Introduction to framed structures- steel,

reinforced concrete, pre cast concrete,

timber

Samantha Manawadu
Framed Buildings – Concrete / Steel Framed Structures

Increased demands for efficient use of space and cost-effective

building practices have resulted in the use of framed structures
for most multi-storey commercial buildings.
The use of a structural frame allows the maximum provision of
usable space with the minimum space taken up by the
structure. Advances in construction technology have allowed
buildings of great heights with great spans to be erected with
the adoption of structural frames
Functions of framed buildings

Framed buildings differ from

traditional loadbearing structures in
that the loads of the building are
transmitted through a structural
frame. The frame supports external
walls and roof, and also internal walls
and floor plus loading from fixtures
and fittings. Framed buildings are
especially suitable for medium to
high rise structures, and the main
type of frame used for this type of
structure is skeleton frame.
Benefits of framed structures

1. The small area of frame maximizes the usable floor area of

the building

2. The lack of massive structure, allows greater flexibility in

the use of the building by providing large area of open floor

3. More time saving and cost effective than loadbearing

forms.

The construction of buildings of great height necessitates the

use of structural frame because a loadbearing structure would
need to be enormous at the lower levels to support the upper
levels.
Advantages over loadbearing forms of construction
• The use of a frame formed from a strong durable material allows
the loading from the building fabric to be safely transmitted to the
ground at selected points.

• The reduction of overall building mass allows the construction of

bigger buildings on a given site

• The use of frame reduces the size of the building structure and
therefore makes the most flexible and effective use of space.

• Using a durable frame onto which components of the building

fabric are fixed allows for the replacement of components, such as
external cladding during building refurbishment with little effect on
the frame. The changing demands of building users, together with
advances in technology and variation in design fashions, impose
requirements for building design flexibility which is easily provided
by a framed structure.
Skeleton Frames

These frames are a series of rectangular frames placed at right angles

to one another, so that the loads are transmitted from member to
member until they are transferred through the foundations to the
subsoil.
Functions of skeleton frame members

• Main beams – span between columns and transfer the live and imposed loads
placed upon them to the columns
• Secondary beams – Span between and transfer their loadings to the main beams.
Primary function is to reduce the spans of the floors or roof being supported by the
frame
• Tie beams – Internal beams spanning between columns at right angles to the
direction of the main beams and having the same function as a main beam
• Edge beams – As tie beams but spanning between external columns
• Columns – Vertical members that carry the loads transferred by the beams to the
foundations Foundation – the base to which the beams are connected and which
serve to transfer the loading to a suitable loadbearing subsoil
• Floors – May or may not be an integral part o the frame. Apart from transmitting
live loads to the supporting beams floors are required to provide fire resistance
and a degree of thermal and sound insulation
• Roof – Similar to floors but its main function is to provide a weather-resistant
covering to the uppermost floor.
• Walls – The envelope of the structure, which provides the resistance to the
elements, entry of daylight, natural ventilation, fire resistance, thermal insulation
and sound insulation
These frames can be constructed using different materials. The type of
materials used depends on many factors such as,

 Site conditions
 Economics
 Availability of labour & materials
 Time factor
 Health & safety
 Environmental preferences
 Capital costs & maintenance costs
 Personal preferences

The main materials used to construct frames are reinforced in-situ

concrete, reinforced precast concrete, structural steel and timber.
Steel Framed Structures

Structural steel frames are popular

choice for tall buildings. The
design, fabrication, supply and
erection of a steel frame are
usually carried out by a specialist
subcontractor. The main
contractor’s responsibility is to fix
frame holding down bolts in the
correct position and at the correct
level before the steel sub-
contractor arrives on site.
Advantages of structural steel frames

 Speed of erection of the ready prepared steel members

 Accuracy of setting out and connection
 Accurate placing of steel members, with small tolerances,
facilitates fixing of cladding materials
 Generally cheaper than a reinforced concrete structural
frame because of speed of erection and economy in
material and construction labour costs
 Steel components can be reclaimed, reused and recycled
when the building is deconstructed at the end of its life
Functional Requirements
The functional requirements of a structural frame are.

 Strength & stability

 Durability & freedom from maintenance
 Fire safety
Strength and Stability

In a building, the loadbearing elements, walls, floors and roofs should have
adequate strength and stability to support dead loads of construction and
anticipated imposed loads on walls, floors and roofs without undue deflection or
deformation which might adversely affect strength and stability of the building.
The strength of combinations of elements such as columns and beams depend
on the rigidity of the connections and the consequent interaction of the
elements.
The stability of a building depends initially on a firm, stable foundation. The
stability of a structure depends on the strength of the materials of the
loadbearing elements in supporting, without undue deflection or deformation,
both concentric and eccentric loads on vertical elements and ability of the
structure to resist lateral pressure of winds on walls and roofs.
Unlike the joints of a reinforced concrete frame, the normal joints between
vertical and horizontal members of a structural steel frame do not provide much
stiffness in resisting lateral wind pressure, hence should be provided with some
form of bracing.
Durability & freedom from maintenance

Where the structural steel frame is partially or wholly built into the
enclosing masonry walls, the external wall thickness is generally
adequate to prevent penetration of moisture which may cause
corrosion of steel. Structural steel therefore provides reasonable
durability for the expected life of majority of buildings and requires
no maintenance. Where there is a likelihood of penetration of
moisture into the structural steel, protection is provided by the
application of paint or bitumen coatings or the application of a damp
proof course.
Fire safety

As a measure of the ability to withstand the effects of fire, the

elements of a structure are given notional fire resistance times, based
on tests. Elements are tested for their ability to withstand the effects
of fire in relation to:

 Resistance to collapse (loadbearing capacity), which applies to

loadbearing elements
 Resistance to fire penetration (integrity) , which applies to fire
separating elements
 Resistance to transfer of excessive heat (insulation), which
applies to fire separating elements
Methods of design
There are a number of established approaches to the method of design of
structural steel frames.

Permissible stress design method

The permissible stress method of design is used as the basis for the
calculation of the sizes of structural members

Collapse or load factor method of design

Using the elastic method of analysis to determine the working stress in
a fixed end beam to select a beam section adequate for permissible
stress design method produces a section greater than is needed to
provide a reasonable factor of safety against collapse, because in
practice the permissible stress is not reached and the beam can support
a greater load

Limit state method of design

The Limit State method of design determines the limiting states of both
materials and loads that would cause a particular structure to become
unserviceable in use or unsafe due to excessive loads.
There are a number of steel sections, which are given in British
Standard 4, Part 1.
 I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - these include
 Universal Beams (UB) and Universal Columns (UC
 Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
 HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow
section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross
sections)
 Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
 Channel ( [-shaped cross-section)
 Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
 Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
 Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so
wide so as to be called a sheet.
 Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and
dowel.
 Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄4 in.
 Open web steel joist

While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by
welding together flat or bent plates
 Types of Structural Steel
• There are two types
1.Hot rolled sections
2. Cold Rolled Sections
These differences relate to the ways these
metals are processed at the mill, and not the
product specification or grade
Hot rolling is a mill process which involves
rolling the steel at a high temperature
(typically at a temperature over 1700° F),
which is above the steel’s recrystallization
temperature.
 Types of Structural Steel CONT.
• When steel is above the recrystallization
temperature, it can be shaped and formed
easily, and the steel can be made in much
larger sizes.
• Hot rolled steel is typically cheaper than cold
rolled steel due to the fact that it is often
manufactured without any delays in the
process, and therefore the reheating of the
steel is not required (as it is with cold rolled)..
 Types of Structural Steel CONT.
• When the steel cools off it will shrink slightly
thus giving less control on the size and shape
of the finished product when compared to
cold rolled
• Uses: Hot rolled products like hot rolled steel
bars are used in the welding and construction
trades to make railroad tracks and I-beams, for
example. Hot rolled steel is used in situations
where precise shapes and tolerances are not
required
 Types of Structural Steel CONT.
Cold rolled steel is essentially hot rolled steel
that has had further processing. The steel is
processed further in cold reduction mills,
where the material is cooled (at room
temperature) followed by annealing and/or
tempers rolling.
This process will produce steel with closer
dimensional tolerances and a wider range of
surface finishes.
 Types of Structural Steel CONT.
• All cold products provide a superior surface
finish, and are superior in tolerance,
concentricity, and straightness when
compared to hot rolled.
• Uses: Any project where tolerances, surface
condition, concentricity, and straightness are
the major factors
 Hot Rolled Sections

• These sections are used

for main structure
• Standards sections are
available in a wide
range of size and weight
to enable the designer
to formulate on
economic design
 Standard Cold Rolled Sections
• These sections are used for sub framing ex –
Purlins, joist and sheeting rails
• Light weight and generally a few millimeters in
wall thicknesses
• This saving on material and handling cost and
building dead load
• There are wide varieties of section profiles
Standard Cold Rolled Sections Cont.
Standard Cold Rolled Sections Cont.
 Compound sections
• These are produced by welding together of
standard sections
• Various profiles are possible
• Use in extreme conditions such as high loads
and long spans where standard sections alone
are not sufficient
Compound Sections Cont.
 Open web beams
• These are suited for
long spans with light to
moderate loadings
• The relative increase in
depth will help resist
deflection and voids in
the web will reduce
structural dead loads
 Perforated Beams
• A standard beam
section with circular
voids cut about the
neutral axis
 Castellated beam
• Here the web is profiled
cut in to two by Oxy-
Acetylene torch. The
projection on each
section are welded
together to create a
new beam 50% deeper
than the original
 Litzka Beam
• This is cut as castellated beam. But with
overall depth increased further by using
spacer plate welded to the projection.
• Minimal increase in weight
• Voids at the end of open web beams should
be should be filled with a welded steel plate
as this is the area of maximum shear stress in
a beam
 Lattice Beam
• These are alternative type of open web beam
using standard steel sections to fabricate high
depth to weight ratio units capable of spans
up to about 15m
• The range of possible components is extensive
and some examples are as follows
Structural Steel works connections
• These are either work shop or site connections
according to where the fabrication take place
• Most site connections are bolted where as work
shop connections are welded
• The design of Structural steel work members and
their connections is the province of the Structural
Engineer who selects the type of number of bolts
or the size and the length of weld to be used
according to the connection strength to be
achieved
Structural Steel works connections
Cont.
Top beam bearing connection
Column to column connection
Beam to Beam connection
 Column base connections
• There are three types
1. Slab or bloom base
2. Gusset base
3. Steel grillage
The type is depended on the load carried by the
column and the distribution area of the base plate.
The cross sectional area of a Universal Column
concentrates the load in to a relatively small part of
the base plate. Therefore to resist the bending and
shear the base is designed to resist the column loads
and transfer them in to the pad foundation below
Column base connections Cont.
Column base connections Cont.
 Bolt Box
• A template use to accurately locate column
holding down bolts in to wet concrete. Plastic
tubes provide space around the bolts when
the concrete has set. The bolts can then be
moved slightly to aid alignment with the
column base
Column to foundation connections
 Welding
• Basically two types
1. Butt welding
This is used when the
continuity is needed
For greater thickness
of parent metal both
sides are chamfered
 Welding Cont.
• 2. Fillet Welding
• When the overlapping
is permitted this can be
used
 Types of Bolts
• Mild Steel Bolts
• Galvanized Iron Bolts – Electro galvanized/Hot
dipped Galvanized
• Alloyed bolts
• High Tensile bolts
 Fire Resistance
• Steel is a non combustible material with
negligible surface spread of flame
• Also during the initial stage of fire it is gained
strength
• But this reduces to normal at a temperature
range of 250C to 400C and decreases until it
reaches 550C when it has lost most of it’s
strength
• Ina fire temperature rising is rapid therefore most
structural steel works need a protection to have
specific degree of fire resistance in terms of time
Fire Resistance Cont.
Fire Resistance Cont.
 Pre cast concrete
• Available products
1. Columns
2. Beams
3. Slab panels
4. Window and door frames
5. Railway sleepers
6. Light/Telephone posts
7. Interlocking Paving blocks
8. Interlocking blocks for break waters
Advantages of Pre cast concrete
These are produced under factory controlled
conditions resulting in a uniform product of
quality
Repetitive casting lowers the cost of individual
members
Off site production release site space for other
activities
Disadvantages of Pre cast concrete
System lack the design flexibility of cast in-situ
purpose made frames
Site planning can be limited by manufacture’s
delivery and unloading programmes and
requirements
Special lifting plants may be needed
Lifting Equipments
 Connections
• Preferred method is to
set the column in to a
pocket cast in
foundation
• This is suitable for light
to medium loads
• For heavy loads a steel
plate secured to pad
foundation with holding
down bolts are used
Connections Cont.
• Pre cast columns are usually cast in one length
and can be up to four stories in height
• If columns to column connections are required
they are usually made at floor levels above the
beam
• Connection can range from a simple dowel
connection to a complex connection involving
in-situ concrete
 Beam to column connection
• There are two methods. Main objective is to
provide structural continuity
1. Projecting bearing haunches cast in to
column with a projecting dowel or stud bolt
to provide location and fixing
2. Steel to steel fixings which are usually in the
form of a corbel or bracket projecting from
the column providing a bolted connection to
a steel plate cast in to end of the beam
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of precast
concrete frames over in-situ concrete frames ?
 Prestressed Concrete
• Concrete has high compressive strength and low
Tensile strength
• Basic concept of reinforced concrete is to include
a designated amount of steel bars in a pre
determined pattern
• In prestressed concrete a pre compression is
induced into the member to make full use of it’s
own inherent compressive strength when loaded
• The design aim is achieve a balance of tensile and
compressive forces so that the end result is a
concrete member which is resisting only
compressive stresses
Prestressed Concrete
Prestressed Concrete
Prestressed Concrete
 Prestressed Concrete
• Special alloy steel are used to form tendons
for prestressed works
Post tensioning arrangement
 Advantages of Prestressed concrete
• Advantages of Pre stressed concrete compare with
conventional concrete are as follows
1. Make full use of inherent compressive strength of
concrete
2. Makes full use of the special alloy steels used to form
the prestrssing tendons
3. Eliminate the tension cracks thus reducing the
corrosion of steel components
4. Reduces shear stresses
5. Smaller cross sections can be used thus reduces the
weight
6. Individual precast concrete units can be joined
together to form a composite member
Disadvantages of Prestressed concrete
1.High degree of control over materials, design
and quality of workmanship is required
2.Special alloy steel are expensive
3.Extra cost for special equipments
4.Extra cost for safety