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Chapter 6 Human influences on marine environment. 6.1.2.Outline the impacts of human activities on marine
ecosystems
6.1 Overview of human interactions with marine ecosystems
 Recreational activities – Recreation and tourism, leading to pollution
6.1.1Outline the importance of different marine ecosystems to humans and removal of organisms. Visitors to beach and other habitats
 Recreation and tourism –People want to experience the beautiful trample and damage organisms without realising it. People may pick
scenery, see animals, take part in sports and just relax on Sandy up interesting shell or beautiful pieces of coral to take home as
souvenirs. Trading marine organisms has a serious impact on coral
beaches. Tourism companies provide opportunities to see everything reefs.
from whale watching and diving trips.  The light and noise pollution from hotels and restaurants cause
 Source of wood/building material – Pieces of corals are often used turtles to lose direction when on the beaches. Light and noise

as bricks in house and road construction. Corals can be ground up to pollution stop seals, sea otters and sea birds from living on built-up

make cement. Sand is often removed from beaches to make cement shores.

and construction purpose. Mangrove forests have been used as a  Litter and waste plastic can entangle organisms in the sea and on
source of wood for building and fuels. beaches.

 Coastal protection – Mangrove forests, sea grass beds, coral reefs  Tourist boats and diving- Motorised boats cause pollution, and
and sandbanks are some natural barriers that protect coastal mammals damaged by collision. All boats can physically damage

communities from damage, wave energy, soil erosion and flooding. shallow corals and seagrass beds that affect food web. Divers can

 Food supply – Sea foods are an important part of our diets and harm the habitats if they are not careful.

provide a rich source of protein and other essential nutrients.  Land reclamation for resorts- Land reclamation projects may
 Medicines- A range of invertebrates such as sponges, corals, sea convert habitats into areas for resort development. Habitats can be

squirts and molluscs produces substances that might be useful as lost to grow food for visitors. Large resorts have a very serious effect

new medicines when they are used in lower concentrations. on habitat and wild lives.

 Fisheries-provides job opportunities and income.  Building of infrastructure- it causes the shortage of fresh water and
 Nursery areas for juvenile organisms of commercially and electricity. Transports cause pollution. Waste water, sewage and litter

ecologically important species- Nursery sites such as kelp forests , cause pollution.

seagrass meadows and mangroves provides nursery ground for Removal of resources – dredging for sand and mud for building

marine organisms. These areas provide food and shelter from cause severe coastal erosion, Dredging sand cause habitat loss and

predators. the water become turbid so that less light penetration and silt

 Medicinal plants-Extracts from mangrove plants are used to treat deposition on gills and plants. Deforestation of mangrove forests

bacterial infections, parasitic infection, pain and diarrhoea. occurs.

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 Blast fishing-Dynamite or homemade explosives are thrown into the

water to cause underwater explosion. This explosion causes swim
6.2 Tourism
bladder to burst so fish cannot move. Some fish float to surface and 6.2.1.Describe tourism – Recreational visit to an area that brings noney
are collected, but most sink to the sea bed to decompose. Blast into local ceonomics.It gives socio-economic importance, providing
fishing kills all species close to the blast and destroys coral reefs. employment and income to the area leading to improved infrastructure for
 Shrimp farms- Mangrove forests are the ideal places for shrimp the local communities
farms. This has led to massive deforestation of mangroves. Shrimp
farming can also pollute natural waters due to the outflow of wastes 6.2.2.Describe ecotourism - ecologically sustainable tourism with a

and chemicals. Diseases may spread from the farms to wild focus on experiencing natural areas that encourages environmental and

organisms. Conflict can arise between farmers and local people. cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation.

 Oil spills – Oil spills cause a lot of damage to ecosystems including

o Death of birds and animals due to feathers and fur becoming Socio economic benefits of tourism

covered with oil.  Tourism can improve the living standard of local people by

o Death of fish and mammals due to suffocation. providing employment and wealth.

o Poisoning of organisms due to toxins in the oil.  It also improves infrastructure for local area.

o Destruction of coastal areas.  Transport links need improving better roads, ports and airlines

o Loss of producer organisms due to lack of light in water. develop.

6.1.3Endangered species-
6.2.3.Discuss the positive and negative impacts of tourism
 Species under the threat of extinction.
(a) positive impacts
 Populations of some marine species are declining and may become
 Economic benefits-Tourism brings foreign revenue to host country. It
extinct and these species are referred to as endangered species.
provides job opportunities and brings wealth to local community.
6.1.4.Sustainable resources
 It is a natural resource that we can use that will still be available for
 Education: Educating tourists about the need for conservation and
future generation.
sustainable living is a key part of ecotourism. After staying in an
 Resource or activity as one that we can continue to use or carry out at
ecotourist resort, people return with an increased awareness.
the current rate, without causing damage to the environment, and
without the resource running out.
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 Tourists appreciate the environment and want to preserve it for the  Removal of organisms to sell- Tourist often collect organisms to take
future. home as their memories of their stay. In some areas local people
 Development of marine protected areas (MPAs)- Most of the MPAs might sell tourist beautiful shells, pieces of corals and even preserved
is strictly restricted for fishing and other activities. Some MPAs allows animals. It reduces the species richness in the habitat.
tourist visits and diving trips to see conservation projects. The money  Interaction with organisms and behavioural consequences
raised from tourism is used to help fund development of MPAs. Animals may become too familiar with humans as people try to feed
them. Dolphin often follows fishing boats looking for food and sometimes
 Involvement of conservation organisations- Ecotourism resorts often
seek human company out of interest. Most interaction with dolphins are
help to fund conservation organisations and form partnership with
harmless but can act aggressively towards swimmers. If people feed and
them. This organisations and resorts work together for the benefit of
visit animals regularly ,the animals learn to keep returning to the same
local people. Many resorts help to fund local people both directly with
areas and change their natural behaviours.
money or money raised from tourism by encouraging guests to donate
6.2.6.Outline and evaluate strategies for limiting the impacts of
money.
tourists
(b) negative impacts
(a) Use of renewable energy and resources
 Competition for land or resources- Construction of a new resort can
Building materials in resorts should be made from local materials.
cause conflict between local community and with the environment.
Using bamboo and other renewables for construction means
Constructing hotels, resorts may cause habitat loss. Building materials
fewer other resources are used.
such as wood, can lead to deforestation. Developing a new resort
The reuse of old building materials from demolished buildings ia
increases the demand for food and fresh water. This can lead to
also encouraged.
removal of lakes and river and loss of land for additional farming.
It reduces the usages of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.
 Pollution- Bringing large number of visitors into any area will increase
Reduced effect on the planet’s climate.
the amount of waste produced. Sewage, litter includes plastics, paper
(b) Limiting water use
and leftover food cause pollution.
Tourist resorts minimise water wastage by encouraging guests to
 Damage to sensitive ecosystems -Building any form of resorts will
use showers rather than baths.
affect natural ecosystem. Continuous visit to sensitive ecosystem
Composite toilets that do not require water are often used.
would scare the organism, this may migrate them into other habitats.
Rain water is often collected and used.
Angling boat and fishing using nets also damage the marine habitats.
Waste water is collected, cleaned and reused for the other
functions such as cleaning and watering plants.

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(c) Banning single-use plastics 6.2.4.Describe the impacts of tourists on a named marine ecosystem
It reduces the amount of plastic entering oceans so fewer Suitable examples Galapagos Islands or Australia’s Great BarrieReef,
animals are damaged. Threats
(d) Limiting motorised transport  Invasive species – When boats transport goods and people to islands
It reduces fossil fuel usage. they can accidently carry other organisms that then escape into the
It reduces pollution. islands environment.
Tourist resorts should use bicycles or sail boats to reduce These organisms multiply rapidly since there are no predators and
pollution. destroy native species. Rats can attack baby tortoises and turtles and
Electrically powered vehicles are also used. cause native species rat to become extinct. Plants species have been
Carbon dioxide released by aeroplanes to bring in visitors may be brought to islands compete with native species of plants on which native
offset by planting fast growing plants such as bamboo that animals depend.
absorb carbon dioxide by photosynthesis.  Illegal fishing: Local and foreign fishing boats illegally targeted fish in
6.2.5.Describe methods of reducing negative impacts of tourism the rich waters. Sharks and sea cucumbers are over fished in
Galapagos Islands.
Education: It raises awareness of environmental issues .It
 El Nino events caused a warming of the waters leading to the death of
reduces damage to environment because people understand
many species of corals.
what action to take when visiting. Visitors can attend lectures
 Pollution: Wastes from nearby resorts and hotels releases wastes
about conservation projects and sustainability. Guests are
include sewage, litter, oil and chemicals can affect marine life.
encouraged to help with conservation projects raise and
Strategies to reduce negative impacts of tourism in Galapagos Island
awareness with other people.
 Restriction on development and travel. Restricting the number of
Legislation: Government can make legislations to place visitors in island and developing new resorts and hotels.
restrictions on when and where tourists can enter. Strong  Management of boat routes and boat licencing. Restricting the
regulations are put in place and enforced. number of boats in the National parks. Tour operators and fishing
boats must apply for licences to enter reserved areas.
Strategic planning: Experts are brought into design areas so that  Entrance fees-All visitors must pay an entrance fee to the national
there is minimal environmental damage. parks. This money can be used in conservation projects.
 Education: It raises awareness of environmental issues .It reduces
damage to environment because people understand what action to
take when visiting.

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6.3 Fisheries (b) angling: small scale traditional fishing with small size nets
 line fishing (trolling, longlining)
6.3.1 Outline the social and economic importance of marine
 rod fishing (pole and line, including bait fishing)
organisms as a source of food and income.
Cast net fishing
Social importance of marine organisms as a source of food.
Small scale simple traditional
Fish and other sea food products provide essential nutrients for humans.
fishing method.
Tuna For example contains
The fisher stands on the
 Protein for growth and repair
shore, or on a boat and throws
 Essential fatty acids for healthy nervous system.
the net onto the water so that
 Vitamin A for healthy eyes.
it spread outs into a circle
 Many B group vitamins, for respiration in cells.
before landing on the water.
 Minerals such as calcium and iron for healthy bones and blood.
The weights on the edge of
 It protects us from malnutrition.
the net make the net sink
Economic importance
,trapping the fish inside it.
 Provides job opportunities-fishing. When the fisher starts to pull
So family gets more income. on the hand line, the base of
 It is a source of national income-export tuna can. the net closes around the fish.
So flow of foreign currency.
 Fish is readily available. Less capital investment, more profit. Advantages Disadvantages / environmental
 Reduces health related diseases. impacts
6.3.2 Describe different methods of fishing and evaluate their Traditional ,cheap fishing Fishing method needs lots of
environmental impacts
method skills and practices.
(a) netting and trapping: Large scale fishing with larger nets and traps
Easy to release by-catch Catches fewer amounts of fishes.
 cast netting
species. Catches by-catch species.
 trawling (pelagic, beam)
Sustainable method catching
 seine nets (purse seine)
fishes.
 tangle nets (gill nets, drift nets)
 basket traps

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Trawling (pelagic, beam) Environmental impacts

 Pulling large nets behind one or two boats.  Overfishing can occur when commercial fleets use large nets.
 Fish are caught by the wide ,open mouth as the net moves  Bycatch occurs, especially from benthic trawling.
forward in the water.  Benthic trawling destroys the seabed, coral reefs and habitats.
 The fish are gathered in the end of the net called cod end.  Lose of nets can become entangle other species.
 Pelagic trawling is where the net is towed through the middle of
water column. Seine nets (purse seine)
 Benthic(Beam)trawling is the dragging of a weighted trawl net
along the sea bed. A wooden, metal or plastic beam is fixed  Very old method of commercial fishing.
 At the base of nets are metal hoops through which a rope runs.
across the mouth of the net to hold it open. Species from the sea
This rope acts as a draw string. Floats are attached to the top of
bed are pulled into the net as it is dragged along the sea bed. the net.
 A boat sails around in a circle, releasing the net into the sea water
to make a vertical wall of net around the shoal of fish.
 When the circle is complete, the drawstring rope is pulled in so
that the base of the net is closed.
 The fish cannot swim downward to escape.
 Fishers then haul the catch onto the boat.

Environmental impacts
 Large nets cause
severe
Overfishing
 Bycatch occurs –
dolphin, turtle, and
porpoises.
 Lose of nets can
become entangle
other species.

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Tangle nets (gill nets, drift nets) Basket traps

 Fish and other species enter the trap but then cannot get out.
 Gillnets are vertical nets that are either suspended from the water  The cages contain bait to attract the organisms.
surface by floats or secured into the sea bed.  By seeing the bait the organisms move into the cage and then
 They are usually placed into the water and left for several days. become stuck.
 When the fishes swim through the net they caught by their by
operculum or gills. Environmental impacts
Tangle nets.  Over use of basket traps causing overfishing and damage the sea
 Modern form of gillnets with very small mesh. bed.
 Since the mesh is so small, only the head and jaw of fish  Traps can damage the coral reefs.
becomes caught and the bycatch can be untangled and  Environmental friendly fishing method.
released unharmed.  Bycatch can be released unharmed.
Environmental impacts
 Often non-target species become entangle and die.
 Many are lost and end up as ghost nets which kill marine animals.

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Line fishing (trolling, longlining) Rod fishing (pole and line, including bait fishing)
 Sustainable fishing method-low rate of bycatch and overfishing.
 Fishers use longlines, both at the ocean surface and anchored to
 The equipment consists of a wood or fibreglass pole attached to a
the sea bed.
 Long lining uses long nylon fishing line with barbed hooks nylon line with a barbless hook.
attached to them.  The fishers search for the shoal of fish.
 Each hook is usually tied to a small piece of line called a snood.
 When the shoal is located, they spray water over the surface of
 Bait is placed on the hooks to attract fish.
 The lines are attached to the floating buoys. the sea.
 In most cases ,fishing boats tow the lines to catch pelagic species  One person on the boat ,called chummer ,throws baitfish into the
such as tuna.
water.
 The spray and the baitfish
attract the tuna.
 The fishers stand at the
back of boat and catch the
fish.
 When the fish is caught, it
is flicked back on to the
deck and the barbless
hook is removed.

Environmental impacts.
 It is a low impact method.
 There is low bycatch.
Environmental impacts.  Tuna caught by this method carry a premium price.
 Causes overfishing.  Baitfish population decrease.
 Catches bycatch species as they have bait in tit.
 Lose of nets can become entangle other species

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Sonar – Navigation device that emit under water sound waves to

6.3.3Describe the uses of navigational aids
identify obstacles fish shoal and depth of sea..
(a) Chart –plot courses, know location, avoid danger, collisions, know
depth, and avoid obstacles. Radar – Navigation device that emit radio waves to identify
Lines drawn on chart obstacles like rocky reef around the ship.
Latitude and longitude;

Latitude identifies north–south

location / bands running
horizontally around the Earth;

Longitude identifies east–west

location / bands running
vertically around the Earth;

(b) Compass / compass rose – follow course,

know direction of travel;
Magnetic compass rose shows the direction of
true north and magnetic north.

(c) GPS – to know location,trcking vessels

and navigation.

(d) sonar- to know the depth,underwater

obstacles and the position of fish shoal.

(e) radar – avoid collision, obstacles,know

location navigate into course.

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6.3.5 Outline and evaluate strategies for the sustainable harvesting

of marine species.
 Marine Protected Areas
 Restricting boat sizes, net types and mesh size.  MPAs are areas of ocean where species can live
 Government can restrict the size of boats permitted to fish within
undisturbed.
their area of ocean.
 Marine organisms breed within them and the population of
 Smaller boats catch less fish than larger boats.
 Restriction on boat size deduces the catch, bycatch and marine organisms within the MPAs increase over time.
juveniles.
 Organisms from MPAs spill over in to other area that
 Net type restriction may reduce the size of fish caught.
increases fish population.
 Net such as trawl net, purse seine and gillnet mesh size must
be restricted to larger so that amount of bycatch and juvenile  Protect food chain, food web and habitats.
catch will be reduced.

 International agreements.
 Quotas and licenses.
 Many species are migratory, moving from different oceans of
 The setting of fishing quotas is a common method of
preventing overfishing. the world. This makes it difficult to have effective fishing
 Quotas help to prevent over fishing but very difficult to apply-
regulation unless all nations work together.
there should be regular inspection to check that the boats are
 International agreements are essential to prevent over
not taking too many fish.
fishing.
 Closed seasons
 It protects species that live in waters of many nations.
 Fishing is restricted during breeding season; this stops
 Implementation of international agreements are difficult as
fishers deliberately targeting breeding grounds.
 It also helps to fish have undergone a full breeding season agreements are voluntary so not all nations sign and also it is
before being harvested.
difficult to monitor in areas not owned by any nations.
 It increases the reproduction and population of fish.

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6.3.7Explain the principle of fish aggregating devices (FADs) and Explain the principle of fish aggregating devices.

discuss their ecological impacts  After installation of FAD is done, producers such as microalgae
grow on the platform and the line. Microalgae also grow in the
Fish aggregating device (FAD)
surrounding water.
Any floating structures on the sea to attract fishes is called FAD.
 Small fish and other primary consumers are attracted to the FAD
These are artificial platforms that attract fish for food and shelter.
 A food web forms around the FAD.
Parts of a FAD and their purpose
 Larger predators are attracted to the FAD by the smaller fishes.
 A floating platform –to stand and catch fish, algae grow
 Larger fish like Dolphin learn the FAD is a good source of food.
underneath provides food and shelter for marine organisms.
They can use FAD as a navigation point.
 A buoy-to make the platform float.
 A long line-attached with weight, algae grow there which provides
Advantage of FADs
food and shelter for organisms.
 Increase fish catch.
 A weight or anchor-Fixing the platform in fixed position.
 Increase income for fishermen.
 Easy to locate shoal.
 Gives shelter for marine organisms.
 Saves fuel and time.
Disadvantages of FADs Ecological impacts
 Cause overfishing.
 Migration of predatory fish.
 Increase by catch-turtles, dolphins and other marine organisms
can become entangle in the lines.
 Destroys coral reefs.
 Paint from buoys and platforms cause pollution in sea.

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6.4 Aquaculture Species that can be produced through aquaculture

Macroalga (kelp)
Rearing of aquatic organisms likes plant and animals in water.
Fish (salmon, grouper)
Describe the social and economic importance of aquaculture: Crustaceans (shrimp)
 It reduces dependences on harvesting wild species preventing Molluscs (mussel, oyster, gallop and giant clam)
them from extinction. Echinoderms (sea cucumber)
 It brings economic benefit to the people when they produce and Methods of aquaculture
export.  Open system –cages and nets
 Aquaculture provides cheaper food for many societies.  Closed system-tanks.
 Provides employment. Open system Closed system
 Fishers can fix in one location so they get proper housing, health  Method of aquaculture that  Method of aquaculture that
facility, education for their children. uses cages and nets in natural, uses tanks so that species are
 Spend more time with their family and self-development. coastal waters. isolated from natural, coastal
 Readily available and cheap.  Organisms are kept in cages or waters.
 pressure on fisheries can be reduced by aquaculture nets.  Organisms are kept in tanks.
Impact of aquaculture on marine ecosystems  The natural movement of water  This system is more expensive
 Loss of habitats such as mangrove forest. current supplies oxygen and as it needs constant filtering of
 Sudden outbreak of disease in farms will cause food safety removes wastes. water.
issues.  Oxygen, salinity, temperature is
 Damage to wild stocks and food webs due to escape of farmed often monitored.
organisms.
 Overfishing wild fishes to feed species grown by aquaculture.
 Waste water discharged from aquaculture causes pollution
(eutrophication) and diseases to surrounding organisms.

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Open aquaculture method. Outline the methods of producing fish by aquaculture

 Sourcing of initial brood stock-Adults with desirable features

are selected as brood stock. Brood stock must be healthy, fast
growing that provide high yield to maximise profit.(Artificial
selection)
 Maintaining conditions required for the species (temperature,
salinity, light, pH, oxygen) Open systems need to be located
where there are water currents to provide oxygen and to maintain
salinity, temperature and pH . Closed systems need water
circulation pumps to deliver oxygen. Sensors are used to maintain
physical and chemical factors.
 Food requirements vary by species (e.g. Protein and lipid
Closed aquaculture method. levels) artificial food pellets are used for feeding the fish. Protein
and lipid content varies species to species.
 Types of feed and their environmental impact (pelleted, other
fresh fish or plant-based protein) Small species such as anchovies
are used to make artificial food. It leads to overfishing of
anchovies and that is not sustainable. Recently plant based and
insect based protein pellets are used.
 Maintaining water quality by removal of waste products through
adequate water flow rate and filtration of waste water, or moving
cages
 Size sorting and regular feeding to prevent cannibalism
 Prevention of entry or spread of parasites, disease or
predators by using low stocking densities, antibiotics, cleaner
species
 Selection of fastest growing organisms as new broodstock

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Discuss the use of aquaculture of endangered species to restock State what is meant by intensive and extensive aquaculture.
areas where environmental damage has occurred INTENSIVE AQUACULTURE–Growing aquatic plants and
 Aquaculture is being used to restock and restore mangrove forests animals in manmade areas like tank with high stocking density.
and coral reefs. EXTENSIVE AQUACULTURE–Growing aquatic plants and
 It helps for maintaining biodiversity in the range of species that are animals in natural areas like oceans, estuaries and bays.
repopulated to reduce the risk of one or few species becoming Suggest the likely impacts that aquaculture could have on local
dominant over others in the area. ecosystems and human populations.
 We can use aquaculture to raise organisms for release into the wild. Discuss the steps that could be taken to minimise the impact.
 Endangered species can be bred and then released. In North Waste water from aquaculture causes water pollution leads to
America, salmon produced by aquaculture are released into river to eutrophication. It can be minimised by reduce over feeding or using
increase population. suitable waste water treatment, low use of pesticides.
 Corals and mangroves are also grown by aquaculture to repair If fish from aquaculture escape to wild, it competes with wild fish and
environmental damage. affects the food chain. It can be minimised by using net around the
 Coral aquaculture Coral polyp are grown in indoor tanks and then rearing area.
transported onto frames in open water. When large colonies have Water released form aquaculture can spread disease easily. It can
formed, they are transplanted onto damaged reefs. be reduced by regular monitoring the fish and prevent overstocking.
Coral aquaculture is a very successful method of repairing. Fish price falls and loss of fishing income, unemployment. It can be
Limitations: Expensive, labour intensive and need skilled, trained reduced by improved employment.
workers. Coral must be grown in laboratories and then monitored then Reasons of using following in aquaculture forms.
placed in open nursery area. Aerator –To supply oxygen for fishes.
 Mangrove aquaculture it is an effective method for slowing the loss Chemicals or antibiotics-To treat them from diseases
of mangrove forest. To grow mangrove forest ,we can take cuttings Pump – to circulate the water.
of mangrove trees. These cuttings are grown in laboratories and Filters –to filter the wastes.
conservation areas until they grow into small tree. These small trees Light –for increasing primary productivity and for finding food,
are then transplanted in areas of mangroves where tres have been avoid predators.
lost.
 Limitations: Mangrove aquaculture is expensive and takes many
years to have a visible effect. It also requires skilled trained workers.
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6.5 Energy from the oceans Describe the potential impacts of oil spills on marine ecosystems
 Coating fur of mammals and feathers of birds-oil is sticky and
 Oil can be found under the seabed. cannot be washed easily; marine birds cannot fly and die. The fur and
 oil is a non-renewable fossil fuel (a source that will run out) feathers lose their insulating effect ,the animals often die due to
Uses of oil hypothermia.(unable to withstand cold temperature)
 used as a fuel(petrol, diesel) To save the birds and other animals from oil, special detergents are
 Used as a raw material for manufacturing plastics. used to wash.
Oil formation  Poisoning organisms that ingest the oil: oil is a mixture of many
 Oil is formed from the algae, zooplankton that died millions of years chemical and some of the chemical are poisonous. Oil is consumed
ago. by the organisms either directly or indirectly. Chemicals in oil can be
 These organism did not decompose instead they were buried passed from one organism to another by food chain. It is toxic.
under rock.  Disrupting food chains by affecting producers: Due to oil spill, oil
 Due to intense heat and pressure turned these remains of these covers the larger area in sea and it reduces the light penetration to the
organisms into oil. producers. It reduces the primary productivity and energy availability
 Since oil is formed from long dead organisms it is said to be fossil for the rest of the organisms.
fuels. International Maritime organisation to regulate the ships and
boats to reduce oil pollution.
Oil is extracted from oil fields and is transported by oil tankers and pipe MARPOL-Marine pollution
lines. International Convention for the prevention of Pollution from Ships.
Crude oil –yellow black liquid found under earth crust. It is removed from Aim –Reduce pollution by oil tankers and ships, regulating the ship
underground. It is a mixture of many different chemicals. design and releasing wastes.
Oil fields – large deposit of crude oil found under the ground. Regulations and standards of MARPOL.
Reasons for oil spill All oil tankers transporting oil should be fitted with double hulls to
Leakage from pipe lines.
reduce the risk of oil leaks following a collision.
Leakage from oil tankers due to collisions.
Tankers cannot wash out holds except at special collection sites at

ports.

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Sewage release must be controlled-wastes from toilets must not Discuss the environmental, economic and social advantages and
disadvantages of using fossil fuels as an energy resources-
release into the sea directly. It is stored in tanks and released in
oil/petrol/diesel
port.
Advantages
Garbage disposal must be controlled. Plastics, glasses and card
 Constant energy supply, unaffected by weather-fossil fuels can
must be disposed in port.
give constant energy supply of electricity that is un affected by
Discuss strategies for minimising the impacts of oil spills
weather.
 Energy dense (or high energy per gram of fuel)-small amount of
 Booms: It is used to prevent oil
fuel is used to produce lots of power.
spreading. Booms are long
 Relatively cheap to buy and use
floating barriers towed by boats.
 Stable to transport and use-fossil fuels are easily transported by

 Skimmers: It is used to absorb pipelines and oil tankers.

oil from the surface water.

Skimmers are often made of a Disadvantages

rotating drum that is coated with  Non-renewable-cannot be replaced once they are used.

material that sticks with oil.  Produce carbon dioxide and other damaging gases when

combusted-more risk of global warming and acid rain.

 Dispersant sprays-chemicals are sprayed onto the oil spill to  Environmental damage from extraction-Extracting oil, coal and gas

break up the oil into oil droplets that sink in the bottom. These oil from the ground can be very damaging to the marine environment.
droplets are toxic to fish and it takes
Drilling into the sea bed is very damaging and destroying the coral
a long time to decompose.
reefs.
 Burning: Burning of oil spill on the
surface water. Though it seems to an  Becoming increasingly difficult to extract- Due to over usage of
easy method it harms the
fossil fuels and shortage, it is very difficult to find the new oil fields.
atmosphere by releasing harmful gases.

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Discuss the environmental, economic and social advantages and 6.6 Plastic pollution
disadvantages of renewable energy obtained from the oceans Plastics are waterproof and long-lasting.
Plastics are very slow to break down into tiny pieces of plastic
through wind, wave and tidal applications
called micro plastics.(less than 5mm)
Advantages Plastics for everyday items-mobile phones, bottles, carry bags,
 Renewable are an infinite energy source-they will not run out. computers, straws ,etc
Describe the potential impacts of plastics on marine ecosystems
 Reduces production of carbon dioxide -reducing global warming.

 Reduces reliance on fossil fuels-if more electricity is generated using  Micro plastics are taken up by plankton and enter food chains-
Micro plastics form waste water used for washing reaches water
renewable resources, there is less need for fossil fuels.
bodies. Micro plastics absorb toxins from waste water. This micro
Disadvantages plastic is taken by filter feeders such a crustaceans and molluscs

 High initial costs-installation and Maintenance cost is high. and stick inside their bodies. When predators eat these
organisms, micro plastics are passed to the predator through food
 Limited locations available-wind turbines need area with high wind.
chain.
Wave power system need to have waves with high energy.
 Large plastics are ingested by animals and can cause starvation-
 Underwater cables to carry energy to land-creates magnetic fields that Many sea turtles die after eating plastic bags by mistake as they
affects the navigation of animals. look like jelly fish. Whales and dolphins are also killed by eating
plastics. When organisms consume plastic, it blocks the gut and
 Damage to seabed-by fixing the wind turbines
cause animals to starve.
 Weather damage to turbines
 Plastics can entangle animals and can cause death - Large plastic
 Damage to marine life caught in turbines items, such as discarded fishing lines, nets and ropes can trap
 Maintenance costs organisms. Turtles, dolphins and sae birds can become entangled
in ghost nets and drown and die. Trapped fish in ghost net are
 Conflict with tourism if visible
easy prey for predators or starve to death.

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Discuss strategies for limiting the impacts of plastics on marine 6.7 Eutrophication
ecosystems
Run-off –The process in which the nutrients from fertilisers being washed

(a) Legislation – ban, charge for or tax single-use plastics into rivers and carried to the ocean.

Single use plastics(straws and plastic bottles) can be banned and Reasons for adding fertilizers and manure to the crops

charges or taxes can be introduced to reduce their use.  To grow quick and give more yield.

(b) Education- education to increase awareness of issues around using  Farmers get more benefits.

plastics may stop people throwing away the plastic waste. Eutrophication: It is the process by which algae grow rapidly when a body

(c) Reduce, reuse, recycle plastic waste –People should be encouraged of water has a lot of mineral ions added in it.

to reuse plastic rather than discarding them. Causes or sources of eutrophication:

When people upgrade televisions, mobile phones and other electrical  Run-off from farming area.

goods, the old ones could be repaired and used by other people.  Untreated sewage disposed into the sea.

(d) International cooperation- If every country signs up to reduce the Explain the process of eutrophication of water

amount of plastic wastes, the amount of plastic waste in the ocean will  The fertilizers from agricultural land reach river or sea by run off.
 It increases the availability of nutrients including nitrogen and
fall.
phosphorus in water.
Garbage patch- area within an ocean gyre  Increased growth of producers leading to algal bloom. Light
where plastic and other garbage penetration reduces due to algal bloom. So underwater plant and
accumulates.
algae die.
North Pacific Ocean gyre is the largest (1.5  Increased decomposition after death of producers.
million square kilometer) due to plastic wastes
 Increased aerobic respiration by decomposers.
come from China, Philippines and Indonesia.
 Reduction in dissolved oxygen.
 Death of organisms requiring dissolved oxygen.

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6.8 Understanding climate change
 The increased release of greenhouse gases from human activities is
Greenhouse effect- The natural warming effect that occurs when now thought to be the leading cause of climate change and global
radiation is reflected back to the planet by greenhouse gases in the warming.
atmosphere.  Other factors which cause climate change include volcanic activity
Natural greenhouse effect is good as it results in Earth’s climate and the changes in the activity of the Sun.
being ideal for living organisms in most parts of the world.
Enhanced greenhouse effect – The artificial warming that occurs Describe the effects of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations on sea water
due to the release of excess carbon dioxide and methane into the
atmosphere. (a)Increasing temperature.
Greenhouse gases- carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour.  Over past century, we have seen an increase in the amount of
Describe the effects of present-day pollution of the air by methane carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and also an increase in the
and carbon dioxide average temperature of the Earth.
 The increasing temperature is due to enhanced greenhouse effect.
(a) Enhanced greenhouse effect –  As carbon dioxide level increases so global temperature also
 Over past century, we have seen an increase in the amount of increases.
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and also an increase in the  Because of increase in carbon dioxide gas, our planet is now
average temperature of the Earth. experiencing an enhanced greenhouse effect.
 The increasing temperature is due to enhanced greenhouse effect.
 As carbon dioxide level increases so global temperature also (c) Decreasing pH – Normal pH of sea water is 8.1 to 8.2.
increases. Carbon dioxide is an acidic gas which reduces the pH of sea water.
 Because of increase in carbon dioxide gas, our planet is now This pH is a problem for marine organisms that has calcium carbonate
experiencing an enhanced greenhouse effect. skeleton. Reduced pH of sea water causes coral reefs to erode,
leading to slower growth and loss of reef area. Molluscs have thinner
(b) Climate change shells in slightly alkaline sea water, so are less protected from
 It is the long-term change in weather patterns across the planet. It predators and physical damage.
includes changes in temperature, rainfall patterns and the frequency
of storms.

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Explain the role of the ocean in absorbing heat and the effect on the (c) Decreased dissolved oxygen in the oceans – As water warms up,
ocean of heat absorption smaller amounts of gases are able to dissolve. An increase in water
(a) Thermal expansion- As water heats up, it expands. This means that temperature leads to reduced concentration of oxygen in the ocean, so
the same mass of water will take up a bigger volume. The expansion of marine organisms respire less. Tuna cannot survive because of less
water in ocean and sea due to an increase in temperature is called oxygen.
thermal expansion. It will affect the photosynthesis, alter food chain, and (d) Changing distribution and migration patterns- As the climate
cause ice to melt changes, species that are adapted for cooler waters will shift their range
(b) Maintaining stability of global temperature. Compare with land, a further towards the pole to find water of the temperature they prefer. They
lot of energy is needed to increase the temperature of large volume of
will be replaced in their traditional waters by species better adapted for
water. This means the temperature of large volume of water are relatively
warmer water. Scientists have found North Atlantic cod and halibut are
stable and large water bodies are very good at absorbing and retaining
becoming more frequently seen in northerly areas.
heat energy. The water in ocean and seas reduces some of the heat form
enhanced greenhouse effect helping to stabilize global temperature.
(e) Loss of species -Global warming will cause habitat loss and
disruption of food chain. New competitor, predators may also expand their
Describe possible impacts of increasing greenhouse gases on range for other areas of the ocean. All these factors will lead to extinction
marine ecosystems
of organisms.
(a) Increase in sea level, loss of habitat and land – Continued melting

of ice sheets and glaciers and thermal expansion of water will increase (f) Increase in extreme weather -
Global warming and climate change may affect the weather systems of
the sea level. Human settlements will be lost, and land that is used for
the planet. Some areas will experience more storms and excess rainfall
farming, industry and tourism will be flooded. Low –Lying, island countries
while other regions will have droughts.
such as the Maldives, are at risk of severe flooding.

(b) Coral bleaching- Due to pollution and temperature rises the corals

become stressed ,they expel zooxanthellae. This means that corals lose

their colour and bleached. Bleached coral cannot do photosynthesis and

die.

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6.9 Conservation strategies 6.9.3 Describe and evaluate conservation projects

6.9.1 Describe species richness- Number of different species that live in  Coral farming for introduction to artificial or damaged reefs.
an area.  Coral farming has successfully helped to repair many coral reefs
Population –the number of organisms of the same species in a specific that are damaged by blast fishing, pollution and from predation.
area at the same specific time.  The main focus of coral farming is to preventing them from
Example of habitat with high species richness- coral reef. extinction and to protect their habitats.
 Protecting turtle nests and rearing turtles to release.
6.9.2 Describe and evaluate strategies for conserving species
richness.  Turtle conservation projects include reducing the release of
plastic into the ocean and removing waste fishing nets and gear
 Sustainable harvesting of wild macro algae and animal species. from oceans.
To prevent overfishing and declining of stocks, we have to follow  Protect beaches that are used for nesting turtles and rear turtles
 Setting quotas for harvest safely in captivity before releasing them into the sea-captive
 Having closed areas where we can’t remove species. breeding.
 Having closed seasons when we can’t catch species.  Captive breeding programmes-The volunteers remove turtle
 Restricting some methods of fishing –trawl net, purse seine, etc eggs from nests. Eggs are then incubated away from predators
 Issuing license to catch certain types of fish. .After eggs hatch out baby turtles are raised in tanks until they
 Aquaculture of commercial species and endangered species. are ready to be taken to the sea and released.
 Aquaculture can help to meet the demand for species and so
prevent over fishing.  Culling invasive species such as lion fish.
 Aquaculture helps to replenish stocks of endangered species  Invasive species are organisms that cause ecological and
such as corals and giant clams. economical harm to environment.
 Organisms can be grown using aquaculture and released into the
wild.  Spread of Lion fish could have ecological disorder, they
 National marine parks and Marine Protected Areas. usually have very few predators like grouper that have been
 MPAs and national parks are set up to conserve populations of over fished.
endangered species and other organisms.
 Lion fish are usually aggressive in nature that they scare other
 MPAs and national parks control certain activities within their
boundaries. species and become dominant species on a coral reef.
 MPAs and national parks allows species to reproduce and  Methods include reducing lionfish population – setting baited
increase their number.
trap that only lionfish can enter. Encourage divers to catch
 Food chain and ecological balance is maintained.
lionfish for local consumption as a food.

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