ar constant) = 100% 7

Total radiation arriving (sol

~ . .
Passage of rad1at1on
thro ugh the e
c d
atmosphere b
~=-----~i.=..-
-+ -- r- -- + -- -- -~ ~ -- --
•
'To p'o f the
atmosphere - r-- --
25% 23% 27%

Ground
%
5
• = reflected from the ground
b = reflected ftom the clouds 20
e 25
c = absorbed in the atmospher
und 23
d = diffuse, on the gro
27
e = direct, on the ground
Total on the ground 50

Fig 6
Hea t release from the
gro und and the
atmosphere
b _ _ _ _r - _
r
..::il.---- - - - - --- :i• r-- - - - - : :
Top' of thee - - - - - - . .
atmospher

10%

Ground
%
20
1 = long•wave radiation
iati on 20
b= evaporation, thence rad
on 10
c = convection.thence radiati
Total 50
 ~ C)
!!
o1.0
:
C" -.J
~
~
5·
Q.

i:::
N. (J)
...
::,
~ POIAR WINDS

~
C>
:.c
...
~
~ ~ .:::;~;;t / / / / / / / A
0 . !C'
Q. ~ Subtropic high •
"'~ ( ~

h ' \.r - - - _
·; - Ji~- ~~~~~~~v _ _
_ ___ _,

Subpolar front "-..,_ __ ___

/
~~~~~"'v __ _,>
POIAR WINDS - - >

S.
S.l c
 The area where the air rises, where these northerly and southerly winds meet, 9
where the tropical front is formed, is referred to as the inter-tropical convergence
zone (ITCZ) . This area experiences either completely calm conditions or only very
light '": reezes of irregular directions and is referred to by sailors as 'doldrums'.
Tht: global pattern of thermal air movements Is shown in Figure 7. The following
explanation also relates to Figure 7.

1.1.8 The atmosphere rotates with the earth. As it is light in weight and behaves as fluid,
Trade-winds: held against the earth's surface only by gravity and friction, it has a tendency to lag
the Coriolis behind the earth's rate of rotation where this rotation is the fastest, i.e. at the
Equator. There is a 'slippage' at the boundary layer between the earth and its
force
atmosphere caused by what is known as the 'Coriolis force'. The effect is ex-
perienced as a wind blowing in a direction opposite to that of the earth's rotation .
The actual wind is the resultant of thermal forces and the Coriolis force (Figure 8) :
north-easterly winds north of the Equator and south-easterlies south of the
Equator. These are known as North East and South East trade-winds [5] , a term
originated by round the world traders in the days of .sailing-ships.

Fig 8
Wind parallelogram

The Coriolis force

1.1.9 Around 30°N. and S. there are two bands of continually high barometric pressure
(descending air) . Winds in these zones are typically light and variable. Between
Mid-latitude
30 and 60°N. and S., however, strong westerly winds prevail, blowing in the same
westerl.ies
direction as the earth's rotation .
The origin of these winds was for a long time in dispute, but it is now generally
agreed that the mid-latitude westerlies can best be explained by the law of con-
servation of angular momentum: The total angular momentum of the earth-
atmosphere system must remain constant. If it is reduced at the Equator by easterly
winds, this must be compensated for by westerly winds elsewhere. If the air is
moving from about 30° where it has a substantial circumferential velocity, towards
60" where the earth's radius of rotation, thus its circumferential velocity is much
less, the faster rotating air will 'overtake' the earth's surface.

Further towards the poles from latit1-1des 60 °N. and S. the air flow patterns come
1.1.10
once more under the influence of thermal factors. The pattern is similar to that near
Polar winds the Equator. A ir at the surface moves from the coldest to the slightly warmer
regions, i.e. away from the poles. As the circumferential velocity of air at the poles is
almost nil, the air w ill lag behind the rotating earth as it moves away from the poles.
The northerly is deflected into north-easterly and the southerly (near the South
Pole) into south-easterly polar winds.
• ' Since the direction of the rotation of the earth is from west to east all easterly winds have a braking
effect on the earth's surface, whereas all westerly winds have an accelerating effect. B:.it the law of
conservation of angular momentum requires that the sum of angular momentum in the system " earth +
atmosphere" rema ins constant. In the easterly wind reg ions surface friction does indeed transfer westerly
angular momentum from the earth to the atmosphere, whereas in westerly wind reg ions the opposite
occurs, and the more rapidly rotating atmosphere transfers angular momentum to the earth. This is possible
only when the atmosphere transfers angular momentum from the tropics and also to a much smaller
extent from the polar caps to the middle latitudes .' (3]
 Ele me nts of clim ate s

1 .2.1 Clim atic infor matio n

1 .2.2 Temp eratu re: meas urem ent
1 .2.3 Temp eratu re: data
1.2.4 Hum idity : meas urem ent
1 .2.5 Vapo ur press ure
1 .2.6 Hum idity : data
1.2.7 Prec ipita tion
1.2.8 Drivi ng rain
1 .2.9 Sky cond ition s
1 .2.10 Sola r radia tion: meas urem ent'
'
1 .2.11 Sola_r radia tion: data
1 .2.12 Wind : meas urem ent
1 .2.13 Wind : data
1 .2.14 Spec ial chara cteri stics
1 .2.15 Vege tatio n
1.2.1 6 Grap hic repre senta tion

aspec ts of clima te which affect

The desig ner is intere sted speci fically in those
1.2.1 includ e averages, chang es and
huma n comfo rt and the use of buildi ngs. They
Clim atic nces betwe en day and night
extrem es of tempe rature , the tempe rature differe
info rma tion and outgo ing radiat ion, rainfa ll
(diurn al range ), humid ity, sky condi tions, incom ing
featur es, such as trade -wind s,
and its distri bution , air move ments and specia l
thund er-sto rms, dust- storm s and hurric anes.
rologi cal statio ns are not
Clima tic record s as gathe red at airpor ts and meteo
ations frequ ently omit some of
prima rily intend ed for the use of desig ners. Public
neces sary to suppl emen t such
the aspec ts that intere st the design er. It is often
ly from meteo rologi cal statio ns.
inform ation with unpub lished data obtain ed direct
ation and prese nt it in a fqrm
It is the desig ner's task to analy se clima tic inform
icial or harmf ul to the future
that allow s him to identi fy featur es that are benef
occup ants of his buildi ng.

The tempe rature of the air is meas ured in degrees

Celsius ( °C), most often with a
1.2.2 rature ' is a value taken in the
mercu ry therm omete r. The dry-b ulb or 'true air tempe
Tem pera ture : louvre d wood en box, know n as
shade , the therm omete r being moun ted inside a
mea sure men t the 'Steve nson scree n' (Figu re 10), at a heigh
t of 1 ·20 to 1 ·80 m above the
14 g round [7 ) . Readings can be taken At specified times of the d ay, or if O n .
. d ·1 . Mx1n1
m in im um therm o m eter is used, one rea d ing •01 Y can give th o momentary I tt11i.
. . t en1p
tu re as w ell as the maxi mum and minimum emperntures reac hed in h 01,1 v
0
24 hours. Alt ernatively a th ermogn,ph con be used . wh ich Is based on 8 b'1. f\ls,
· h " d ' f
thermomet er and gives a continuous g rep lc recor mg o temperature vorior rno1111 111
IOn~

1.2.3 A ll these readings wou ld produce an unmanag eoble m oss o f dote, thus
son,.
Temperature: simplification is necessary. '
data As a broad description. monthly mean t emperatures con be given for eoct, 1
, I o !Ii
12 months. The average is taken between eac I1 d oy s m ax mum and m inirnu ~
then the av erage of the 30 days· average is found (and possibly as many rn °1"'1<1
. . di ti f d' I · Yeo,~·
average for the same month ). To give ~n in cda ~n. o (,Muma variation s, th is c,in
be supplemented bv mfJnthly mean max11na an mm,mo. onthly mean maxi
is t he average of 30 days' maximum temperatures.} These will establishrnurii
the
monthly mean range of temperatures.
It may be useful to indicate the highest and l?west tem~e~atures ever recorded
for each month. i.e. the monthly extreme maxima and mm,ma, to establish the
monthly extreme range of temperatures.
These five values for each of the 12 months would give a reasonably accura
picture of temperature conditions, on which the design work can be based
Section 8) .
(s~:
1 .2.4 The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH) , i.e. the amount of
Humidity: moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume of air, in terms of gramme Per
measurement kilogramme (g/ kg} or gramme per cubic metre (g/m3) .
The relative humidity (RH} is, however, a much more useful form of expression
as it gives a direct indication of evaporation potential. The amount of moisture th~
air can hold (the saturation-point humidity: SH} depends on its temperature (see
appendix 1 .1 }. Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture pre.
sent. to the amount of moisture the air could hold at the given temperature .
Fig 10 expressed as a percentage:
The Stevenson screen
RH= AH x1QO (%)
SH
H~midity is usually measured with the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer This
consi sts of two _o rdinary mercury thermometers mounted side by side. The fir~t one
measures ~he air (dry-bulb} temperature (DBT). The bulb of the second one is
covered with a gauze or wick and · k M .
1s ept wet. 01sture evaporating gives a cooling
ff
e ect, thus the reading of the t b ''b
DBT A • d . we · u,. temperature (WBT) will be less than the
· s m ry air the evaporation is fa t h 1· d
the ditfere b s er, t e coo mg is more pronounced an
nee etween the two readin (th • b
case of 100% RH h . gs e wet- ulb depression') is greater. In
t e two readings will be I'd f I h · · Th
rate of evaporatio th h en ica , as t ere 1s no evaporation. e
n, us t e wet-bulb dep · · f ·
humidity. Having made the t . ress1on, 1s a unction of the relati ve
the psychrometric chart (F:-Vo readings, the corresponding RH can be found troni
appendix 1.2) . igure 12 }, from a table or a special slide -rule (see

1.2.5 Another indication or expression O f .

Vapour: i.e. the partial pressure of w t atmosphe~ic hu~idity is the vapour pressure:
pressure (P) is the sum of th , . a er vapour present In the air. The 'atmospheric pressure
(Pv): e partial pressure of dry air' (Po) and the 'partial vapour pressure'

p = P. +Pv

The air is saturated when the v .

saturated vapour of th a pour pressure (Pv} is equal to the pressure 01
expressed as the ratio e ,same temperature (Pv,) . Relative humidity can also be
• o actual vapour . ur
pressure : pressure to the ·saturation point vapo
 15
A 11
A hygr ogra ph
RH = ASHH x10 0 = Pv x10 0 (%)
Pvs
ton per
stan dard SI pressure unit , the New
Vap our pressure is measured in the
2
met re squ are (N/m ):

1 mill ibar = 100 N/m 2 •

ly used in prac tical wor k .
The vap our pressure con cep t is rare pera ture ,
es, i.e. of dry- bulb and wet -bul b tem
The rela tion ship of all these qua ntiti psy chro -
of vap our pressure is sho wn by . the
abs olut e and rela tive hum idity and
met ric cha rt (Fig ure 12) .
to establish
hum idity con ditio ns, it is suff icien t
1.2 .6 To give an indi cati on of prev ailin g m) and the mon thly
average of 30 day s' max imu
Hu mi dit y: the mon thly mean max imu m (the ths. This is only
values for each of the 12 mon
mean min imu m rela tive hum idity re thes e are
dat a aph * reco rdin gs are available. Whe
pos sible , whe re con tinu ous hyg rogr (wh ich is
befo re sunrise, e.g. at 6.00 hou rs
not ava ilabl e, read ings are made just min imu m
at 15.0 0 hou rs (wh ich is near the
like ly to be the max imu m valu e), and ·
valu e). n values
y high in any climate, the afte rnoo
As the earl y mor ning valu es are fairl alone, as a
give n loca tion . The y are ofte n used
are muc h mor e cha ract eris tic of a
ns.
brie f indi cati on of hum idity con ditio
fro_st, that is,
used for rain, sno w, hail, dew and
1.2 .7 Pre cipi tatio n is the coll ecti ve term [8]. It is
('pre cipi tate d') from the atm osph ere
for all form s of wat er dep osit ed milli met re
Pre cip ita tio n rate d receptacles, and expressed in
mea sure d by rain -gau ges , i.e. calib
).
per a time unit (mm /mo nth, mm /day as man y
the tota l prec ipita tion for each mon th of the year (and
Valu es indi cati ng recorded
patt ern of dry and wet seasons. Ever
years' ave rage ) wou ld sho w the of rain s or dev iatio ns
indi cati on of the relia bilit y
max ima and min ima wou ld give an
from the average. icat ion
our peri od is a useful guid e for the pred
The max imu m rain fall for any 24-h ers and
ace drai nag e (roofs, paved areas, gutt
of floo ding , and for the des ign of surf be kno wn .
fall inte nsit y (mm /h) sho uld
dow npip es) the max imu m hou rly rain
ciated with
kno w whe ther inte nse rains are asso
The buil ding des igne r may wan t to [9] .
1.2 .8 t is the like liho od of driv ing rain
stro ng wing s, in othe r wor ds wha s the
Dri vin g rai n eris es a give n loca tion and expresse
The driv ing rain inde x [1 OJ cha ract ual aver age
of ann ual rain fall (in m) and the2 ann
deg ree of exp osu re. It is the prod uct ion is m /s. Up to 3 m /s
2

seco nd: m/s ) - thus its dim ens

wind velo city (in metres per te' if the
'she ltere d'. The exposure is 'mo dera
the loca tion can be con side red as 2
'severe' if over 7 m /s.
inde x is betw een 3 and 7 m /s and
2
al rain
clas sifie s the give n loca tion , the actu
Obv ious ly this inde x only broa dly ulta neo us
anta neo us rain inte nsit y and the sim
pen etra tion will dep end on the inst
win d velo city .
clou ds. On
in term s of presence or absence of
Sky con ditio ns are usu ally des crib ed n of sky cove red by
1.2 .9 e per day, whe n the prop ortio
average, two obs erva tion s are mad 'ten ths' or
Sky con dit ion s (som e reco rds give clou d cove r in
clou d is expr esse d as a perc enta ge all indi cate
, five -ten ths or four - eigh ths wou ld
even in 'eig hths ' or 'oct ets' , e.g . 50% exis t of nigh t-tim e
red by clou d). Few reco rds
that half of the sky hem isph ere is cove
sky con ditio ns [11] . uen cy of
r to kno w the time of day and freq
It wou ld be use ful for the des igne a typi cal day of
re givi ng the sky con ditio ns for
obs erva tion s. A sing le average figu
whic h is pr~p ortio nate to the
mois ture mov eme nfof huma n hair,
• This is an instr umen t based on the gh a lever mechanism to a
contr actio n of this is trans mitte d throu
relative hum idity. The expa nsion and pape r stretc hed over a clock work -driv en
h of hum idity variation on a
pen, whic h draw s a cont inuo us grap
cylin der (see Fig 11 ) .
✓ a given month may conceal significant differences, e.g. between morning and after-
noon conditions, which may affect the design of roofs, overhangs and shading
17

devices.
Sky luminance values are needed if daylighting in buildings is to be predicted.

1.2.10 A simple sunshine recorder will register the duration of sunshine, which can be
expressed in number of houts per day, as an average for each month.
Solar
A variety of more sophisticated instruments (solarimeter, heliometer, actino -
radiation:
meter ahd pyranometer) are used for the quantitative recording of solar radiation,
measurement
but reliable and comparable data is few and far between. Much of the available
2
literature gives recorded intensities in Btu/ft 2 h·, in kcal/m 2 h or in langleys (cal/cm )
per hour, but the now accepted international standard (SI) unit is the watt per metre
square (W/m 2 ) . This is the instantaneous intensity, i.e. the incidence of energy in
joules per square metre of the surface per second (W/m 2 = J/m 2 s, as W = J / s).
Total radiation received over a longer period, one day, for instance, will be ex -
pressed in J/m 2 day or the multiple MJ / m 2 day will be used (megajoule = 1 million
joules) [12) .

1.2.11 Average daily amounts of solar radiation (MJ/m 2 day) for each month of the year
would give a fair indication of climatic conditions, including seasonal variations.
Solar
This could be supplemented by the, highest and lowest daily totals for each month,
radiation:
to set the limits of variations whi<;:h can be expected.
data 2
For the purposes of detailed design, hourly totals (MJ/m h), or rather hourly
average intensities (W/m 2 ), must be known for a typical day of each month - or at
least for a typically high and a typically low radiation day of the year.
Quantitative radiation data are not normally published by meteorological obser-
vatories, but are sometimes available on request or can be found in special publica-
tions [13]. The US Weather Bure.au collects recordings of solar radiation intensity
from all countries of the world.
Appendix 2 gives a series of protractors for the calculation of radiation intensities
under clear sky conditions, to be used in conjunction with the stereographic sun -
path diagrams. Appen'dix 3 gives a method for estimating daily radiation totals on
the basis of sunshine duration records.

1.2.12 Wind velocity is measured by a cup-type or propeller anemometer, or by a Pitot tube

Wind: (similar to the air-speed meters of aeroplanes), and its direction is measured by a
measurement wind vane. An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of w ind velocity
and directional changes.
Free wind velocities are normally recorded in open flat country at a height of
10 m [14) . Measurements in urban areas are often taken at a height of between
10 and 20 m to avoid obstructions. Velocities near the ground are a good deal lower
than the free wind speed.
Directions can be grouped into eight or sixteen categories: the four cardinal
(N ., E., S. and W.) and four semi-cardinal compass points (NE., SE., SW. and NW.)
and possibly the eight tertiary compass points (NNE., ENE., ESE., SSE., SSW.,
WSW., WNW. and NNW.). Velocities are measured in metres per second (m/s), but
much data can still be found in obsolete units, such as ft/min, mph or knot (nautical
mile per hour) . A 'wind -force scale' developed by Beaufort in 1806, based on visual
observation, is still in use in spite of its completely unscientific nature. The defini-
tions of the twelve categories are given in appendix 4.

1.2.13 The designer must try to determine whether there is a prevailing direction of winds,
Wind: data whether predictable daily or seasonal shifts occur and whether there is a recognis-
able pattern of daily or seasonal velocities. It is also important for him to note the
calm periods in each month.

• For definition of units, see p . 69

 / 23
J .3 Clas sif ica tio n of tro pic al cli ma tes

1.3. 1 Clim atic zon es

1.3. 2 Tro pica l clim ate s
1.3. 3 Wa rm- hum id clim ate
1.3. 4 Wa rm- hum id isla nd clim ate
1 .3.5 Hot -dry des ert clim ate
1.3. 6 Hot -dry ma ri.tim e des ert clim ate
1.3. 7 Com pos ite or mon soo n clim ate
1.3.8 Tro pica l upla nd clim ate

forces,
the atmosphere and the gravitational
The interaction of solar radiation with st infin ite
1.3.1 and sea masses, produces an almo
together with the dist ribu tion of land orm
Cli ma tic zones and belts of approximately unif
variety of climates. However, certain the
zon es ntial for the designer to be familiar with
climates can be dist ingu ishe d. It is esse clim atic prob lems
as they are indicative of the
character and loca tion of these zones,
he is likel y to enc oun ter. ges
be accurately mapped. One zone mer
Boundaries of clim atic zones can not , easy to iden tify
the next. It is, nevertheless
gradually and almost imp erce ptib ly into lem ent
two zones, to whic h a particular sett
the zone, or the transition area between
belongs . in
tr~pical climatic zones only, as defined
The present wor k concerns itself with ed upo n
ates into climatic zones should be look
1.1.1. The subdivision of tropical clim info rma -
is a code that conveys a great deal of
as a useful tool of com mun icat ion. It the incre ase of
Its usefuln1:1ss increases with
tion for those who are familiar with it.
who accept and use it.
the number of people familiar with it,
since
ested by G A Atkinson in 195 3. It has
The classification given belo w was sugg n by
1.3 .2 ul. The basis of this classification is give
boen wide ly accepted and proven usef com fort ' air
Tro pic al h dom inan tly influence human
the two atmospheric factors whic rion is:
clim ate s be sho wn in Section 2) . The main crite
temperature and hum idity (as it will the
likely to cause discomfort. Acc ordi ngly
wha t extremes of these two factors are thre e sub -
into three. major clim atic zones and
tropical regions of earth are divided
grou ps:
e-w ind
subgroup: war m-h umi d island or trad
1 War m-h umi d equatorial climate -
climate
 2
Ho t-dry desert. or semi - des
ert climate - sub gro up: hot
-dry maritime deser . /
cl ima te
3 Composite or monsoon clim
ate (co mb ina ti on of 1 and 2)
- sub gro up: tropic~
upl and climate
These groups are referred to
thr oug hou t the tex t. Det ailed
zone is given bel ow (many of des cri~ tio~ of ear.1
the values taken from Atk ins
on s pu blic atio n) (15;
Wa rm- hum id climates are fou
nd in a belt near the Equator ext
1.3 .3 and S. Examples of cities in this end ing to abo ut 15' N
W ar m- hu mi d zone: Lagos, Da r-e s-S ala m,
Singapore, Jakarta, Quito and Mo mb asa , Colomb,,
Pernambuco. Figure 18 sho ws
cli ma te a clim ate graph fo
Mombasa .
There is very littl e seasonal var
iation thr oug hou t the year, the
being that of periods wit h mo on ly punctuati0r
re or less rain and the occ urr
enc e of gus ty win ds arr.
electric storms .
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the
shade reaches a mean ma xim
of between 27 and 32 •c, but um dur ing the da,
occasionally it may exceed the
the mean minimum varies betwe latt er val ue. At nig~
en 21 and 27 ·c. Bo th the diu
rna l and ann ual rang~
of temperature are quite nar row
Humidity, i.e. RH , remains hig. h,
at abo ut 75% for mo st of the
vary from 55 to almost 100%. tim e, but it ma1
Vapour pressure is steady in
the reg ion of 2 500 tc 1 .:
300 0 N/m 2 •
Precipitation is high thr oug .
hou t the year, gen era lly bec
H<
several consecutive months. An om ing mo re intense fa de
nua l rainfall can vary fro m 2
may exceed 500 mm in one mo 00 0 to 5 00 0 mm anc
nth, the we ttes t mo nth . Du rin
may fall at the rate of 100 mm g severe storms rair
/ h for sho rt per iod s.
Sky conditio~s are fairly clo udy thr
oug hou t the year. Clo ud cov
~O a~d 90%. Skies can be brig er var ies betweer
ht, a lum ina nce of 7 00 0 cd/ m 2
rs :hinly overcast, or when the or even mo re wh en·
sun illu min ate s wh ite cum ulu
beisng obscured. When heavily s clo uds wit ho ut itse--
I d" • . overcast, the sky is dul l 850
h' hoar ra ,at,on •s partly reflect , cd / m 2 or Iess
ed and partly sca tter ed by the
i~gdi;apoubr content of the atm clo ud bla ~ke t 0 1 ti>
osphere, the ref ore the rad iati
use, ut strong, and can cause on rea chi ng the gro unc
pai nf I k
· t' u ~ Y g Iare . Clo ud and
also prevents or reduces out goi ng rad
sky, thus the accumulated hea vap our con ten·
~ -d t is not re1aad1_ol nd_ro~ the ear
•. th and sea to the nig~
m veloc1t1es are typ ica lly low 1Y 1ss1pated
calm erio d
occur during rain squ
or two dom ina nt directions.
alls . Gusts of 30 m/ :ha ve s are fre que .
nt, bu t str ong win ds car
been rep ort ed. The re are usu
ally one
. ~egetation
d1ff1cult to congro ws qui ckl y due to fre u
trol. The red or b . .
~ . I q _ent ram s and hig h tem per atu res and .
ant -:.u ppo rtmg organic sub t row n ate rite soils a it ii
Pl . re gen era 1ly po
away by ram -wa ter The subso, s anc es and min er I or for agr icu lture
·I a sa 1ts are dis •
·
waterlogged. Little ligh t is refl wa ter tab le is sol ved and w ashe<
ected f II •
usua Y hig h and the gro un d
Spe cia l characteristics· h'1 h h maY bi
· · g r~":' the gro und .
rusting and rot ting . Organic um
bui ldi 1d1ty ac I
. ce erates mo uld and alg
a~d othe~ inse~ts abo und . The al growtt
thunndger~;terials ten d to dec
air electrical discharges. ay rap idly . Mo squito~
arm s are acc om pan ied by fre
que nt air-to
1.3.4 Islands w!t hin the equ rial
~ype. Typical examplesato bel t and in the tra d
are the c ·bb .
W ar m- hu mi d ,n the Pa cifi c Ocean . e-~ md s zon e be lon g to this
an eans, the Ph ilip pin es and clirratl
island cli ma te oth er isla nd grou~
S~asonal var iati ons are neg ligi
ble.
A,r temperature, i.e. DBT, in
the sh
bet we en 29 and 32
• . ·c
and rarel . ade rea che
min ima can be as low as 18
•c Y rises abo ve k ' s a da y-t ime me an maxirnu~
. b . .
, ut 1t 1s nor ma ll s bm tem per atu re. Nig ht- tim e rnea r
d iurn a1ran ge is rarely mo re tha n d C Y etw een thi s fig ure and 24 1
'!'~I
Humidity, i.e. the RH varies be
•
8
teg and the ann ual ran ge is on ly ab ou
·c.
' we t 14 de9 c_
b g bet we en 1 75 0 and 2 50 0 N/ 2.en 55 an d a1mo st 10 0%, the
em 5
m. va po ur pre s 1J11
 Precipitation is high, 1 250 to 1 800 mm per annum, and 200 to 250 mm in the 27
wettest month. Up to 250 mm may fall in a single storm of a few hours' duration .
Spray is driven nearly horizontally on windward coasts.
Sky conditions are normally clear or filled with white broken clouds of high
brightness, except during storms, when the skies are dark and dull. Clear blue skies
are of low luminance. between 1 700 and 2 600 cd/m 2 •
Solar radiation is strong and mainly direct, with a very sm all diffuse component
when the sky is cl ear, but varies wi th the cloud cover.
Winds: the predominant trade - wind blows at a steady 6 to 7 m/s and provides
relief from heat and humidity. Much higher velocities occur during cyclones (see
below) .
Vegetation is less luxuriant and of a lighter green colour than in the warm-humid
zones. It varies with the rainfall. Sunlight reflected from light coloured coral, sand
and rock can be very bright. The soil is often dry w ith a fairly low water -tab le.
Special characteristics are the tropical cyclones or hurricanes with wind veloci -
ties from 45 to 70 m/s, which constitute a serious seasonal hazard. The high salt
content of the atmosphere encourages corrosion in coastal areas.

1.3.5 These climates occur in two belts at latitudes between approximately 15 and 30 °
north and south of the Equator. Examples of settlements in this zone: Assuan,
Hot-dry
Baghdad, Alice Springs, and Phoenix. Figure 19 shows a climate graph for the last-
desert climate
named.
Two marked seasons occur: a hot and a somewhat cooler period .
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the shade rises quickly after sunrise to a day-time
mean maximum of 43 to 49 °C. The ever-recorded maximum temperature of 58 ·c
was measured in Libya in 1922. During the cool season the mean maximum tem-
perature ranges from 27 to 32 °C. Night-time mean minima ·are between 24 and 30 °C
in the hot season and between 10 and 18 •c in the cool season. The diurnal range
is very great: 17 to 22 degC.
Humidity, i.e. the RH, varies from 10 to 55%, as the wet-bulb depression is large
2
(rapid evaporation). The vapour pressure is normally between 750 and 1 500 N/m
Precipitation is slight and variable throughout the year, from 50 to 155 mm per
annum. Flash-storms may occur over limited areas with as much as 50 mm rain
in a few hours, but some regions may not have any rain for several years.
Sky conditions are normally clear. Clouds are few due to the low humidity of the
2
air. The sky is usually dark blue, with a luminance of 1 700 to 2 500 cd/m , and
2
further darkened during dust or sand-storms to 850 cd/m or even less. Towards
the end of the hot period, dust suspended in the air may create a white haz~ with a
luminance of 3 500 to 10000 cd/m 2, which produces a diffuse light and a painful
glare.
Solar radiation is direct and strong during the day, but the absence of cloud
permits easy release of the heat stored during the day-time in the form of long-wave
radiation towards the cold night sky. Diffuse radiation is only present during dust
haze periods.
Winds are usually local. The heating of air over the hot ground causes a tempera-
ture inversion, and as the lower warm air mass breaks through the higher cooler air,
local whirlwinds are often created . Winds are hot, carrying dust and sand - and
often develop into dust-storms.
Vegetation is sparse and difficult to maintain because of the lack of rain and low
humidities. The soil is usually dusty and very dry. Strong sunlight illuminating a
highly reflective light coloured and dry ground can create a luminance of 20000 to
25 000 cd/m 2 • Soils dry quickly after rain and would generally be fertile if irrigated.
The subsoil water-table is very low.
Special char~cteristics.: during certain months dust and sand-storms may be
frequent. The high day-time temperatures and rapid cooling at· night may cause
materials to crack and break up.
,
.8 1.3.6 Maritime desert climates occur in the same latitude belts as the hot-dry deser
Hot-dry climates, where the sea adjoins a large land mass. These are regarded to be amongs:
maritime the most unfavourable climates of the earth. Typical examples are Kuwait, Anto.
desert climate fagasta and Karachi.
There are two seasons: a hot one and somewhat cooler one.
Air temperature. i.e. DBT, in the shade reaches a day-time mean maximum 01
about 38 •c, but in the cool season it remains between 21 and 26 •c. The night-tirne
mean minimum temperatures of the hot season range from 24 to 30 •c and of the
cool season from 1Oto 18 •c. The diurnal mean range varies between 9 and 12 degc
the larger diurnal variation occurring during the cool season. '
Humidity, i.e. the RH, is steadily high, between 50 and 90%, with vapour pres.
sures of 1 500 to 2 500 N/m 2 , as the strong solar radiation causes strong evaporation
from the sea. The moisture is. however, not precipitated but remains suspended in
the air, creating intensely uncomfortabl e conditions.
Precipitation. as in other desert regions, is very low.
Sky conditions are as for hot-dry desert climates, a little more cloud may occur
in the form of a thin, transparent haze. which is likely to cause glare.
Solar radiation is strong, with a higher diffuse component than in desert climates,
due to the thin clouds and suspended moisture.
Winds are mostly local, coastal winds, caused by the unequal heating and cooling
of land and sea surfaces. These tend to blow off the sea towards the land during the
day and in the reverse direction during the night.
Vegetation is sparse, not more than some dry grass. The ground and rocks are
brown or red; it is dry and dusty throughout the year. Ground glare can be intense.
Special characteristics: dust and ·sand-storms may occur. The salt laden atmo-
sphere accelerates corrosion.

1.3.7 These climates usually occur in large land masses near the tropics of Cancer and
Composit e or Capricorn, which are sufficiently far from the Equator to experience marked seasonal
monsoon changes in solar radiation and wind direction. Examples of cities with composite
climate climates: Lahore, Mandalay, Asuncion, Kano and New Delhi. The tatter is shown as
an example in Figure 20.
Two seasons occur normally. Approximatel y two-thirds of the year is hot-dry
and the other third is warm-humid. Localities further north and south often have a
third season, best described as cool-dry.
Air temperature, i.e. DBT, in the shade is as follows:
seasons hot-dry warm-humid cool-dry
Day-time mean max. 32-43°C 27-32°C up to 27°C
Night-time mean min. 21-27°C 24-21·c 4-1o·c
Diurnal mean range 11-22 degC 3-6 degC 11-22 degC

Humidity, i.e. the RH, is low throughout the dry periods at 20 to 55%, with 1
vapour pressure of 1 300 to 1 600 N/m 2 • During the wet period it rises to 55 to 95%
with a vapour pressure of 2000 to 2 500 N/m 2 •
Precipitation: the monsoon rains are intense and prolonged; occasionally 25 10
38 mm can fall in an hour. Annual rainfall varies from 500 to 1 300 mm with 200 1'
250 mm in the wettest month. There is little or no rain during the dry seasons.
Sky conditions markedly vary with the seasons. The sky is heavily overcast an1
dull during the monsoons, and clear, with a dark blue colour, in the dry seasons,
Towards the end of the hot-dry seasons the sky becomes brighter with freque~
dust haze. The intensity of sky glare varies accordingly. hi
Solar radiation alternates between conditions found in the warm-humid and I
hot-dry desert climates.
I
e·
Winds are hot and dusty during the dry period. Directional changes · in the P')
vailing winds at the beginning of the warm-humid season bring rain-clouds a
humid air from the sea. Monsoon winds are fairly strong and steady.
 Veg eta tion . wh ich is sparse - cha rac teri
stic of a hot -dr y reg ion - wit h bro
red barren gro und , cha nge s rap idly wn and
and dra ma tica lly wit h the rain . The
bec om es green and fert ile wit hin landscape
a few day s. Pla nts gro w qui ckl
per iod veg eta tion cov ers the gro y. In the coo l~
und, but d imin ishe s as the tem per
soil is dam p during the rains but atu re rise s. The
it dries out qui ckl y. The re is a risk
dur ing mo nso ons. In the dry season of soi l erosion
stro ng gro und gla re ma y be exp erie
Spe cial characteristics: seasonal cha nge nce d .
s in rela tive hum idit y cau se rap id
ing of bui ld ing ma teri als. Ous t and weaken.
san d-s torm s ma y occ ur. Ter mit es
Occ asio nal con den sat ion pro ble ms are com mo n.
.

1.3 .8 Mo unt ai nou s reg ion s and pla tea

ux mo re tha n 900 to 1 200 m
Tr op ica l exp erie nce suc h clim ate s, bet wee abo ve sea-level
n the two 20 "C isot her ms. Exa mp
up lan d suc h reg ions: Add is Aba ba. Bog ota les of citie s in
, Me xico City and Nai rob i. A clim
Nai rob i has bee n give n in Fig ure ate gra ph for
cli ma te 15.
Seasonal var iati ons are sma ll in upl
and clim ate s near the Equ ato r, but
awa y from the Equ ato r, the season wh en further
s foll ow tho se of the nea rby low lan
Air temperature, i.e. the D BT. in the sha ds.
de decreases wit h alti tud e. At an
of 1 800 m the day -tim e mean ma altit ude
xim a ma y range from 24 to 30" C
tim e mean min ima are aro und 10 and the nig ht-
to 13 °C. At some loca tion s it ma
and gro und fros t is not unc om mo
n. The diu rna l ran ge is great. The
y fall bel ow 4 ·c
dep end s on lati tud e: at the Equ ann ual range
ato r it is slig ht but at the trop ics
Cap rico rn it ma y be 11 to 20 deg of Can cer and
C.
Humidity, i.e. the RH, varies bet wee n
45 and 99% and the vap our pressu
twe en 800 and 1 600 N/m 2 • re be-
Precipitation is variable, but rarely less
tha n 1 000 mm . Rain ofte n fall s in
con cen trat ed sho wer s, rea chin g an heavy
inte nsit y of 80 mm per hou r.
Sky con diti ons are nor ma lly clea r or
par tly clou dy, to the ext ent of abo
Dur ing the mo nso on rains the sky ut 40%.
is overcast - and the clo uds are hea
Solar radiation is stro ng and dire ct dur vy and low.
ing the clear periods, stro nge r tha
same lati tud e, but at sea-level. Ultr n at the
a-v iole t rad iatio n especially is stro
low er altit ude s. It bec om es mo re nge r tha n at
diff use as clou d cov er increases.
Win ds are variable, pre dom ina ntly nort
h-_east and . south-easterlies, but
dra stic ally def lect ed by loca l top ogr ma y be
aph y. Wm_ d veloc~ty rarely exceeds 15 m/s .
Vegetation is gre en alth oug h not very
luxu rian t dur ing the we t season but
wit her in the dry season, whe n the it may
gro und can turn bro wn or red. The
dam p in the rains but drie s qui ckl soil ma y be
y.
Spe cia l characteristics: heavy dew at
nig ht. _Stro ng ra?i~tion loss at nig
the dry season, wh ich ma y lead ht during
to the form atio n of rad1at1on fog .
wit h a fair pro por tion of ele ctri c Thu nde r-st orm s
disc har ges - air to gro und . Hail
may also o~ ur.
•
31
S it e cl im at e

1.4.1 De via tio ns wi thi n the

zo ne

1.4 .2 Si te cli ma te
1.4 .3 Th e de sig ne r's tas k
1.4 .4 Local fac tor s
1 .4. 5 Ai r tem pe rat ur e
1.4 .6 Te mp era tur e inv ers ion
1.4 .7 Hu mi dit y
1.4 .8 Pr ec ipi tat ion
1 .4. 9 Sk y co nd itio ns
1.4 .10 So lar rad iat ion
1.4 .11 Ai r mo ve me nt
1.4 .12 Sp ec ial ch ara cte ris tic s
1.4 .13 Ve ge tat ion
1 .4 .14 Ur ba n cli ma te
1 .4.15 Sit e cli ma tic da ta

posses-
ati c zon e to wh ich a tow n or settlement belongs and
Knowledge of the clim the need for ca reful
1.4.1 ed reg ion al clim ati c data does not eliminate
sion of pu of lsh vide enough
Deviations clim ati c co nd itio ns . It does, however, usually pro
investigation of site essment of the climate and
within th e ati on for the de sig ne r to make a preliminary ass
Inform
zone basis of sketch designs .
may be sufficient to form the cin ct in a tow n may have its ow
n climate,
villag e and eve n a pre
Every city, tow n or - the macroclima te.
from the clim ate described for the region
slightly dif fer ent cribes the
she d by the nea res t me teorological observatory des
Information publi climate of the site, bu t
Su ch inf orm ati on may be a useful guide to the
macrocllm ate . wit hin a short
t In acc ura cy as co nd itio ns can vary considerably
Is seldom sufficien
observation .
distance from the po int of
ously-
bee n cho sen de libe rat ely rather than the synonym
1.4.2 Th o term 'site climate ' has imply any local deviation.
from the climate
lcr oc llm ate '. The latter can 'micro-
Site cl im at e used term 'm y be . The botanist may consider the
ver the sca le ma
of a larger area, whate isture conditions, its
pla nt lea f, wit h its temperature and mo
climate' of o sin gle timetres. For
s and mic ro- org an ism s, on the scale of a few cen
populat ion of ins ect the climate of a whole
an go og rap he r the ter m 'microclimate' may mean
the urb
tow n.
 tha n the reg ion al a\lera~e, a nd the lee d lo e cor res pon din gly less ( Figure
war ~e ~ill form atio n, the effe ct will 2
With the inc rea se ot hei ght or st eep nes be rn ~\
s of t tha t on a large site loc ate d on ()te
pro nou nce d. In an ext rem e cas e it can
b
hap pen .
top ot a hi\\ and ext end ing dow n to 0 h I s the lee war d half rec eiv
s ope ' es only the
: 25%
ot the rain received by the wi ndwa rd
side .
f ig 22
Pre cipitatio n on hi\\s

W et s\ope Dry slope

The cause of the abo ve phe nom eno
n is tha t the hill forc es the air mas
it rises it coo ls and can no lon_ s to rise . as
ger sup por t the moi stur e car ried
des cen ding air mass increases in . Con ver sely, a
tem per atu re and it can abs orb
rather than to pre cipi tate any . A sim mo re moi sture,
ilar situ atio n can dev elo p ove r tow
more abs orbe nt surfaces reac h a ns, whe re the
high tem per atu re and can pro duc
mov eme nt. Suc h an upw ard curr e an upw ard air
ent may dive rt any hor izon tal air
upw ard dire ctio n, with sim ilar effe mo vem ent in an
cts to a hill slop e.

Fig 23
Prec ipita tion over
tow ns Cool

Act uall y a num ber o! wor kers

clou dbu rst type ove r city cen tres ha~e rep orte d a hig her freq uen c of rain s of the
b h . ( Figu re 23) (A f . ~
e t ~ presen~e of_ soli d _par ticle s · acto r con tnb utm .
in urb an atm osp her es.) If rain g to this maY
ass ocia ted with high win d ~elo fall ene rall y ~ccurs
citie s, rns ultin g in 'dri ving rain ',
moreh pro nou nce d t~e effe ct will be
b Y t e par alle logr on the win dwa rd side tha n on the leew ard slop e as exp lain ed
am of forc es in Figu re 24.
'
1.4 .9 !\fo rma lly sky conditio_ns do not
vary per cep tibly ove r sho rt dist
Sk y . 1s an abr upt and cons1d~rable cha
nge in top ogr aph y, whi ch may
anc es, unle ss ther e
co nd itio ns per man ent clou d form atio n . The
flag -lik e per man ent clou d on the
lead to an almost
the Roc k of Gib ralt ar is a goo d exa leew ard side 01
mpl e, but it is rath er rare.
~
36
~riving rarn-
0 llefograms
pars

tors three wa ys:

nt of sol ar rad iati on ma y be infl uen ced by loc al fac
The am ou
1.4.10 gro und is affe cte d by
ore tica l hor izo nta l pla ne abo ve the
Solar rad iat ion 1 the i~t e_nsi ty on
_ a the
ncy of the atm osp her e. Atm osp
her ic pol luti on,
the tra nsp are
loc al var iati ons in
pro duc e sub sta ntia l red uct
ion s
oke , s'.11 og o~ dus t and loc al clo ud for ma tion s can the slo pe an d
sm uen ced by
the . inte nsi ty ~n the act ual gro und sur fac e is infl but inc rea s-
2. Eq uat or,
of the site , this eff ect bei ng neg ligi ble aro und the s the
~fle n~a tlon des a site slo pin g tow ard
her lati tud es. At mid -la titu
ing ly 1~por ta~ t tow ard s hig g tow ard s the Eq uat or
s rad iati on tha n one slo pin
pol e wil l rec eiv e mu ch les uen ced by the slo pe (lat er
al am ou nt of rad iati on ma y also be infl
3 the dai ly tot the rn hem isp her e) but also
sun set for a nor the rn slo pe on the nor
sun rise and ear lier y cast a sha dow ove r
eve n tre es and exi stin g bui ldin gs, wh ich ma
by nea rby hill s or nce d wh en suc h
tim es of the day . Thi s effe ct is mo st pro nou
the site at cer tain sides, it is at
eas t or we st of the site . Wh en the sun is on the se
obs tru ctio ns lie on the
g sha do w
low ang le and cas ts a lon its orie nta tion , bu t
a ver tica l bu ildi ng sur fac e wil l be affe cte d by
Ra dia tion on abo ve wil l stil l
and ori ent atio n of the site . The fac tor s und er 1 and 3
no t by the slo pe
sh ow an effe ct. wil l, of course; dep end
e of the rm al effe cts of suc h inc ide nt rad iati on
Th e ma gni tud .5) . If it is veg eta -
e qua litie s of the rec ipie nt gro und or obj ect s (see 1.4
on the sur fac
ted into che mic al energie
s and the hea ting
sol ar ene rgy is con ver t
tion , som e of the te or esp eci ally an asp hal
o mit iga ted by eva por atio n, but a sto ne, con cre ndi ng air
is als tha n the sur rou
atu re up to 44 deg C .Mg her
sur fac e can rea ch a tem per
tem per atu re.
50% at a dis tan ce of ten
be red uce d afte r a lon g hor izo nta l barri~r by
1.4.11 Wi nd spe ed can the hei ght . In add itio n to
t and by 25% at a dis tan ce of twe nty tim es
tim es the he igh The typ e of gro un d
Air movement acr oss any sur fac e is sub jec t to fric tion al eff ect s.
this , air flo win g spe ed is alw ays
win d spe ed gra die nt. Ne ar the gro und the win d
cov er aff ect s the rate of inc rea se in spe ed
her up, bu t wit h an une ven gro und cov er the
less tha n hig fac e, suc h as wa ter
t is mu ch mo re tha n wit h an unb rok en sm oot h sur
wit h he igh
(Fi gur e 25 ) . nce d at the crests of hill s.
site the gre ate st win d spe eds wil l be exp erie
On a hill y vel oci ties , exc ept in
dep res sio ns wil l nor ma lly exp erie nce low
Sm all val ley s and of win d. Th e
dir ect ion of the val ley coi nci des wit h the dir ect ion
cases wh ere the effe ct bot h in she lter ing
ced the for m of the val ley, the gre ate r is its
mo re pro no un ds. Th e eff ect of
fro m cro ss - win ds and in fun nel ling the par alle l win
the val ley flo or
this .
bu ildi ng s ma y be sim ilar to
lon g, tall sla bs or row s of me reli ef fro m sul try hea t, the cre
sts
ion s wh ere win d can pro vid e a we lco of hill s.
In reg s to the lee wa rd sid es
pre fer abl e as bu ildi ng site
and win dw ard slo pes are to loc al therma l
hea ting of air ove r bar ren gro un d oft en giv es rise s,
The da y-t ime wh irlw ind s or loc al breeze
ds, esp eci ally in ho t-d ry reg ion s. The se ma y be tter n of the ir
win eal a pa
t and car ryin g fine dus t. Ob ser vat ion s can usu ally rev
nor ma lly ho
son s of the year.
cou rse du rin g cer tain sea to loc al coa sta l breezes. On -sh ore
bre ezps
wa ter can giv e rise
Large stre tch es of ma xim um te~ per atu re by
dS

m wa ter to lan d) du rin g the day m ay lower the

(fro
 ,.....
-J
I IU ni I lillflhl m I Klfllll 1
w 11,d v11lo1111v 1\00 - pf b r11 111fllll"
u 111dh111111
\
lll\lfll

h!Hr
l·xtnnt
of hrH111d111 y
lnynr
J\00 :rno,11 "----- 100
E><tu11I
10 ho1111dory
lnyor
;'100
274m--- ---100
96
,oo 1
l
,no .

Open country
u, IJllll c:ont, o Rouoh woodod
or sea
oountry

much as 1odegC, but oro likely to Increase the humidit y. On lake shores these
breezes
010
rnro/y offoctlve beyond obout 400 m Inland, but on the sea coast the effect may
,ooch much further Inland if topography is favourable [9) .

Thunder -storms are macrocllmatic phenomena, but local topogra phy can influenc
1.4.1 2 e
their path, th eir intensity and oven their frequency. Local features particul arly affect
Specia l
the accompanying electrical phenomena. Tops of hills are mostly subjected
chara cterist ics lightning strikes to
and a tall building, which is the highest object of a large area, even
on level ground, may be an attractive target for lightnin g. Precaut ionary measure
s
must be taken accordingly.
Dust ond sond-storms are influenced by local factors, both by the ground surface
providin g sand and dust to be carried by the wind, and by topogra phy
in funn elling
or d lv errlng the wind or by causing local eddies. Sand is only drifting
along the
surface ov en in strong winds, so small barriers will effectiv ely stop its movem ent.
It
will be deposit ed at location s where the wind speed is reduced or where local
tur~ulences or eddies are formed. Smaller dust particles being in suspen sion in the
air stream are carried more freely and may reach a height of 1 500 m or more. Oust·
storms of this magnitude are macroc llmatic phenom ena, not directly affected bY
local factors. Their effect is most adverse in position s exposed to high w ind
velocil.ies. Barriers, natural or artificial, can provide adequa te protect ion, but will
exclude the possibil ity of utilising the air movem ent for cooling purpose s.
Smaller dust-storms of the ' willy - willy' type may be generat ed on quite a small
scale. At the time of maximu m solar heating {14.00 to 15.00 h) the lowest and
hottest layer of air may burst through the overlay ing cooler air with violent sudden
·
ness in the form of a whirlwi nd and carry much dust with it. Both the birth and
the
path of such whirlwi nds can depend on small -scale local feature s: topogra phy
and
surface qualities.
Earthquakes, although not srrict/y climatic phenom ena, must be conside red here.
They mostly occur in w ell -defin ed areas - seismic zones. Macros eismic informa
ti of1
Is available everywh ere and, even in the absenc e of local instrum ental recordi n gs,
In the light of geolog ical evidenc e (e.g . location of fault lines), the seismic danger
zones can be pinpointed on quite a small scale. ' lsosers mal maps', i.e. maps showi ng
lin es of equal earthquake risk, are available in many locatio ns. If not, and if the given
sito is in or near a major seismic zone, expert advice should be sought , ei th er
regarding the least risky part of a large site or just to establis h the degree of risk, 50
that appropriate precautionary measur es can be taken .
/
1.4.13
Tr ees an d vege tatio
at m os ph ere. Their
n form a . termediate I
n in
m od eratin g eff ect on th ·
ay
srt
er
e
b

c
et we en the
1rmate has al ready been
.
ea rth's su rface and th
refe rred to
e 37

. . e
vegetatio n · h co n text of air tempe ratu , h umrdrty rad ' t' . t. By cove ring
rn t e re . ' ra ron and arr movemen
. n th . gher layer
t he gr ou nd wrth vegetatio , e su rface of co nt act rs transferred to a hi
rth the
y regions of the ea
. . .
four to tw 1
an d rs increased
be ne fic ia~ climatic
:v
effect of ve t~me~
t e lig
.
ht
In
e
all ho t an d dr
st plant cove r is quite cons ider
able .
Va lu ab le in fo rm at
io n fo r si /n from the obser-
la n~ sc ap ing can be obtaine~ d
vegetation. ~~ ha :d sorl, water, sun an
va tio n of ex is tin g wo rk rn g k~owledge of the en tif y the
w in d requ irements
of com I ts, th e designer should be able to id
re n _m o~ p a_ n exist in g ve ge tation .
major ar eas of diffe m at e, as in di ca te d by the
ces rn srte cli
I' from
e en vi ro nm en ts can creat .
rc ro c rm ate s of th eir own, deviating
M an - mad of th . e m extent of man 's
1.4.14 the m ac ro cl im at e t? de gr ee depending on the
. t e re~r on a greatest in large
Urban cl im at e in te rv en tion. Such 1 n wr th the na tu ral environment is
; . .' h ~ ~r~entro e to speak of an 'urban climate'
ow ns or crt re s, t us rt rs Justifiabl · ate from th·e regional macro-
g de vi at ' f h ur ba n cli m
The factors causin rons o t e
. llo wi ng :
chmate are th e fo
reased absorbance
(p av em en ts an d buildings) - inc
ce qualities
a ch an ge ~ ~urfareduced evaporation
.
of solar radrat ro n; also channelling
d ac tin g as ba rriers to winds, but
ing a s~ ad ow an heat in
b. building_s- ca~t e in ve lo cit y or by storing absorbed
th localised incre as
wr ~d s po ss ib ly wr ly releasing it at ni gh t
therr mass and sl
ow ; the ou tp ut
an d ve nt ila tio n of heated buildings
e - th ro ug h walls space
c energy se ep ag g (re m ov in g he at from the controlled
in
ts and air co nd iti on bustion engines an
d electrical
of refrigeration plan of in te rn al co m
r); heat ou tp ut large factories
to the ou ts id e ai , es pe cially furnaces and
s fro m . in du st ry tic and industrial
ap pl iances; heat los st e pr od uc ts of boilers and domes reduce
d atmospheric 'po
llution - wa d va po ur s, wh ic h both tend to
fu m es an
t from motor-cars; e a barrier to ou t-
ch im ne ys ; exhaus e di ffu se ra diation and provid
ion bu t increa se th ay assist in
di re ct solar radiat lid pa rti cle s. in ur ban atmosphere m
e presence of so urable conditions
go in g ra di at io n . Th ce rainfall under favo
fo g an d in du
the fo rm at io n of bstantial.
de vi at io ns may be quite su ding countryside
The ex te nt of
be 8 de gC hi gh er than in the surroun
ci ty can
Air temperature in a ported.
11 degC has been re of f of ra in -w at er
and a di ffe re nc e of by 5 to 10 % , du e to the quick ru n-
reduced er temperature .
Relative humidity is of ve getation and to high
to th e ab se nc e adjoining open
fro m paved areas, to les s th an half of that in the
redu ce d ug h gaps
Wind velocity can be on g a clo se ly bu ilt -u p stree1 or th ro
fu nn el lin g ef fe ct
al rong turbulences
co un try , bu t the m or e th an do ub le the ve lo ci ty. St
bl oc ks can structions .
be tw ee n ta ll slab at th e le eward corners of ob
o be se t up
and eddies can als
method
e is av ai la bl e al m ost everywhere . A
mat ven in 1.2. 16 .
e regional macrocli d form has been gi
1.4.15 Data re la tin g to th hi c an d ta bu la te
As the
ch data in gr ap e for a given site.
of su m m ar is in g su ta be av ai la bl
Site cl im at ic rly reliable measu
red da
region , it is best to
start w ith the
data Rarely w ill si m ila e sa m e as fo r a
s for a site are th para-
cl im at ic parameter ue nt st ep , ex am ine wh ic h of the
subseq
al data and, in a wh at the extent of
such devia-
su m m ar y of region ifi c fa ct or s an d
cted by local spec the tables can be
meters w ill be affe ap h an d th e values in cl ud ed in
. The climat e gr fact can be
tio ns is lik el y to be de via tio ns ar e no t certain , this
gl y. Where such
ch an ge d ac co rd in
remarks
sh ow n. be us ed w ith on ly some qu al ita tiv e
regional data may ctory, as the co nc
lu si on s to be
In m os t cases the be qu ite sa tis fa
vi at io ns . This may qu al ita tiv e only.
regarding local de w ill m os t often be
ch in fo rm at io n
dr aw n fro m su
 41
Th er ma l co m fo rt f a ct or s

2.1 .1 Intr odu ctio n

2 .1 .2 The bod y's heat pro duc tion
2.1 .3 The bod Ys hea t Jos s
2.1' .4 Reg uf ato ry mec han ism s
men ts
2.1 .5 Hea t lo:s s in variou s the rma l env iron
y
2.1. 6 Ca lm, war m air, mo der ate hum idit
2.1'. 7 Hot air and con side rab le rad iatf on
afr mo vem ent
2.1. 8 Hot air, rad iat ion. and app rec iab le
per atu re
2~1 .9
1
Sat ura ted , stil l air, abo ve bod y tem
2.1'. 10 Eff ects o f pro lon ged exp osu re
2~1.1 1 Sub ject ive variab les

essential
of acti vity, fatigue and recovery. It is
2.1.1 Our dail y life cyc le com prises states nter -
ugh recreation, rest and slee p to cou
t hat the min d and bod y recovers thro
Intr odu ctio n ue resulting from activities of the day [ 19].
balance the mentaJ and physical fatig
d by unfavourable clim atic conditions
and
Th is cycle can be and is ofte n impede may
causes ciiscomfort. loss of effic ienc y and
the resulting stress on bod y and mind , is ther efor e,
lth. The effect of climate on man
eve ntua lly lead to a brea kdo wn of hea
[20 ] .
a fact or of considerable importance is not
the best possible indo or climate (it
The task of the designer is to create judg e the
ns) . The occ upa nts of a buil ding
feasible to regulate out- doo r con ditio umu -
well as an emotionaJ poin t of view. Acc
qua lity of the design from a physicaJ as on t he
omf ort con tribu te to our total verd ict
lated sensations of wel l-be ing or disc It is a
ol, office or fact ory where we wor k.
house in whi ch we live and the scho whi ch
tow ards the opti mum of tota l com fort,
challenge for the designer to strive wel l-be ing.
complete physical and mental
may be defi ned as the sensation of but far
been published on the physical side;
Considerable info rma tion has by now
env iron men t.
less on the emo tion al aspects of our the
n each of the human senses. In
Criteria of totaJ com fort depend upo our
ject ive- emo tion al relationships with
follo win g paragraphs, whi le the sub thermal
main emphasis is pfaced upo n human
environment may be men tion ~, the siol ogic al
lem in trop ical climates. The phy
comfort, whi ch is the dom inan t prob by
ns, here described, can be verified
responses to spe cific clim atic conditio
controlled experiments.
criteria dates back in Europe abo ut 150
Interest in establishing thermal com fort

J
 years, to the be gin nin g ol
the nin ete ent h cen tur y, wh
me n\ 101 the ,el mm ol con dit en it sta rte d wit h the rn 0
ion s in indust<Y and hou ·1 .sin
d g, Ba
. sic wa rm. th crite 1
we re fas t established in the . ' t'•·1 V/ i
min ing , metal and text1 e m .
illness due to h~a t and hum ustnes, as acc ide nt s ana
idit y stresses were former IY 1
Hu ma n response to the therma qui te com mo n .
l env iron me nt doe O
alone. It has been established · s not dept end hon air'd 'tem per
beyond dou bt tha t air tembpe 1 atu, e
and ai, movement all pio duc e the ra u~ed, udm _ ity, radiatio
1mal· effects, and mu·st e con
it human responses are to be h s,ff ere fs1m u\t ane ous1"v
predicted. To appreciate t
lac tots , it is necessal\l to exa e e ect o the se clirn .
mine bliefly the basic the tm al
prn ces ses of the hu~'.:
body .
Heat is continuously produc
ed by the body. Mo st of the
2 ., .2 involved in tissue-building, ene1gy bio che mic al proces
,h e bo dv 's conve1sion and muscular wo rk
i.e. heat producing . All energy · I · f h are exo the" '
he at tram the consumption and digest
and matena require ments o t e bo dy are sup rm
ion of pl' ·
foo d. The prn ces ses involved
production foodstuff into living matter and use
ful f01m of energy a,e kno wn as
in conven:•d
The total metabolic heat pro metabolism [2~:
duction can be div ide d into basal metab
the heat production of vegeta
. . tive, automatic processes wh ich
olism • ·
t e muscu ar meta o ,sm, 1.e. are con tin uo us,' and
'-~.
h · I/ b I the heat pro duc tion of mu scl
conscious y controlled work. es wh ilst car ryin g
Of all the energy pro duc ed
20%. is utilised, the remaining in the bo dy, on ly bout
80% is 'surplus' heat and mu
st be dis sip ate d ta out
envuonment. 0~
Thi
h s exc·ess
· hea t pro duc tion varies wit h the overall me
on t ~ act1~1ty . 1he _f~l_lowing tab olic rate and de
, pen ds
table indicates the rate of exc
body in various act1v1t1es. ess hea t ou tpu t of th
e
Activity
wat ts
Sleeping
Sinin~. m~ era te movement, min . 70
e.g. typ ing 130 -160
Standing, hght wor k at machine
or ben ch 160 -190
Sitting.: heavy arm and leg mov
ements
Stan~ing, moderate wor k, som 190-230
e wal king
Walking, moderate lifti ng or 220 -290
pus hing
290-41 0
Intermittent heavy liftin g, dig
gin g
Hardest sustained wor k 440-580
Ma ximum heavy wor k for 30- 580 -700
min ute s dur atio n
ma x. 1100
(Average values of data pub
lished .m ma ny sources)

2.1 .3 The deep body temperature

order to maintain body tern must remain ba
Th e bo dy 's d' • . lanced
perature at this stead Iand con sta nt aro und 37 °c. In
issipated to the environment
he at loss ( ] If h . Y eveI, all sur plu s heat mu
from the environment (e g sola 21
The r d..
· · hea ra 1at1on or w
~ ere is some form of simultaneous heatstgain be
bod y can release t to its • ) th
. arm air at also mu st be dis sip ated.
evaporation - and to a lesser
extent by env1~on~ent b_ y con
Convection is due to heat tra vec tion , rad iati on and
~
th e k' .
m or clo thin g wh ich then nsm
. _con uct1on ( Figure 26)
rises1ss1on d . from th b d
e
[22 ] .
vect,ve heat loss is increased o y to the air in con tac t with
t by a faatn is replaced by coo
pera u~e and a hig • s ler air. The rate of con ·
her skin temperatureer rate of air
movement, by a low er air terT
Radiant '·
temperaturehea t loss depends on th ·
of opp osi ng sur f aces. e temperature of the
bod y sur fac e and the
Evaporation heat loss is gov
dep end s on the hum idit y of erned b
air (th e dry~r t:e ra_te of eva
on the am oun t of moisture por atio n, "'h ich in turn
availabl f e air, the fas
the lun gs thr oug h bre ath ing ter the eva por atio n) and
d e or
sw eat . , an on the eva por atio n.
ski n as ·imp Evapor. ation takes place if1
erc ept ible per spi rat ion an d
-
/4s SodY heat exch ange
43

~~
\ /_ Sweat
Exhalation J
\ ,_.,_,_.-?!':::::;, 0ersp1
lnse~ibl~ Evapo ration

>-?r·
,-,-~ rat1on

, :~ Conve ction

Radiation

,
Condu ction

difference between the body surface

Con duct ion depe nds on the temperatu re
w ith.
and the obje ct the body is in direc t contact

by Figure 27 (22] and can be expressed

The thermal balance of the body is show n
2.1.4 by an equa tion. If the heat gain and heat loss
factors are:
Regulatory cular)
mechanisms Gain : Met = meta bolis m (basal and mus
Cnd = cond uctio n (con tact with warm bodies)
the skin)
Cnv = conv ectio n (if the air is warmer than
hot bodies)
Rad = radia tion (from the sun, the sky and
cold bodies)
Loss: Cnd = cond uctio n (con tact with
the skin)
Cnv = conv ectio n (if the air is cooler than
ces)
Rad = radiation (to nigh t sky and cold surfa
Evp = evaporation ( of moisture and swe at)

then thermal balance exists whe n

Met -Evp ±Cn d ±Cn v ±Ra d = 0

Deep body
Fig 27 temperature
Thermal balance of
the body
J
+
Convection
Conduction
Radiation Evaporation
Shivering Radiation
Basal - Convection
meta bolis m Conduction
Activ ity
 Th erm al co mf ort ind ice s 47

2 .2.1 Sear ch for a com fort scale

2.2.2 Effe ctive temp erat ure
2.2.3 Corr ecte d effe ctive temp eratu re
2.2.4 Equi vale nt warm th
2.2.5 Ope rativ e temp erat ure
2.2.6 Equa toria l com fort inde x
2.2.7 Resu ltant temp erat ure
2.2.8 Pred icted four hour swe at rate
2.2.9 Heat stres s inde x
2.2.1 0 The bioc lima tic char t
2.2.1 1 Inde x of ther mal stres s
2.2.1 2 Com fort scale s and desi gn

clima tic cond itions on the body 's

2.2.1 When the desig ner want s to assess the effec t of
diffic ulty of having to handle four
Sear ch for a heat dissip ation processes, he is faced with the
the past 50 years many attem pts
com fort sca le indep ende nt varia bles simu ltane ously . Durin g
carried out in order to devise a
have been made and many expe rimen ts have been
four factors. Such scales are
singl e scale whic h comb ines the effec ts of these
fort scales·.
colle ctive ly referred to as 'therm al indice s' or 'com
built and used, in which any
In most of these expe rimen ts speci al rooms were
ced at will. A numb er of expe ri-
set of indoo r clima tic cond ttions could be produ
they were asked to record their
ment al subje cts were locat ed in the room, and
each variation in the cond itions ,
subje ctive react ions on a ques tionn aire after
to 'very cold' The many answ ers
acco rding to a set scale exten ding from 'very hot'
s plotte d on a graph, in most cases
were then evalu ated statis tically , and the result
rimen tally found relationships.
produ cing a nomo gram whic h defin es the expe
differ ent thermal index scales.
Vario us research work ers have devis ed some thirty
ing paragraphs.
The most impo rtant ones are descr ibed in the follow

and Yaglo u in 1923 , work ing at the

2.2 .2# The first such scale was produ ced by Houg hton
Engineers. Their findin gs were
Effe ctiv e Amer ican Socie ty of Heat ing and Venti lating
l comf ort lines' (Figu re 28). They
tem pera ture plotte d on a psyc hrom etric chart, produ cing 'equa
it can be defin ed as the temp era-
(ET) name d the new scale as effec tive temperature and
d, in the af>sence of radiation,
ture of a still, satur ated atmosphere, which woul
 tur es are higher, bu t un su ita ble
for the con-if 'JIii
mi dit ies if ter l)P era Ort ~ 0
for low er hu

✓
· ne.
en ts [33 ] ha ve sh ow n tha t un de r ov erh ea ted -c nd
So me Au str alia n ex ;,e rim ity ) wi ll alr ea dy prot duth ce dis co mf or,t theiti0 Ds
n
2. 2. 10 wh en low me tab olic rat es (lig ht ac tiv
. . ~ JU . d ge me n. s an ET values. 0 aj
Th e be tte r wit h sub Jec t1v
values correlate mur,h a, tha t the re is nO ri t~e
lim at ic ila r do ub ts V 01 gya y arrived at the ide
bi oc basis of thi s en d sim
as each of the fou r co mp on
en ts a Poin,
s,,n gle -fig ure ind ex,
ch ar t in co ns tru cti ng a co ns tru cte d a bio cli ma tic ch art (Fi gu
re ~ Con.
9
an s. He has
tro lleb le by differertit me T an d RH , bu t su bs eq uently) . on
de fin ed in terms of DB
wh ich the co mf ort zone is ,mf ort zone Is pu sh ed up by the
· pres '' is
line s, ho w thi s cc. ~e or
sh ow n, by ad dit ian al d by rad iat ion [34 ], Alt ho ug h his conc~n 8 0
it is low ere
air movements an d ho w t tha t a rel iab le co mf ort ind ex sti ll hlJas' ,ns
y val id, it is fel • 1s
are seen to be pe rfe ctl . co mm un rcat'ion .
d as a me an s o f co nc ise
usefulness as a gu ide an
y of ma ny pre vio us ly
an d ch ec kin g the va lid ity an d rel iab ilit
Aft er rev iew ing t pri nc ipl es [~sed
2. 2.11 i set ou t to es tab lish a ne w ind ex fro m firs
t he rm al ind ice s Giv on e prodlJ SJ.
ve lop ed by him is the ca lcu lat ed co oli ng rat
In de x o f rhe ind ex of the rm al str ess de giv en conditioced
al st ro ss wo uld ma int ain the rm al ba lan ce un de r the
t he rm b y sw ea tin g, wh ich
ph ys ica l mo de l of the ma n-e
nv iro nrn ns.
on a ref ine d bio
{ I TS ) The ca lcu lat ion is based cti ve an d object~v~t
. Th e ind ex tak es int o ac co un t all the su bje
the rm al sys tem to ov erh ea ted conditions
s. Its us efu lne ss ex ten ds fro m co mf ort ab le
the rm al fac tor ba lan ce .
olo gic al ad jus tm en ts are ab le to ma int ain the rm al
as far as the ph ysi ll pro ba bly be restricted
the rat he r co mp lex ca lcu lat ion s involved, its us e wi
Due to ne rs.
ll no t be us ed by pra cti tio
to research wor}<ers a_nd it wi
tio n and
ve so me lim ita tio ns in the ir pra cti ca l ap pli ca
Mo st existing indices ha
me of these· dif fic ult ies ari
se fro m the fact
2 .2 .12 dif fer en t co nd itio ns . So
usefulness un de r va ryi ng ind oo r cli ma tic
con -
C om ,fo rt ca rrie d ou t un de r wi de ly
tha t the experiments were dif fer en t. As a co ns eq ue
nc e of this,
sc al ss an d dit ion s - also the ex pe rim en tal me tho ds we re
ran ge of co nd itio ns - not
ds sign lid and us efu l for a lim ite d
each of the ind ice s is va
un ive rsa lly. res ult of a nu mb er of
on ly ex ce pti on is the CE T scale, wh ich is the
Perhaps the u. This
al ET sca le de ve lop ed by Ho ug hto n an d Ya glo
gin
im pro ve me nts on the ori de rst oo d scale - alt ho ug h its
ac cu rac y is
ed an d be st un
is the mo st wi de ly us ] it is ad eq ua te un de r mo st co
nd itio ns . It
ea rch wo rke rs [36
cu ,ub ted by so me res cti on s as a me tho d for tra
ns lat ing regional
gh ou t the fol low ing se
wi ll be us ed thr ou lish in! f
igl e ind ex fig ure , to be us ed as a gu ide in es tab
a sir
an d sit e cli ma tic da ta int o
the ind oo r cli ma te.
the rm al co mf or t cri ter ia for d, as no sin gle fig ure ind ex ca n be a
ve r, em ph as ise
Th e wo rd 'gu ide ' is, ho we cli ma tic fac tor s.
de tai led inf orm ati on rel ati ng to ea ch of the fou r
su bs titu te for
 75
Heat exchang e of building s

3.2.1 Heat exchange processes

3.2.2 Conduction
3.2.3 Convection
3.2.4 Radiation through windows
3.2.5 Internal heat gain
3.2.6 Heating and cooling
3.2 .7 Evaporation
3.2.8 Heat loss calculation
3 .2 .9 Heat gain calculation
3.2 .10 Cooling by air
3.2.11 Heating by air
3.2.12 Transmittan ce of composite walls
3.2.13 Thermal gradients
3.2.14 Condensatio n
3.2.15 Thermal design

3.2.1 In section 2.1 (especially 2.1.4) the human body was consiqered as a defined unit
Heat exchange and its heat exchange processes with the environment were analysed. The building
can similarly be considered as a defined unit and its heat exchange processes with
Processes
the out-door environment can be examined (see Figure 39) :

Fig 39
He_at exchange of
bu ildings
 a Conduction ot heat may occur through the walls either inwards or 0
the rate ot which will be denoted as Oc (convective and radiant componen~t~a,Cla 'V
. h
transfer of the same heat at the surfaces are inclu d ed in t e term: transmittan
s Ir, '
t~~
b The effects of solar radiation on opaque surfaces can be included in thece)
0
by using the sol-air temperature concept, but through transparent surfaces bo1,,~
dows) the solar heat gain must be considered separately. It may be denoted (~il'l.
c Heat exchange in either direction may take place with the movement of as 0,
81
ventilation, and the rate of this will be denoted as Ov '· i.e
d An internal heat gain may result from the heat output of human bodies
• 1all)
motors and appliances. This may be denoted as Q ; Ps.
e There may be a deliberate introduction or removal of heat (heating or co .
0 111'1
using some form of outside energy supply. The heat flow rate of such mechan _9).
1
controls may be denoted as Om ca1
f Finally, if evaporation takes place on the surface of the building (e.g. a roof
or within the building (human sweat or water in a fountain) and the vapo Pool)
removed, this will produce a cooling effect, the rate of which will be denoted ~:s are
0•
The thermal balance, i.e. the existing thermal condition is maintained if:
O; +O. ±0 0 ±Ov ±.Om -a. = 0
If the sum of this equation is less than zero (negative), the building will be .
d 'f · · h .
an 1 1t 1s more t an zero, the temperature 1n the building w i ll i ncrease. cooling
These factors will be examined in the following paragraphs.

3.2.2 Conduction heat flow rate through a wall of a given area can be describ d b
Conduction equation: e Y t~

0 0 =AxUx 6 T
where Q 0 = conduction heat flow rate, in w
A = surface area, i n m 2
u = transmittance value, in W /m 2 degC
"T = temperature difference
For a whole building, enclosed by vario 1
•
differences varying from side to side th us e ements_an~ possibly the temperature
and the results are added. ' e above equation is solved for each element
If heat loss from a building is considered:
t,T= T-TI 0

If heat gain in, say, an air conditioned bui ldi ng is calcu lated:
"T = To -T,

and if in the latter case a surface is als .

0
exposed to solar radiation-
"T = T. -T; ·

where T; = inside air temperature

3.2.3 Convection heat flow rate b t . .

Convection e ween the 1nterio O f
d epen d s on the rate of ventilati - . air,
. . r a bu1ld1ng and the open .
. fl . on, i.e. air exchan Th' . I air
in ' trat,on or may be deliberate . . ge. Is may be unintent1ona .
3
m /s. 1
vent, ation. The rate of ventilation can be given 10
The rate of ventilation heat flow . d .
is escnbed by the equation-
0 v = 1 300 x V x /J,T .
where
0 = ventilation heat flow rate . W
1 300 = volumetric specific heat ~/n - J/ 3
V = vent,·1at,on
. rate, in mJ/s air, m degC
T = temperature difference, degC
 · be 77
If the nu mb er of air ch en the ven tila tion rate can
nd as: anges per ho ur (N) is giv
fou

N x roo m vol um e
V=
36 00
onds in an hou r) .
(3 600 is the num ber of sec

. . kno wn -
If the inte nsi ty of sola d' • the plane of the win do w is2
th ' •t If b . r ra iati on (/) inc ide nt on w rate (W /m it wil l
3.2.4 I
erng a val ue den otin g a den sity of energy flo
) -

is se 2 ) to get the heat flo

w rate
Radiation ltip lied by .the area of the aperture onl y (m
_have to be mu
through rn wa tts .
lazed aperture. For glazed
windows t flo w rate thr oug h an ung
. This wo ~ld be the hea wh ich depends on the
val ue wil l be red uce d by a solar gai n fac tor (0)
wrn ~o ws this given in Figure 55
ss and on the ang le of incidence. Values of 0 are
qu alit y of the gla
(see 4.2 .9) .
ed as:
n can therefore be establish
The solar heat flo w equ atio
0 . =A x/ x0
w. in m 2
wh ere A = area of win do
, in W/ m 2
I = rad iati on heat flo w density
do w glass
0 = solar gai n fac tor of win
a
in 2.1 .2. Heat out put from
hea t ou tpu t rate of hum an bodies has been given t out put
The g. Thus the hea
3.2.5 is a heat gain for the bui ldin
bod y (in sid e the bui ldin g) be selected and mu ltip lied
Internal he at e to the act ivit y to be acc om mo dat ed must
rate app rop riat l be a sig nifi can t com pon
ent
gain nts . The result, in wa tts, wil
by the num ber of occ upa
of 0 ,. as internal heat
of ene rgy em iss ion of electric lamps can be taken
The tota l rate (95% for incandescent lam
ps
n. The larg er par t of this energy is emitted as heat inc ide nt on
gai d as light, wh en
lamps) and the part emitte
and 79% for fluo res cen t ttage of all lamps
be con ver ted into hea t. Co nse que ntly the total wa
surfaces, wil l O;.
in use) must be added to the
in the bui ldin g (if and wh e~ it are bot h located (and ope rat ing )
c mo tor and the ma chine driven by
If an ele ctri as 0;. (If the hp
ce, the tota l wa ttag e of the mo tor must be taken
in the same spa x hp.)
ttag e can be fou nd: W = 746
of a mo tor is kno wn , its wa
is E, then W x E useful
tor onl y is in the spa ce considered and its eff icie ncy
If the mo wil l con trib ute to 0; .
e, but W (1 - E) heat flo w
po we r is ut.ilised elsewher
wit h in greater det ail in
ling , i.e. me cha nical con tro ls wil l be dealt
He atin g and coo designer's inte n-
3.2.6 hea t flo w rate of the se systems is subject to the
Se ctio n 4.1. The ent variable
Heating an d rat ely con tro llab le. It can thus be taken as a dep end
tions and it is del ibe balance of the oth er factors
.
cooling equ atio n, i.e. it can be adjusted acc ord ing to the
in the
of eva por atio n
by eva por atio n can onl y be calculated if the rate
3.2.7 The rate of coo ling the cor res pon din g heat
kno wn . If the eva por atio n rate is expressed in kg/ h,
itse lf is
Evaporation
loss rate can be fou nd :

Oe = 666 X kg/h
tely 2 400 kJ/ kg,
hea t of eva por atio n of wa ter around 20° C is app rox ima
as the late nt
this gives:
24 00 00 0 J/s = 666 W
24 00 00 0 J/h =
36 00
rarely be don e
of eva por atio n rate is a more diff icu lt task and it can
_The estimation ),
ally con tro lled con diti ons
h any deg ree of acc ura cy (ex cep t under me cha nic
wit