011/PR19.11E.html
6
 Particle Physics
Dr Victoria Martin, Spring Semester 2012
Lecture 2: Forces & Feynman Diagrams

!Natural Units
!Review of the SM forces
!Decays and Scatterings
!Feynman Diagrams
!QED, QCD and the Weak Force

Natural Units
kg m s GeV c
SI units: [M] [L] [T] Natural units: [Energy] [velocity] [action]

• For everyday physics SI units are a natural choice: M(SH student)~75kg.

• Not so good for particle physics: Mproton~10!27kg
Energy GeV Time (GeV/ )!1
Momentum GeV/c Length (GeV/ c)!1
Mass GeV/c2 Area (GeV/ c)!2

Can simplify further by ★ measuring speeds relative to c

★ measuring action/angular momentum/spin relative to
Equivalent to setting c = = 1 ! All quantities are expressed in powers of GeV

Energy GeV Time GeV!1

Momentum GeV Length GeV!1
Mass GeV Area GeV!2
8
 Review: Standard Model Forces
• Four interactions observed in nature: electromagnetic, strong, weak and gravity.
• The Standard Model describes interactions due to electromagnetic, strong,
weak.
• Interactions between the fermions are transmitted by “force carrying” gauge
bosons with S=1.
• Each force couples to a property of the fermions.
13 Further Concepts in Quantum Scattering Theory
• The properties of each force are described mathematically by a symmetry group
13.1 Born Series, Green Functions - A Hint of Quantisation of the Field
Interaction Coupling Couples Symmetry Gauge Charge Mass
Strength
Solving the Schroedinger To Functions
equation using Green Group Bosons
automatically GeV
e in a form
gives a solution
Strong α ≈
appropriate for scattering.
s 1 colour charge SU(3) 2 2
Gluons (g) 0 2
By making the substitution E = h̄ k /2µ and U (r) = (2µ/h̄ )V (r) we0
can write the TISE as:
Electromagnetic α = 1/137 electric charge U(1) Photon
� (γ) 0 0
[∇2 + k 2 ]Φ = U (r)Φ
weak W ±
±1 80.4
Weak GF = 1 × 10−5 SU(2)L
For U (r) = 0 this gives φ0 (r) = Aeik.rhyercharge 0 Function’
Z 0 a ‘Green’s
, a travelling wave. We now introduce 91.2
2 2 −38
for the operator [∇
Gravity 0.53+×k 10
], which is the mass
solution to the equation:
? Graviton? 0 0
[∇2 + k 2 ]G(r) = δ(r)G(r) G(r) = − exp(ikr)/4πr

δ(r) is the Dirac delta-function as is δ(r)G(r), since G(r) diverges at the origin. G(r) has the
property that any function Φ which satisfies
�
Φ(r) = φ0 (r) + G(r − r� )U (r� )Φ(r� )d3 r� 9

where φ0 (r) is the free particle solution, will be a solution to the TISE. Since φ0 (r) is the unscat-
tered incoming wave, the second term must represent the scattered wave.

Scattering Theory
Thus the general solution to the TISE is given by:
�
Φ(r) = Aeik.r + G(r − r� )U (r� )Φ(r� )d3 r�
• We are going to consider the interactions between elementary
particles.
In this expression, Φ appears on both sides. We can substitute for Φ using the same equation:

• Quantum Field� Theory (relativity �⊕� QM) suggests force is transmitted

�
Φ(r) = Aeik.r + G(r − r� )U (r� )Aeik.r d3 r� + G(r − r� )U (r� )G(r� − r�� )U (r�� )Φ(r�� )d3 r� d3 r��
by force carrying particles.
Repeated substitutions gives the Born series, terminated by a term involving Φ(r) itself. If the
potential is weak, the higher order terms can be ignored. The first order term is just the matrix
• Review fromthe
element between Quantum Physics,
incoming plane Lecture
wave and the Green 12, 13:the
function: Quantum Scattering
Born approximation again!
Theory
If we think&ofthe Born Approximation
the potential U as an operator, the first term represents the incoming wavefunction

• Born Series: we can think of a scattering in terms of series of terms

+ + + ...

2
No Scattering + Single Scattering ~ U + Double Scattering ~ U + Multiple Scattering

• Feynman diagrams
Figure 12: Born Series - scattering as series of terms
make use of the Born series. Forces are
transmitted byonce.
being operated on a finite number
The second of the the
term represents force-carrying bosons.
incoming wavefunction being operated
on twice. And so forth. This suggests a way of quantising the effect of the field: The first order
term corresponds to a single scattering event, the second order term to double scattering etc. 10
 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
• QED is the quantum description of the electromagnetic force.
• QED acts on all charged particles.
" An elementary charged particle can emit or absorb a photon

e− → e− γ
)(

•This is the fundamental process of QED.

•Charge and momentum are conserved at the vertex.
•The probability for charged particle to emit or absorb a photon is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
•Normally write this using fine structure constant, (=e2/ c = 1/137.

•At each vertex, probability for photon emission/absorption is !)(

11

The QED Vertex

• In relativity time and space are equivalent therefore...

" We can “twist” this fundamental interaction any way we like.
" All these diagrams are equivalent, same probability amplitude )(.

• When fermion “goes back in time”, represents an antifermion.

12
 QED Processes
• We can join up the
− −
basic vertex together to describe real processes:
− − − + − +
e e →e e , e e →e e

• Can have any processes with several bosons being exchanged:

• Ok if only only fermion - fermion
- photon vertices in diagram
• Each vertex has probability
amplitude of )(
• The more vertices, the less
likely the process is to happen.

13

Drawing Feynman Diagrams

Final state
particles on
Initial state the right
particles on “virtual” bosons
the left are exchanged
in the middle

Times flows from left to right Each interaction vertex

has a coupling constant

fermions antifermions photons, gluons H bosons

W, Z bosons
14
 Summary & Reading List
• The elementary fermions in the standard model interact due to the
three forces: electromagnetic, weak and strong.

• Relativistic Field Theory approach allows us to write interactions as

exchange of bosons.

• (Due to the different symmetry groups) different forces allow

different interactions to take place.

• Key point from today: forces are described by exchange of bosons.

• Learn which are the allowed fermion interaction vertices for each
force and the associated coupling constant.

• Suggested reading for next lecture: Griffiths chapter 6.

15