PYB202 Exam prep

Wk 2
SELF CONCEPT
1 Self-Perception Theory
2. Social Comparison Theory
3. Culture

Self-Perception Theory:
= Know ourselves by observing and making attribution to our behaviour
Intrinsic = internal motication
Extrinsic = External motivation
Preschool children playing with markers (Lepper et al., 1973)

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger,1954):

= Look to others to see where we stand
Upward comparison = compare self to someone who is better on some
dimension
Downward comparison = compare self to someone who is worse on some
dimsenion
Independent view of self = Define oneself using ones own thoughts, feelings
and behaviour
Interdependent view of the self = Define oneself using ones relationship to
others

Culture and the self:

American more independent, Chinese more interdependent > group affiliated
Dialecticism = Interdependent cultures more accepting of contradictory
characteristics
Self esteem higher in independent

SELF-ESTEEM
Sociometer Theory = Self-esteem is driven by a need for connection and
approval, signaling level of social inclusion
Terror Management Theory = Self-esteem is driven by self-preservation but
conscious and scared of death, to cope we construct and adhere to cultural
worldview that provide meaning and purpose, Buffer against death.

1. Self awareness theory

2. Self enhancement
3. Self verification

Self-awareness
- Can affect how we feel about ourself
- Self focused attenti

Self-Enhancement:
Better-Than-Average Effect = most people think highly of themselves
 Biased toward self-enhancement
Self-Serving Beliefs = Self enhancing recollections
 Believe we did better than we did

Self-Verification:
Key motive = want others to see us the way we see ourselves

Ostracism
Social exclusion
Wk 3
SOCIAL PERCEPTION
Thin Slices – making judgement short amount of time
Detecting lies - cognitive effort, voice
Attribution = How people explain the causes of behaviour
Personal Attribution = Internal Characteristics of the person caused the
behaviour
Situational Attribution = External factors caused the behaviour

Correspondent Inference Theory:

= Attribute behaviour to a corresponding personality trait or disposition

Kelley’s (1967) Covariation Model

Consensus - Do other people react similarly to the stimulus?
Distinctiveness – Does this person react differently to other stimuli
Consistency – Does this person react similarly to this stimulus on other
occasions
 BIASING FACTORS
Fundamental Attribution Error = Tendency to overlook situational factors and
instead make internal attributions for others behaviours
 Salient vs non salient

Belief in a just world

Impression formation = How we put together traits to form overlal impression
 Asch configural model (1946)
Confirmation Biases = Initial biases persist,
perseverance of belief, confirming hypothesis testing, self fulfilling prophecy
Perservation of beliefs: Darley and Gross (1983)
Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing = We actively search for information to confirm
our hypotheses
 Synder and Swann (1978), introvert or extrovert experiment

Self Fulfilling Prohecy

Wk 4 Attitude and Persuasion
Indirect measures – non-verbal/physiological/brain activity, duping, cognitive
research, lost letter (unaware
Early studies:
Lapieres (1934) study on American attitude towards Chinese
Wickers (1969) review of mant studies: concluded weak association
Davidson and Jaccard (1979)’s birth control study: focus on attitude -behaviour
measurement specificity

Theory of reasoned action (Fishbein &Ajzen, 1975) = focus on how individuals

act on pre-existing attitudes and intended behaviours
Intention = estimate of the probability one will perform a certain behaviour
Attitude = how favourable a person feels towards the behaviour
Subjective norm= perceived social pressure to perform/ not perform a behaviour

Theory of planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991)

Perceived behavioural control (PBC) = perceived ease and control over
performing or not performing the behaviour
Persuasion:
Elaboration Likelihood Model = change of attitude, different wats of processing
stimuli
Central = paying close attention, influenced by quality of argument
Peripheral = superficial notice, influenced by persuasion cues (heuristics)

Source Characteristics:
More credible the source the more persuasive
Sleeper effect = delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a non-credible
source
- Discounting and disassociation

Message Characteristics
Length – Peripheral processing persuaded if longer, central processing persuaded
via argument strength
Order-
Primary = remembering first presented
Recency = remembering last presented
Role of emotion - negative (eg. Fear), positive (eg. Humour)
Protection Motivation Theory (Rogers, 1983) = motivation to protect
oneself from threat influenced by
1. Severity of events (its serious)
2. Probability of event (it could happen to me
3. Response efficacy (Change will make a difference)
4. Self -efficacy beliefs (I can do it)
Audience Characteristics:

Behaviour induced attitude change:

Cognitive dissonance theory = inconsistent cognitions arouse physiological
tension people are motivated to reduce
 Remove dissonance by change attitude, behaviour or justification

Reactance = people react against threats to their freedom by asserting

themselves
Forewarning= awareness allows time to prepare
Inoculation = exposure to weak versions of an argument increases later
resistance to the argument

Wk 5 Conformity Compliance and Obedience

Social Influence = Process whereby attitudes and behaviour are influenced by
the real or implied presence of other people
Compliance = change in behaviour elicited by direct requests
Strategies – ingratiation, norm of reciprocity, sequential requests
Obedience = behaviour change produced by the commands of authority
Milgrams obedience studies
Conformity = changing our perceptions, opinions, or behaviour to be consistent
with group norms
Sherif (1936) autokinetic experiment
Ps judge perceptual illusion of lights movement in the dark
 Norm convergence = people converged on the mean of the groups
estimate
 Norm persistence = norm became internalised later when estimating
alone
Asch’s (1951, 1952, 1956) Conformity experiment
 Line test, conformity rate:33%
Factors influencing conformity
1. Privacy of response – reduces conformity
2. Females > males
3. Cultural differences: collectivist > individual
4. Group size 3-5 any more, little effect
5. Unamity of response
Social influence processes underlying conformity:
Normative+ Informational influence
Inoformational = reality check, especially for ambiguous stimuli
Normative = gain social approval must have survelillance by group

Minority Influence = process by which dissenters produce change within a

group
Moscovici reinterpreted asch’s line study as on minority not majority influence

Wk 6 Group Processes
Group = set of individuals who interact over time and have shared fate, goals or
identity
Group Cohesiveness = extent to which forces push group members close
together such as through feelings of intimacy, unity and commitment to group
goals
Roles = set of expected behaviours; can be formal or informal
 Study; Zimbardo’s prison study, simulated prison
Status= some role occupant/groups have more prestige
 Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory
 Specific (directly related vs diffuse (generally values) status characteristics
Norms = rules of conduct for members (is and ought??)
 Can influence the individual in the absence of the group, group carried in
the head of an individual
 Idiosyncrasy credits

Social facilitation = process whereby the presence of others enhance

performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks
Triplett’s (1898) experiment: people cycle faster when paced than alone
Zajonc’s (1965) drive theory : arousal drive energy to produce dominant
response, others mere presence produce social facilitation
Cottrell’s evaluation apprehension theory: attentive others produce fear of
evaluation (not just mere presence)
Baron’s distraction-conflict theory: attentional conflict – distraction from
task the key (doesn’t need to be a person)

Social loafing = group produce reduction in individual output on tasks where

contributions are pooled
Ringelmann’s (1913) experiment : performance varying as a function of group
size; coordination or motivation loss?
Ingham et al. (1974): ruled out coordination explanation via rope pulling study
Latane et al. (1979): motivation loss – social loading in cheering/clapping studies
Factors that influence loading
1. Greater anonymity ^
2. Valuing task
3. Believing one can achieve desired outcome
4. Intergroup comparison (vs outgroup)
5. Anticipated loafing of others

Deindividuation = loss of a person’s sense of individuality and reduction of

normal constraints against deviant behaviour
Lebron’s theory of crowd behaviour: people become barbaric
Deindividuation and anonymity: Diener et al’s Halloween study
Social identity perspective: not lost identity in a crowd, but shift from
personal to shared social identity as a crowd memebr

Brainstorming= techniwue that attempts to increase production creative ideas

by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticising their own or
other’s contributions (Osborn, 1957)
 Lower performance due to evaluation apprehension, social loading,
production blocking and performance matching
 Increases group cohesiveness

Groupthink = group decision-making style characterised by an excessive

tendency among group members to seek concurrence
Group polarisation = exaggeration of intiital tendencies in the thinking of group
members through group discussion
Social dilemma = situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone will
create the worst outcome for everyone
The prisoners dilemma = co-operative or competitive moves designed to
asses whether people engage in self-interest personally or consider the outcome
for others

Wk 7 stereotypes prejudice and discrimination

Stereotype = cognitive beliefs or associations linking a whole group of people
with certain traits or characteristics
Self-fulfilling prophecies = expectations influence interaction and therefore
produce changes in behaviour in line with assumptions
Stigma = feeling negatively evaluated due to group membership

Prejudice = negative feelings towards certain people based on their group

membership
Discrimination = behaviour directed against people based on their group
membership

Sexism = prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender or

institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender
over another
Ambivalent secism;
hostile sexism = negative, resentful feelings about women
Benevolent sexism = chilvalrous feelings that can be patronising

Racism = prejudice and discrimination based on a persons racial background or

insitiutional andcultural practices that promote the domination of one racial
group over another
Types of racism:
Modern racism = subtle ways often in socially acceptable context
Aversive raism= = ambivalence between being fair and unconscious prejudices
Microaggression = everyday, typically subtle forms of discrimination

Ageism = prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s age

Ableism = prejudice and discrimination towards people with a disability

Tokenism = publicly making small concessions

Reverse discrimination= publicaly being prejudiced in favour of another minority
group

Explanation of prejudice and discrimination:

 Innate reaction: human’s inherent fear of the unfamiliar
 Learned reactions: role of parental attitudes
 Frustration aggression; leads to scapegoating as outlet
 Authoritarian personality: Harshe parental treatment so respect authority,
dogmatism
Relative deprivation = discontent from the belief one fares poorer
compared to others
Realistic conflict theory = hostility between groups caused by direct
competition for limited resources
 Sherif’s summer camp
 Superordinate goals = shared goal only achieved by cooperation
between groups
Social Identity theory = Theory of group membership and intergroup
relations
Self-categorization theory (turner and colleagues) = categorise based
on cognitive representations of groups
 Outgroup homogeneity effect = assumed greater similarity among
member of outgrouups than ingroups

Reuce Pand J
Education
Allports contact hypothesis
Superordinate goals
Communication and conciliation
 Bargaining
 Mediation
 Arbitration
 Conciliation

Wk 8 Helping Others
Prosocial behaviour = actions intended to benefit others. Biological (evolutionary
trait), learning, modelling
Attibution
Norms
Obligation to help
Empathy = understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual’s
perspective ad feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual
Empathy Altruism hypothesis = empathic concern for a person in need
produces and altruistic motive for helping
Bystander effect = whereby the presence of others inhibit helping
Latane and Darley’s cognitive model

Smoked filled room experiment (Latane and Darley, 1970) : self in danger
 Presence of others inhibit emergency responses ^people slower the
response, persuaded as not emergency

Falling filing cabinet experiment (latane and Rodine 1969) : others in

danger
Friends ^ rate of helping
% who helped, alone 70, pairs 40, confederate 7, friends 70

Epileptic seizure experiment (Darley and Latane, 1968): bystander

present
% who helped: alone 85, 2 others 63, 4 others 31. After 6 mins, alone 100, 2
others 81, 4 others 62

3 processes underlying reluctance of ggroup help

1. Diffusion of responsibility: assumed others responsibility
2. Audience inhibition: fear of overreacting
3. Social influence: others provide model

Latane and Darley (1976) Three in one experiment

Pilivavin et al’s bystander calculus model
Wk 9 Aggression
Aggression = act of intending harm
Direct = physical and verbal attacks
Indirect = attack on social relationship

Proactive/instrumental = harm is inflicted as means to desired end

Reactive/emotional = harm is inflicted for its own sake

Factors that increase aggression

1. Negative feelings
2. Aggressive cues
3. Learning
4. Individual differences
5. Alcohol

Frustration-aggression hypothesis= frustration always illicit aggression

 Motive to aggress I spsychological drive leading to physiological
 Displacement = aggressing against a substitute target
 Catharsis = reduction of this motive
Barker et al (1941) study: Frustration
 High ; children had to wait to play with toy
 Highfustration led to destructive behaviour
 Frustration greater when closer to goal, obstacle is unexpected
Fustration does not produce aggressive inclinations, cause besides fustraation

Others leading to aggression :

Provocation
Pain
Heat
Offensive odor
Air pollution

Weapon effect = the mere presence of a weapon can increase the likelihood of
aggression
Weapon effect study
Learning from direct experience with reward and punishment can affect
likelihood of future aggression

Social Learning Theory (Bandura) = indirect experiences (observing others)

affect the likelihood of future aggressive responses
Bobo doll study

Positive correlation of violent tv watched and aggression

Stronger when
1. Described as real
2. Morally justified by situation
3. Described as revenge
4. Carried out by someone P identify with
5. Is approved by an adult

Greitemeyer and Mugge (2014) Violent and prosocial video games

Culture of Honor Studies (Cohen et al., 1996)
P: white males from north or south
Walked down narrow corridor,
Measured cortisol (stress), testosterone (prepared for aggression
Handshake firmness and chicken game
Higher level of Narcissism = greater aggression

Self-control= able to resist impulses and act in line with personal/societal

standards for appropriate behaviour > predicts greater aggression

Alcohol myopia
Alcohol narrows attention to most salient aspects of situation
Alcohol myopia led to more extreme behaviour when there is a inhibition conflict

Zeichner and Phil (1979)

P consumed alcohol or placebo alcohol
 Intoxicated p more aggressive
 Alcohol myopia= behaviour driven by salient cue

Wk 11 Attraction and Relationships

Need to Belong (Baumeister and Leary, 1995)
 Fundamental need to belong, react strongly n the belonging domain,
engage in behaviour to fulfill need, can be satisfied, relationships are
substitutable
Interpersonal relationships

Part 1: determinants of initial attraction

1. Proximity exposure
Festinger et al. (1950) housing study
Classroom Study (moreland and beach, 1992)
Mere exposure effect = more often we are exposed to a stimulus the more we
like that stimulus
 Increases perceptual fluency
 safe
2. Similarity
 Equivalent physical attractiveness
 Opinions and personality
 Interpersonal style
 Interest and values

Due to social validation function, attribution for disagreement, reciprocal liking

3. Reciprocal liking
Curtis and Miller (1986)
 Other participant likes you/dislikes you
 Self esteem plays role

4. Physical attracativeness
 Perceived more extraverted sociable fertility status
 Self fulfilling prophecy
Synder, Tanke, and Berscheid (1977)
Male participants talked to female over phone
 Warmer more social to attractive women
 Women became confident animated warm

Part 2: Evolutionary perspective

1. Mate preferences
Buss (1989) survey
2. Conspicuous consumption
Buying/displauing expensive items
Short term mating strategy
Not great for long-term goal > wasteful
Sundie et al. (2011): who engages in conspicuous consumption

Perception:
Men more attractive as short-term partners (date)
They were also viewed as having short term strategy

Part 3: Close Relationships

1. Types of love
Passionate vs companionate love
Triangular theory of love (Sternberg, 1988)
Passion = physiological arousal toward partner, motivational component
Intimacy = feeling of being close to and bonded, emotional component
Commitment = love your partner and maintain that love, cognitive component

2. Social exchange theory/investment model

= people motivated to maximise benefits and minimise costs
More satisfied when Comparison level is exceeded
Committed when reward/ cost ratio exceeds Comparison level for
alternatives
Investment Model (Rusbult, 1983)
Builds onto social exchange theory
Adds investments
3. Equity
Equity Theory = people feel happies when the balance of rewards and costs are
the same for each person in the relationship

Exchange relationships
Communal relationships

Wk 12 Environmental Psychology

Environmental cues= elements in the environment that convey information that

triggers affective reactions
Normative behaviour via strengthening response to 3 goals:
Normative goal = to act appropriately
Hedonic goal = to feel better right now
Gain goal = to guard and improve one’s resources

Personal Space = interpersonal area surrounding a person’s body, undefined by

visible boundaries and determined by circumstance, distance, angle of
orientation and type of interaction
Proxemics = study of the perception, use, and communication of personal space
Crowding = personally defined subjective experience of too many people in a
given space
Territoriality = a pattern of behaviour and attitude held by an individualor group
based on perceived attemped or actual control of a defineable space, obect or
idea by means of habitual occupation, defence, personalisation and demarcation
 Primary= space owned or controlled ona relatively permanent basis
 Secondary= space used regularly where control is less important; often
shard
 Tertiary= public area open to anyone
Place attachment= affective bonds we form with place (intersection of people
and their physical, virtual or imaginary setting
Scannel and Gifford’s (2010) tripartite framework dimensions