University of the Assumption

College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Architecture
Unisite Subdivision, Del Pilar, City of San Fernando, Pampanga

ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES

Requirements for the Subject

ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES (C-BECARST 3)
And for the Degree
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

SUBMITTED BY:
KEANNAH NICOLE G. ESTACIO
RYAN CARLO G. JIMENEZ

SUBMITTED TO:
AR. JOSEPH EDWARD DELA CRUZ

JULY 18, 2024

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. Architectural Structures ........................................................................................ 3

B. Simply Supported Structures ............................................................................. 4-6

C. Indeterminate Structures ................................................................................. 7-14

D. Simply Supported R.C. Beams ...................................................................... 15-33

E. Design of One Way and Two Way Slab ........................................................ 34-94

F. Continuous Beams ...................................................................................... 95-110

G. Irregular Beams, T-Beams, Slab, and Column .......................................... 111-146

H. References ................................................................................................ 147-149

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 ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES

What is Architectural structures?

An architectural structure embodies the fusion of human creativity and

engineering expertise, representing a harmonious blend of aesthetics and
practicality. Many ancient constructions stand as testaments to human ingenuity,
showcasing the meticulous use of natural materials and the mastery of
construction techniques to meticulously channel and optimize the forces at play
within the architectural elements.

Through the ages, the discipline of architecture leaned heavily on empirical

rules until the end of the Renaissance, resulting in the utilization of excessive
materials and oversized components. However, the dawn of the 17th century
brought about a transformative era with the development of modern calculus and
experimental techniques that allowed for the establishment of rational design
standards based on a deep comprehension of the mechanical properties of
materials. This marked the beginning of the optimization of material cross-sections
and volumes to enhance construction efficiency.

The evolution of refined design criteria, state-of-the-art computational tools,

innovative structural materials, and new typologies from the 20th century onwards
has propelled the ability to further optimize material volumes and rationalize their
usage. Today, the union of architectural and engineering mastery empowers the
creation of slender, graceful structures that meet and exceed all architectural and
engineering demands. (L.F.A. Bernardo, 2020)

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 SIMPLY SUPPORTED STRUCTURES

What are simply supported structures?

Fig. 1: Simple Connection of a Beam

Retrieved: https://web.mit.edu/4.441/1_lectures/1_lecture13/simple2.gif

Simply supported structures are characterized by beams or slabs that are

supported at their ends, allowing for rotational freedom. This design allows for
deflection under load, and notably does not provide resistance to horizontal
forces or moments, allowing the structure to freely move and deform
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.

Why are simply supported structures important?

The importance of simply supported structures is derived from their

widespread application in civil engineering and construction. These structures
are fundamental in providing support and stability to various building designs.
By efficiently distributing loads and resisting external forces, they play a crucial
role in ensuring the safety and durability of constructed infrastructures. Their

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 cost-effectiveness and ability to maximize material efficiency further contribute
to their significance in the field of structural engineering.

Examples of simply supported structures are as follows:

1) Bridges
a) Beam bridges
b) Truss bridges
c) Arch bridges

2) Buildings
a) Residential structures
b) Commercial structures
c) Industrial structures

3) Other Structures
a) Canopies
b) Shelves and racks
c) Signage structures

Advantages and Disadvantages of Simply Supported Structures:

 Advantages:
o Cost-effectiveness: Simply supported structures are often cost-effective to
construct due to their simple design and lower material requirements.

o Ease of construction: These structures are relatively easier to construct

compared to other more complex structural forms, which can lead to
reduced construction time and labor costs.

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 o Structural stability: When designed and constructed properly, simply
supported structures can provide excellent stability under applied loads,
making them suitable for a wide range of applications.

 Disadvantages:
o Span limitations: Simply supported structures are typically best suited for
shorter spans and may not be the most efficient option for longer spans
where other structural forms like continuous beams or trusses might be
more appropriate.

o Load-bearing capacity: While effective for certain applications, simply

supported structures may have limitations in terms of their load-bearing
capacity, especially when compared to more robust structural systems.

o Design complexity and constraints: Designing simply supported

structures to meet specific requirements, such as accommodating complex
load patterns or unique architectural features, may present challenges and
constraints that could necessitate alternative structural solutions.

Conclusion

In conclusion simply supported structures are in wide spread used due to it

being cost effective due to its simplicity which eases construction as compare to
its more complex counterparts while providing excellent structural stability under
applied loads. Though there are certain limitations such as it is only use for shorter
spans and may not be as efficient on longer span. Furthermore, due to its simplicity
it may not be suited for various type of structure that has a complex load pattern

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 INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

What are Determinate Structures?

Structures that are statically determinate are structures where the 3

Equilibrium equations can be used to calculate the reaction forces and the internal
forces. (Ernst & Ernst, 2023)

 Vertical equilibrium: ∑𝑉=0

 Horizontal equilibrium: ∑𝐻=0
 Moment equilibrium: ∑M=0

These structures can be as follows:

a. Simply supported beam (see figure below).

Fig. 2
Retrieved: https://bitly.cx/XySw
b. Cantilever beam

Fig. 3
Retrieved: https://shorturl.at/iHa1O

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 c. Column (roller + pin support)

Fig. 4
Retrieved: https://shorturl.at/ZLpn9
d. 3-hinge arch
e. Truss (Not all trusses)

What are Indeterminate Structures?

Fig. 5: Free body diagram of a statically indeterminate beam

Retrieved: https://bitly.cx/QebA3

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 A structure is considered statically indeterminate (redundant structure)
when it cannot be analyzed using only equilibrium equations. Additional conditions,
such as compatibility conditions for deformations, need to be employed along with
the fundamental equilibrium equations to determine the unknown reactions
required for drawing bending moment and shear force diagrams. (Namita, 2022)

The degree of indeterminacy D for beams and frames is calculated as

𝐷=3𝑛+𝑟–3𝑗–𝑐

Where:

 n = amount of members
 r = external restraints (number of support reactions)
 j = number of joints
 c = number of releases introduced (internal hinges)

These structures can be as follows:

 Three Span Continuous Beam

Fig. 6: Statical determinacy calculation of a 3 span continuous beam.

Retrieved: https://shorturl.at/9HEvv

𝐷=3⋅3+5–3⋅4–0=9+5–12=2

D = 2 means that the structure is statically indeterminate to the 2nd degree.

The reaction & internal forces CAN NOT be calculated by the 3 Equilibrium
equations.

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  3 Span Continuous Beam with Hinge

Fig. 7: Statical determinacy calculation of a 3 span continuous beam with a hinge

Retrieved: https://rb.gy/gahziw

𝐷=3⋅4+5–3⋅5–1=12+5–15–1=1

D = 1 means that the structure is statically indeterminate to the 1st degree.

The reaction & internal forces CAN NOT be calculated by the 3
Equilibrium equations.

 Trusses

Fig. 5: statically determined and indetermined trusses

Retrieved: https://shorturl.at/NGeDO

The degree of indeterminacy D for trusses is calculated as

𝐷=𝑛+𝑟–2𝑗

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 Where

 n = amount of members
 r = external restraints (number of support reactions)
 j = number of joints

 Warren Truss

Fig. 6: Statical determinacy of a Warren Truss

Retrieved: https://rb.gy/ge6lxa
𝐷=11+3–2⋅7=0

D = 0 means that the structure is statically determinate. The reaction &

internal forces can be calculated by the 3 Equilibrium equations.

 Howe Truss

Fig. 7: Statical determinacy of a Howe Truss

Retrieved: https://rb.gy/7dr818

𝐷=21+3–2⋅12=0

D = 0 means that the structure is statically determinate. The reaction &

internal forces can be calculated by the 3 Equilibrium equations

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Indeterminate Structures are classified into two types these are:

Externally Indeterminate

The reaction/support forces in an externally statically determinate

structure can be calculated by the 3 Equilibrium equations. If the reaction
components can’t be calculated, then the structure is externally statically
indeterminate. (L. Ernst, 2023)

Internally Indeterminate

Compared to External determinacy, the internal forces (Moment, Shear &

Normal force) can be calculated by the 3 Equilibrium equations additionally to
the reaction/support forces in an Internally Statically Determinate Structure. If
the internal forces and reaction components can’t be calculated, then the structure
is Internally Indeterminate. (L. Ernst, 2023)

A truss is statically determinate internally if the total number of members

m=2j – 3

where j= number of joints. A truss having more than (2j – 3) members is

statically indeterminate or redundant, the degree of indeterminacy or redundancy
being equal to the number of extra members.

Fig. 8

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 Retrieved: https://shorturl.at/vMS0v

Thus the truss shown in figure 6(a) is statically redundant by one degree
because there are 14 members and 8 joints. Number of redundant members = m=
2j – 3 = 14 – (16 – 3) = 1 Similarly, the truss shown in figure 6(b) is internally
redundant by two degrees. The internally indeterminate trusses can be analysed
by strain energy method.

Difference between Determinate and Indeterminate Structures (Mishra, 2017)

S.
Determinate Structures Indeterminate Structures
No.

Conditions of equilibrium are not

Equilibrium conditions are fully
1 adequate to fully analyze the
adequate to analyze the structure.
structure.

Bending moment or shear force at Bending moment or shear force

2 any section is independent of the at any section depends upon the
material property of the structure. material property.

The bending moment or shear The bending moment or shear

force at any section is independent force at any section depends
3
of the cross-section or moment of upon the cross-section or
inertia. moment of inertia.

Temperature variations do not Temperature variations cause

4
cause stresses. stresses.

No stresses are caused due to lack Stresses are caused due to lack
5
of fit. of fit.

Extra conditions like compatibility

Extra conditions like compatibility
of displacements are required to
6 of displacements are not required
analyze the structure along with
to analyze the structure.
the equilibrium equations.

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Advantages of Indeterminate Structures

The stress produced by indeterminate structures is less than that in

determinate structures. In terms of stiffness, indeterminate structures typically
exhibit greater stiffness (resulting in minimal deformation) than determinate
structures.

When specific areas of the framework are under excessive stress or fail
following the formation of plastic hinges, statically indeterminate structures have
the ability to redistribute the loads to neighboring sections of the structure. (Namita,
2022)

Disadvantages of Indeterminate Structures

Indeterminate structures have certain drawbacks compared to determinate

structures. One disadvantage is that they require a more complex analysis, which
can be more time-consuming and challenging compared to the relatively
straightforward analysis needed for determinate structures. Additionally,
indeterminate structures are more sensitive to stresses caused by support
settlements, which can lead to additional complexities in their design and
maintenance. (Namita, 2022)

Conclusions

In conclusion indeterminate structures are capable of resisting greater

loading stress than determinate structures due to its ability to efficiently distribute
the load through its structural members, but due to its capability to handle complex
loads it also presents a certain drawback such as requiring a more complex
structural analysis which increases the time being consumed by engineers and or
architects when designing a structure as compared to the simplicity determinate
structures promotes. (R.C. Jimenez, 2024)

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 SIMPLY SUPPORTED R.C. BEAMS

What are Simply Supported Reinforced Concrete Beams?

Fig. 9: R.C. beam isometric

Retrieved: https://rb.gy/5q0ocn

Beams that are simply supported have one span with a support at each end,
one being a pinned support and the other a roller support. The ends of these
beams can rotate freely and do not offer any resistance to moment. There are
many common and useful applications for beams that are simply supported.
(Simply Supported Reinforced Concrete Beam Analysis and Design (ACI 318-14),
n.d.)
Examples of structures that uses reinforced concrete beams:

 Warehouse structures
 High-rise buildings
 Residential buildings

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  Stadiums
 Airports
 Bridges
 Factories
 A concrete core of a high-rise building is also seen as a beam
transferring the horizontal wind loads to the foundation
 Office buildings

Importance of Simply Supported Reinforced Concrete Beams

It is essential for anyone working in construction or structural engineering

to comprehend the significance of beams, as they are crucial for effectively
distributing weight in a building. Beams are integrated into a building's design to
establish a stable load-bearing path from the foundation, ensuring proper support
for the roof, ceiling, and floors. Professionals in construction and engineering rely
on their understanding of beams to select the most suitable beam for the specific
building they are working on, and to ensure the correct installation of these beams.
To comprehend the functionality of beams, it is necessary to apply knowledge of
engineering statics and basic physics. This knowledge helps in determining the
appropriate loads for the building and in selecting the most suitable beam based
on its size, shape, and material. For instance, larger buildings require heavier and
larger beams to support the greater load, compared to smaller buildings. Selecting
the wrong type of beam can lead to instability in the building, which can significantly
impact the safety and longevity of the structure. (Indeed UK, 2024)

Reinforced Concrete Beam Design Steps:

1. Preliminary Member Sizing

2. Load and Load Combination
3. Structural Analysis
4. Flexing Design

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 a. Required and Provided Reinforcement
b. Spacing of Longitudinal Reinforcement
5. Shear Design
6. Deflection Control
a. Immediate (Instantaneous) Deflections
b. Time Dependent (Long-term) Deflections

Design Data

 fc’ = 4.35 ksi normal weight concrete (wc = 150 lb/ft3)

 fy = 60 ksi

 Uniform dead load, DL = 0.82 kip/ft (Reference neglected self-weight)

 Uniform Live load, LL = 1.00 kip/ft

 Beam span length, L = 25 ft

 Use #9 bars for longitudinal reinforcement (As = 1.00 in.2, db = 1.128 in.)

 Use #3 bars for stirrups (As = 0.11 in.2, db = 0.375 in.)

 Clear cover = 1.5 in.

 amax = maximum aggregate size = 0.75 in.

Preliminary Member Sizing

Check the minimum beam depth requirement of ACI 318-14 (Table

9.3.1.1) to waive deflection computations. Using the minimum depth for non-
prestressed beams in Table 9.3.1.1

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 Therefore, since hmin = 18.75 in. < h = 20 in. the preliminary beam depth
satisfies the minimum depth requirement, and the beam deflection computations
are not required.

In absence of initial dimensions, the width of the rectangular section (b)

may be chosen in the following range recommended by the reference:

Load and Load combination

For the factored Load:

 Wu = 1.2 x DL + 1.6 x LL
 W w = 1.2 x 0.82 +1.5 x 1.00

Structural Analysis

Simply supported beams can be analyzed by calculating shear and

moment diagrams or using Design Aid tables as shown below:

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Shear and Moment Diagrams:

Fig. 10: Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams

Using Design Aid Tables:

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 Figure 11 – Design Aid Tables (Beam Design Equations and Diagrams) - PCI Design
Handbook

Required and Provided Reinforcement

For this beam, the moment at the midspan governs the design as shown in the
previous Figure.

Use #9 bars with 1.5 in. concrete clear cover per ACI 318-14 (Table 20.6.1.3.1).
The distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of longitudinal
tension reinforcement, d, is calculated below:

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 To determine the area of steel, assumptions have to be made whether the
section is tension or compression controlled, and regarding the distance between
the resultant compression and tension forces along the beam section (jd). In this
example, tension-controlled section will be assumed so the reduction factor ϕ is
equal to 0.9, and jd will be taken equal to 0.889d. The assumptions will be verified
once the area of steel is finalized.

The required reinforcement at initial trial is calculated as follows

Recalculate ‘a’ for the actual As = 2.872 in.2:

Where:

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 Therefore, the assumption that section is tension-controlled is valid.

The minimum reinforcement shall not be less than

And not less than

Provide 3 – #9 bars:

Spacing of Longitudinal Reinforcement

Where ds = 2.625 in. for #3 stirrup as shown in the following Figure.

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 Fig.12: Maximum number of bars in beams

The maximum allowed spacing (smax):

The minimum allowed spacing (smin):

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 Where the maximum aggregate size is ¾”

Therefore, 3 - #9 bars are o.k.

Shear Design

Fig. 13: Shear Diagram for Simply Supported Beam

Retrieved: https://rb.gy/hnnavo

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 Since Vu > ϕVc/2, shear reinforcement is required.

Try # 3, Grade 60 two-leg stirrups (Av = 2 × 0.11 = 0.22 in.2).

The nominal shear strength required to be provided by shear reinforcement is

If Vs is greater than , then the cross-section has to be revised as ACI 318-14 limits

the shear capacity to be provided by stirrups to .

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Check whether the required spacing based on the shear demand meets the
spacing limits for shear reinforcement per ACI 318-14 (9.7.6.2.2).

Therefore, maximum stirrup spacing shall be the smallest of d/2 and 24 in.

This value governs over the required stirrup spacing of 22.67 in which was based
on the demand.

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 Therefore, smax value is governed by the spacing limit per ACI 318-14 (9.7.6.2.2),
and is equal to 8.78 in.

Use # 3 @ 8.3 in. stirrups

Use 16 - # 3 @ 8.30 in. o.c., Place 1st stirrup 3 in. from the face of the column.

Deflection Control (Serviceability Requirements)

Since the preliminary beam depth met minimum depth requirement, the
deflection calculations are not required. However, the calculations of immediate
and time-dependent deflections are covered in detail in this section for illustration
and comparison with spBeam model results for simply supported beam.

Immediate (Instantaneous) Deflections

Elastic analysis for three service load levels (D, D + Lsustained, D + LFull) is used to
obtain immediate deflections of the simply supported beam in this example.

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However, other procedures may be used if they result in predictions of deflection
in reasonable agreement with the results of comprehensive tests.

The effective moment of inertia procedure described in the Code is considered

sufficiently accurate to estimate deflections. The effective moment of inertia, Ie,
was developed to provide a transition between the upper and lower bounds
of Ig and Icr as a function of the ratio Mcr/Ma.

Unless deflections are determined by a more comprehensive analysis,

immediate deflection shall be computed using elastic deflection equations
using Ie from Eq. (24.2.3.5a) at midspan for simple and continuous spans, and
at the support for cantilevers.

ACI 318-14 (24.2.3.7)

The effective moment of inertia (Ie) is used to account for the cracking effect on
the flexural stiffness of the beam. Ie for uncracked section (Mcr > Ma) is equal
to Ig. When the section is cracked (Mcr < Ma), then the following equation should
be used:

Where:

Ma = Maximum moment in member due to service loads at stage deflection is

calculated.

The values of the maximum moments for the three service load levels are
calculated from structural analysis as shown previously (sustained live load =
0).

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Page 29
 The critical section at midspan is reinforced with 3 – #9 bars.

Fig. 6: Gross and Cracked Moment of Inertia of Rectangular Section (PCA Notes Table 10-2)

Retrieved: https://rb.gy/hnnavo

Ec = Modulus of elasticity of concrete.

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For dead load service load level:

The following Table provides a summary of the required parameters and calculated
values needed for deflection calculation.

After obtaining the effective moment of inertia, the maximum span deflection for
the simply supported beam can be obtained from any available procedures or design aids
(see Figure 3).

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Time-Dependent (Long-Term) Deflections (Δlt)

The additional time-dependent (long-term) deflection resulting from creep

and shrinkage (Δcs) are estimated as follows.

The total time-dependent (long-term) deflection is calculated as:

Where:

(Δsust)Inst = Immediate (instantaneous) deflection due to sustained load, in.

(Δtotal)lt = Time-dependent (long-term) total deflection, in

(Δtotal)lnst = Total immediate (instantaneous) deflection, in.

For the exterior span

ξ = 2, consider the sustained load duration to be 60 months or more.

ρ` = 0, conservatively.

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Page 33
 DESIGN OF ONE WAY AND TWO WAY SLAB

● DESIGN OF ONE WAY & TWO WAY SLAB

The slab is the horizontal structural component that provides a flat and purposive
surface. Such a surface may be floor, roof, or ceiling.
The slab is an important structural element that is constructed to create horizontal
or flat surfaces such as roofs, floors, decks, and ceilings.

A slab has generally some thickness and it is supported by other structural

elements like RCC columns, RCC beams, walls, or the ground surface.
Slab carries the loads imposed on it and duly transfers the forces either in a one-
way or in a two-way mechanism.

Thus, the slab serves both as a load-bearing surface as well as a walking

surface.

Depending upon the requirement and the design of the structure, different types
of slabs such as concrete slabs, flat slabs, waffle slabs, etc can be used.

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 The slab is made up of cement concrete with top and bottom surfaces parallel or
near so. The depth of a concrete slab is very small compared to its span or
length.

There are two major types of slabs used in building construction: one-way slabs
and two-way slabs.

The major functions of the slab can be listed as follows:

a. Slab serves as a flat surface or a walking surface.

b. Slab provides support to the loads imposed on the structure.

c. It acts as a means of sound, heat as well as fire insulator.

d. It also serves as a divider between the consecutive floors thereby providing

privacy to the occupants.

ONE WAY SLAB

- The one-way slab can be defined as the type of slab in which the ratio of the
longer span to the shorter span is greater than two.

The flat surface of a mainly uniformly loaded slab deforms in a cylindrical surface
in which the curvature therefore the bending moment develops in only one
direction, such a slab is known as the one-way slab.

Page 35
 One way slab essentially acts as a shallow beam with a large width. The slabs
supporting all four sides also behave as one-way slabs if the longer span ratio
(ly) to the shorter span (lx) is greater than two.

Verandah is the best example to recognize the one-way slab, where the slab is
traversing in the shorter direction with main reinforcement and the distribution of
reinforcement placed in the opposite direction.

Mathematically;

Longer Span / Shorter Span ≥ 2

In other words, the one-way slab is supported by beams in such a way that the load is
carried along one direction.

The shorter span of the one-way slab is provided with the main reinforcement while the
longer span is provided with the distribution reinforcement.

Page 36
Some of the prominent examples of one-way slabs are the cantilever slabs, chajjas, and
verandahs.

The major functions of the slab can be listed as follows:

a. Slab serves as a flat surface or a walking surface.

b. Slab provides support to the loads imposed on the structure.

c. It acts as a means of sound, heat as well as fire insulator.

Page 37
d. It also serves as a divider between the consecutive floors thereby providing privacy to
the occupants.

(SI Units)

Page 38
 - Normally, a 1-meter piece of such a slab is designed as a beam, the slab being
assumed to consist a series of such beams side by side.

(English Units)

- Normally, a 12-inch piece of such a slab is designed as a beam, the slab being
assumed to consist a series of such beams side by side.

Page 39
DESIGN of ONE-WAY SLAB based on NSCP 2015 and ACI 318-14

SLAB THICKNESS

● The thickness required for a particular one-way slab depends on the bending,the
deflection, and shear requirements
● NSCP Section 407.3.1 and ACI Section 7.3.1 provide minimum thickness of slab
for which deflection calculations are not required.SLAB THICKNESS DESIGN of
ONE-WAY SLAB based on NSCP 2015 and ACI 318-14

NSCP 2015(SI Units)

Page 40
ACI 318-14(English Units)

Page 41
Slab thickness are usually:rounded up to the nearest ¼-in(for slabs of 6-in or less)and
rounded up to the nearest ½-in(for slabs thicker than 6-in)

DESIGN of ONE-WAY SLAB based on NSCP 2015 and ACI 318-14

Page 42
SELECTION OF BARS

(SI Units) For usual situations, bar sizes 36-mm and smaller are practical.

(English Units) For usual situations, bar sizes#11 and smallerare practical.

SPACING OF BARS

NSCP 2015(SI Units)

Page 43
ACI 318-14(English Units)

Page 44
A.) Reinforcement Details of One Way Slab

As shown in
the figure
above, in the one-way slab, the main bars (cranked bars) are provided on the shorter
side. While the distribution bars are provided on the longer side.

B.) Design Considerations For One Way Slab

The design criteria as given by the ACI Code Specifications for the one way slab are as
follows:

1). Minimum Slab Thickness

The minimum thickness of the slab to control deflection is given by ACI Code 9.5.2.1.
According to it, the specified thickness values are as follows:

a. For simply supported one-way solid slabs,

Minimum Slab Thickness = l/ 20

Page 45
b. For one end continuous one-way solid slabs,

Minimum Slab Thickness = l /24

c. For both end continuous one-way solid slabs,

Minimum Slab Thickness = l / 28

d. For cantilever one-way solid slabs,

Minimum Slab Thickness = l /10

2). Span

The span requirement for the slabs is given by ACI Code 8.7.1.

According to it, if a slab rests on its support freely, the span length may be taken as
equal to the clear span plus the depth of the slab but need not exceed the distance
between the centers of supports.

3). Bar Spacing

According to ACI Code 7.6.5, the lateral spacing of the flexural bars should not exceed
three times the thickness of 18 inches.

Page 46
According to ACI Code 7.12.2, the lateral spacing of temperature and shrinkage
reinforcement should not be placed farther apart than 5 times the slab thickness or 18
inches.

4). Maximum Reinforcement Ratio

The reinforcement ratio can be defined as the ratio of reinforcement area to gross
concrete area based on the total depth of the slab.

5). Minimum Reinforcement Ratio

According to ACI Code 7.12.2.1, for the shrinkage and temperature reinforcement,

Slabs with grade 40 or 50 deformed bars = 0.0020 psi

Slabs with grade 60 deformed bars = 0.0018 psi

Slabs with reinforcements having yield strength greater than 60000 psi = (0.0018 x
60,000/ fy)

According to ACI Code 10.5.4, for flexural reinforcement,

Flexural Reinforcement must be greater than 0.0018 psi or shrinkage reinforcement.

DESIGN PROCEDURE OF ONE WAY SLAB

a. Identifies the type of slab.

b. Determine h min and round it to a higher 10mm multiple.

~Should not be less than 110 mm for rooms

Page 47
~ Should not be less than 75 mm for sunshades.

c. Determine the dead load that is acting on the slab.

Dead Load = Load per unit area x 1m width.

d. Determine the live load acting on the slab.

Live load = Load per unit area x 1m width.

e. Determine total factored load per unit strip (kN/m)

f. Determine moments. Moments can be determined either directly (simply supported) or

by using coefficients for continuous slabs.

g. Determine effective depth.

d = h – (20 + (½)db)

db = 10, 13, 15 are generally used

h. Check the condition d ≥ dmin.

i. Calculate As required for 1m width.

j. Determine minimum/distribution/temperature & shrinkage steel.

k. Select diameter and spacing for main steel Analysis and Design of Slabs.

l. Check the minimum and maximum spacing

~ Generally, smin is nearly equal to 90mm

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~ If the spacing is less than minimum increase the diameter of the bar

m. For continuous slabs, curtail or bent up the +ve steel. For -ve steel see how much
steel is already available. Provide the remaining amount of steel.

n. Determine the quantity of the distribution bar. Decide its diameter & spacing.

o. Check the shear of the slab.

p. Carry out detailing and show results on the drawings.

q. Prepare bar bending schedule in necessary conditions.

TWO WAY SLAB

- Two-way slabs are slabs that are supported on all four sides. In this slab, the
load will be transferred in both directions, thus main reinforcement is provided in
both directions for slabs.

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 In the two-way slab, the ratio of longer span to shorter spans less than two,
which carries the load by flexing in two perpendicular directions.

In two way slab, the

ratio of the longer span to the shorter span is less than two i.e.

Longer Span/Shorter Span <2

The load is carried in both directions in a two-way slab. So, the main bars are provided
in both directions.Two-way slabs are extensively used in multi-story and commercial
buildings.

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● Types of Two Way Slab

1. Two Way Solid Slab ( with beams)

- This slab can be used for a wide variety of loading systems. It is suitable
for small to large-scale constructions.

2. Two Way Waffle Slab (with beams)

- This slab system is used for office buildings (low rise), warehouses,
parking structures, etc.

3. Two Way Waffle Slab (with Integral Beams)

- This slab system is provided with a greater span as compared to the solid
slab. It is suitable for modular constructions.

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A.) Reinforcement Details of Two Way Slab

The reinforcement detailing of a two-way slab is shown in the figure above. As shown,
the ratio of longer to shorter span is less than two, and main anchored bars are
provided in both directions.

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ADVANTAGES:

a. Availability of flat ceiling because of the absence of beam in the middle of the cell.

b. More availability of the height of the room.

c. Increase in the aesthetic beauty of the room.

d. Reflection of light is not obstructed.

DISADVANTAGES:

a. Less economical as compared to one-way slab.

b. More complex to design and construct.

c. The requirement of skilled workers for construction.

STEPS IN TWO WAY SLAB DESIGN

a. Choose layout and type of slab. The type of slab is affected by construction as well
as architectural considerations.

b. Choose the slab thickness that is sufficient to control deflection. Also, check if the
thickness is sufficient for shear.

c. Choose the design method:

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Direct Design Method: Determine positive and negative slab moments using
coefficients.

Equivalent Frame Method: Determine positive and negative slab moments using elastic
frame analysis.

d. Determine the distribution of moments across the slab width based on geometry and
beam stiffness.

e. Allocate a part of the moment to beams if present.

f. Design reinforcement for moments from steps d and e. Steps c – f needs to be done
for both principal directions.

● TWO WAY SLAB IN NSCP

To classify a slab as a tw0-way slab, the length of the long side should be less than
twice the length of the short side. The short direction is considered the main direction
because most of the load is transferred in this direction. The main reinforcement is

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arranged in the short direction and the secondary reinforcement is arranged in the long
direction.

Two-way slab are those that bend in double curvature and thus require steel
reinforcement in two directions to prevent excessive cracking and to limit deflections.
The reinforcement is normally
positioned parallel to the side of the
slab in both directions. The
reinforcement is normally
positioned parallel to the side of the
slab in both directions. The position
of the reinforcement is determined
by the curvature of the slab. The
top steel is placed in the negative
curvature areas and the bottom steel in the positive curvature areas.

Designers may design slabs on the basis of numerical solutions, yield-line analysis, or
other theoretical methods, provided that it can be clearly demonstrated that they have
met all the necessary safety and service ability criteria required by the Code. Section
408 of the NSCP 2015 provides the minimum provisions needed in the design of two-
way slab systems.

Design of Two-Way Slabs The Code permits, where applicable, two methods for
designing two-way slabs for gravity loads. These are the Direct Design Method of
Section 408.10 and the Equivalent Frame Method of Section 408.11.3.2.2.1 Direct
Design MethodThe code provides a procedure with which a set of moment coefficients
can be determined.

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The method, in effect, involves a single-cycle moment distribution analysis of the
structure based on (a) the estimated flexural stiffness of the slab,beams (if any), and
columns and (b) the torsional stiffness of the slabs and beams(if any) transverse to the
direction in which flexural moments are being determined.Some types of moment
coefficients have been used satisfactorily for many years for slab design. They do not,
however, give very satisfactory results for slabs with unsymmetrical dimensions and
loading patterns.3.2.2.2 Equivalent Frame Method by equivalent frame method the
structure is divided for analysis into continuous frames centered on the column lines
and extending longitudinally and transversely.

Each frame is composed of a row of

columns and a broad continuous
beam. The beam or slab beam,
includes the portion of the slab
bounded by panel centerlines on
either side of the columns, together
withcolumn line beam or drop panel,
if used. For vertical loading, each
floor with its columns may be
analyzed separately, with the
columns assumed to be fixed at the floor above and below

408.3.1 Minimum Slab Thickness

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408.3.2 Calculated Deflection Limits

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408.3.3 Reinforcement Strain Limit in Non-Prestressed Slabs

● REQUIRED STRENGTH

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408.4.1 General

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408.4.2 Factored Moment

408.4.2.3 Factored Slab Moment Resisted by the Column

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408.4.3 Factored One - Way Shear

408.4.4 Factored Two - Way Shear

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DESIGN STRENGTH

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408.5.1 General

408.5.2 Moment

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408.5.3 Shear

408.5.4 Openings in Slab System

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408.6 Reinforcement Limits

408.6.1 Minimum Flexural Reinforcement inNon-Prestressed Slabs

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408.6 Reinforcement Detailing

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408.10 Direct Design Method

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408.11 Equivalent Frame Method

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3.2.2 SAMPLE PROBLEM (DIRECT DESIGN METHOD)

Determine the negative and positive moments required for the design of the exterior
panel of the two-way slab beam structure shown. The slab is to support a live load of
5.75 kN/m2 and a dead load of 4.79 kN/m2 including slab weight. The columns are
375mm x 375mm and 3.66m long. The slab is supported by beams along the column

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line with the cross section shown. Design the two-way slab using Direct Design Method.
f’c = 21MPa and fy =420 MPa.

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SOLUTION:

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Limitations of Direct Design Method

● There must be at least three continuous spans in each direction. If there are
fewer panels, the interior negative moments tend to be too small.
● Panels should be rectangular and the ratio of longer/ shorter spans within the
panel must not exceed 2 otherwise one-way actions will prevail.

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 ● In each direction, successive span lengths must not differ by more than one-third
of the largest span length.
● Column offset of more than 10% of the span (in the direction of offset) from either
axis between the centerline of the successive column is not permitted.
● This method is applicable for slabs that are subjected to gravity load only.
● Unfactored service live load should not be more than two times unfactored dead
load.
● f beams were used, beam relative stiffness between two perpendicular directions
must be between 0.2-0.5.

Two Way Slab Design by Direct Design Method

Before the start of the two-way slab design, slab depth should be determined in addition
to specifying column strips and middle strips. It is assumed that slab thickness is
determined but the calculation of column and middle strips is explained in the following
section:

Column and middle strips

There are continuous variations of moments across slab panels therefore to help
placement of steel, design moments are averaged over column strips and middle strips.
The column strips are located over columns and have a width on each side of the
column centerline equal to a smaller panel dimension divided by four and middle strips

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are located between two column strips. Figure-1 and Figure-2 illustrate the middle strip
and column strip for long and short directions of the panel.

Figure-1: Column and Middle Strip in Short Direction of the Panel

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 Figure-2: Column and Middle Strips in Long Direction of the Panel

ADVANTAGES :

a. Availability of flat ceiling because of the absence of beam in the middle of the cell.

b. More availability of the height of the room.

c. Increase in the aesthetic beauty of the room.

d. Reflection of light is not obstructed.

DISADVANTAGES:

a. Less economical as compared to one-way slab.

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b. More complex to design and construct.

c. The requirement of skilled workers for construction.

One Way Slab Vs. Two Way Slab

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The difference between a One-way slab and a Two-way slab is as follows:

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 CONTINUOUS BEAMS

CONTINUOUS BEAM

- Continuous beams are a static system commonly used for structures like bridges,
foundation beams, timber roofs, steel rafters and trusses. They are characterized
by having more than 2 supports, which leads to smaller deflections compared to
the simply supported beam.

A continuous beam is a static and structural system that spans over multiple
supports (more than 2). This is beneficial for long spans, because the deflection
and bending moment are smaller than for simply supported beams with the same
load and span.

Continuous beams are statically indeterminate, which means that the reaction
forces and internal forces can’t be calculated by the 3 equilibrium equations.

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 In most cases, continuous beams are horizontal beams. However, in some cases
like 3-span roof rafters, continuous beams can also be inclined.

The Static Systems Of The Continuous Beam

The continuous beam has 2+ supports. It could have 3, 4 or 12 supports.

It has 1 pin support and the rest of the supports are roller supports.

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The 2-span continuous beam is categorized by having 1 pin and 2 roller supports. The
static system is indeterminate, which means we can’t calculate the reaction forces with
the 3 equilibrium equations. (You can find formulas a bit further down in this post.) The
pinned support (a) takes up

● a vertical reaction force V

● a horizontal reaction force H

And the roller supports (b) & (c) take up

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 ● a vertical reaction force V

The 3-span continuous beam is categorized by having 1 pin and 3 roller supports. The
static system is indeterminate, which means we can’t calculate the reaction forces with
the 3 equilibrium equations. (You can find formulas a bit further down in this post.) The
pinned support (a) takes up

● a vertical reaction force V

● a horizontal reaction force H

And the roller supports (b) & (c) take up

● a vertical reaction force V

You can add as many supports as you want. There are structures like cable-stayed
bridges or foundation beams that often have more than 10 supports.

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The x-span continuous beam is categorized by having 1 pin and x roller supports. The
static system is also indeterminate, which means we can’t calculate the reaction forces
with the 3 equilibrium equations.

For continuous beams with many supports we mostly use FE programs as it’s probably
bigger and more complex structures.

The pinned support (a) takes up

● a vertical reaction force V

● a horizontal reaction force H

And the roller supports (b), (c), (d) & (…) take up

● a vertical reaction force V

EXAMPLE STRUCTURES OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Continuous beams commonly used in structures. One of their benefits is a much smaller
deflection as for simply supported beams for the same load and span.

Here are a few real-world examples:

1.) FOUNDATION BEAMS SUPPORTED BY PILE FOUNDATIONS

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- Foundation beams are used to support walls, columns and concrete slabs and to
distribute those vertical loads to the pile foundations and then to the soil.

On the
projects,
where I
have used foundation beams, the spacing of the piles wasn’t the same as the
spacing of the columns and walls wasn’t the same either.

Now, you use foundation beams on projects with big loads where strip
foundations aren’t enough, and you need to use pile foundations.

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2.) CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
- For a very early design, the cables of a cable-stayed bridge can be modelled as
rollers and later as spring supports. This makes the bridge deck a continuous
beam.

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3.) CHORDS OF TRUSSES
- In the old days, trusses were calculated with hinge connections in every node.
We also learn to calculate the normal forces for trusses of that kind in university,
because having continuous elements makes the static system statically
indeterminate.

However, most trusses have continuous chords, because it’s easier to construct
to have fewer connections. And in this case, hinges are precise when the
element is actually continuous because bending moments and shear forces are
not considered. So, we should model the chords continuous if they are 1
element.

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4.) TIMBER RAFTERS SUPPORTED BY 3 BEAMS
- Timber rafters of a roof structure are usually supported by 3 horizontal
timber beams. In this case, the rafters are inclined continuous beams.

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5.) TIMBER PRIMARY BEAMS
- The primary beams of timber flat roof which support secondary beams are
continuous if they have more than 2 supports, as in the example below. The
external area loads like dead, snow and live load are applied to the primary
beams and transferred to the primary beams.

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Page 106
2 SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM – UDL ON ONE SPAN

Max. positive bending moment:

Max. negative bending moment:

Shear force (at support a):

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Shear force (at support b):

Shear force (at support c):

3-SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM – UDL ON 2 NEIGHBOURING

SPANS

Max. positive bending moment:

Max. negative bending moment (at support b):

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Shear force (at support a):

Shear force (at support b):

Shear force (at support c):

Shear force (at support d):

4-SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM – UDL ON ALL 4 SPANS

Max. positive bending moment:

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Max. negative bending moment (at support b & d):

Shear force (at support a & e):

Shear force (at support b & d):

Shear force (at support c):

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 IRREGULAR BEAMS, T-BEAMS, SLAB, AND COLUMNS

IRREGULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM

- Flexural members are slender members that deform primarily by bending

moments caused by concentrated couples or transverse forces. In modern
construction, these members may be joists, beams, girders, spandrels, lintels,
and other specially named elements. But their behavior in every case is
essentially the same. Unless otherwise specified in a problem, flexural members
will be referred to as beams here. In the following sections, the ACI 318
provisions for the strength, ductility, serviceability, and constructability of beams
are summarized and illustrated.

CONCEPTS AND FORMULAS

STRENGTH

The basic strength requirement for flexural design is

Mn is the nominal moment strength of the member, Mu is the bending moment

caused by the factored loads, and φ is the capacity reduction factor. For most
practical designs, ACI specifies the value of φ as 0.9; however, special cases
exist for which lower values apply.

Mn FOR A SINGLY REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM

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 The simplest case is that of a rectangular beam containing steel in the tension zone only. A
beam of this sort is referred to as singly reinforced. Figure below shows a typical cross
section of a singly reinforced beam and the notation used.

ACI Secs. 10.2 and 10.3 give the principles governing the flexural strength.

● Strain varies linearly through the depth of the member.

● A complete bond exists between the steel and the concrete; that is, the strain in
the steel is the same as in the adjacent concrete.
● Tension stress in the concrete is negligible (that is, all tension is resisted by
steel).
● The ultimate strain in concrete is 0.003.
● In a properly designed beam, the tension steel yields; thus, T = Asfy.
● The concrete stress distribution may be replaced by an equivalent rectangular
distribution with uniform stress 0.85f'c acting over an area ba and creating a
compression resultant, C = 0.85f'cba, that acts at distance a/2 from the
compression edge.

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For bending without axial force applied, equilibrium requires

The resultant compression force in the concrete, C, forms a couple with the resultant
tension force, T.

BEAMS WITH IRREGULAR CROSS SECTIONS

Many reinforced concrete beams have cross sections that are not rectangular.
Figure below shows three typical cross sections with irregularly shaped
compression regions.

Fortunately, the same principles that govern the behavior of rectangular beams
apply more generally to these cases as well. In the absence of axial forces, in a

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properly designed beam (that is, a beam for which tension steel yields) the
compression region is determined using the condition of equilibrium.

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 Geometric relationships determine the depth of the compression region and a
summation of moments gives the nominal moment strength of the section.

For most cast-in-place floor systems, the slab and beams are cast monolithically
and the slab functions as the flange of a T- or L-shaped beam, as shown in
Figure below. ACI Sec. 8.12 limits the effective flange width, be, of such
members by the following criteria.

Slab Extending Both Sides (T-Beam):

Slab Extending One Side Only (L-Beam):

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L is the span. Other symbols are as defined in figure below.

EXAMPLE 1:

Check the adequacy of section shown below according to ACI-14 requirements and
compute its design strength.

= 25 MPa and = 400 MPa

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SOLUTION

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EXAMPLE 2:

Check the adequacy of section for ACI-14 requirements and

compute its design strength.

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= 20 MPa and = 400 MPa

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SOLUTION

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Page 121
T-BEAMS

- It’s just a rectangular beam cast monolithically with the slab-shaped as T.

T-beams possess a low volume of concrete. Additionally, they lessen the floor-to-
floor height since the flange is already part of the slab. These two things in
combination significantly decrease the concrete needed for the building, cutting
down both cost and dead load on the structure.

This type of beam has a greater second moment of inertia as compared to the
conventional rectangular beams, so they have a greater capacity to resist bending
effectively.

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Mass divided in the T-beam is consist of Flanges and web. Flanges are more viable
in resisting bending stresses while the Web is more resistive in shear stresses.

TYPES OF T-BEAM

T beams can be classified on the basis of their geometry. I have described 5 types
of T beam.

1). Symmetrical T-beam:

This type of T-beam has a symmetrical cross-section, with the flanges and web
having the same dimensions. The load is evenly distributed between the flanges
and the web.

2). Inverted T-beam:

In an inverted T-beam, the flange is placed at the bottom, while the web is at the
top. This type of T-beam is commonly used in bridge construction.

3). Asymmetrical T-beam:

An asymmetrical T-beam has a non-uniform cross-section, with the flanges and

web having different dimensions. This type of T-beam is used in situations where
the load is not evenly distributed.

4). Slimflor beam:

This is a type of T-beam that has a reduced concrete slab slab thickness. It is
designed to be used in situations where headroom is limited, such as in basement
car parks or high-rise buildings.

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5). Tapered T-beam:

This type of T-beam has a cross-section that tapers from one end to the other. It
is commonly used in bridge construction, where the load is heaviest at one end.

HOW T-BEAMS CREATED?

T-beam steel can be created using a variety of methods such as hot rolling or
welding. At Service Steel, we utilize a plasma track torch that’s specifically
engineered for splitting the web of a wide flanged beam which results in two steel
tees. Typically, these cuts are performed along the vertical web of wide flanged
beams, but adjustments can be made to the cut-off center as per project
requirements.

APPLICATIONS OF STEEL T-BEAMS

Steel T-beams find applications in various structural scenarios due to their ability
to achieve specific structural shapes as well as efficiently support heavy loads over
spans. The specific application of tee beams depends on the engineering
requirements of the project as well as the span length, load conditions, and other
unique structural considerations.

That being said, here are a few examples of the most common construction and
infrastructure applications for these types of beams:

● Bridges
● Building frames

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 ● Parking garages
● Shipbuilding
● Floor structures
● Roof trusses
● Elevated structures

ADVANTAGES:

Steel T-beams and their unique “T” shape offer several advantages that make
them a popular choice in various construction and structural applications:

● Cost-effective
● Higher load-bearing capacity
● Increased durability
● Easier to produce
● Longer span capability
● Versatile and customizable

DISADVANTAGES:

● There is a considerable increment in the shear stress at the junction of the

flange and the web of the beam due to the change in cross-section. Hence
casting should be done very carefully to assure both are bonded well.
● Since the beam slab is monolithic (rigid), it becomes very feeble in resisting
lateral shear forces. (cracks develops quickly). Thus usually in earthquake-
prone zones using T beams for high-rise buildings is reinforced with
mechanical stiffeners in the junction.
● There will be little savings in steel too (not a significant amount though).

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UNDERSTANDING T-BEAM SIZES

Understanding these T-beam sizing specifications is essential for selecting the

appropriate dimensions for a given structural application. Oftentimes, steel beam
dimensions are written with the format WT 6 x 20 x 30 which might seem
confusing at first, but it’s quite simple once you understand the formatting:

● “WT” stands for wide flange tee. In other instances, the letter before the
measurement stands for different shapes. For example, “W” means a wide
flange beam whereas “S” is for a Standard American I-beam.
● “6” represents the height of the beam in inches. This number is sometimes
referred to as the “section number”.
● “20” represents the pounds per lineal foot, or how much each foot of the
beam weighs.
● “30” as the final measurement represents the total length of the T-beam in
feet.

To put it all together, this T-beam size, WT 6 x 20 x 30, is 6 inches tall, weighs 20
pounds per foot, and is 30 feet long — so in total it weighs 600 pounds.

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF T-BEAM

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T-Beam Design

The design of a T-beam involves calculating the section dimensions and

reinforcement required to resist the maximum moment and shear force that the
beam will experience. The following steps can be used to design a T-beam:

Step 1: Determine the loads and span

The first step is to determine the loads that the beam will be subjected to,
including dead loads, live loads, and other loads like wind or earthquake. Also,
determine the span of the beam, which is the distance between its supports.

Let’s assume the following data for a T-beam design:

● Dead load = 10 kN/m

● Live load = 20 kN/m
● Span = 6 m

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Step 2: Calculate the moment and shear force

Based on the loads and span, calculate the maximum moment and shear force
that the beam will experience. Moment is the bending force that causes the beam
to bend, while shear force is the force that acts perpendicular to the axis of the
beam.

The maximum moment and shear force can be calculated using the following
formulas:

Maximum moment = (dead load + live load) x span^2 / 8

Maximum shear force = (dead load + live load) x span / 2

For our example, the maximum moment and shear force can be calculated as follows:

Maximum moment = (10 + 20) x 6^2 / 8 = 135 kN-m Maximum shear force = (10 + 20) x
6 / 2 = 45 kN

Step 3: Choose the section dimensions

Based on the moment and shear force, choose the dimensions of the T-beam
section. The depth of the stem is usually determined based on the span of the
beam, while the width of the flange is determined based on the loads and the
moment. The thickness of the stem and flange is usually taken as a standard
value.

Let’s assume the following dimensions for the T-beam section:

● Overall depth of the beam = 600 mm

● Width of the flange = 200 mm

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 ● Thickness of the stem = 100 mm
● Thickness of the flange = 50 mm

Step 4: Determine the reinforcement

Based on the section dimensions and the moment, determine the amount and
placement of reinforcement. This is usually done using the principles of
reinforced concrete design, which involves calculating the required area of steel
reinforcement based on the bending moment and the tensile strength of the
concrete.

The reinforcement required for the T-beam can be calculated using the following
formulas:

● Area of steel reinforcement required = maximum moment / (0.87 x fy x d)

● Effective depth = overall depth – 0.5 x thickness of the flange – 0.5 x diameter of
reinforcement
● Spacing of reinforcement = effective depth / number of bars

where:

fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement d = effective depth of the beam

Let’s assume the following properties for the steel reinforcement and concrete:

● Yield strength of steel reinforcement (fy) = 415 MPa

● Tensile strength of concrete (ft) = 3 MPa
● Diameter of reinforcement = 16 mm

Using these values, the area of steel reinforcement required can be calculated as
follows:

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Area of steel reinforcement required = 135 x 10^6 / (0.87 x 415 x (600 – 50 – 16/2)) =
754.7 mm^2

Assuming that we use 4 bars of 16 mm diameter, the spacing of reinforcement

can be calculated as follows:

Effective depth = 600 – 0.5 x 50 – 0.5 x 16 = 567 mm

Spacing of reinforcement = 567 mm / 4 = 141.75 mm (say 140 mm)

Therefore, the T-beam design requires 4 bars of 16 mm diameter, spaced at 140 mm

center-to-center, placed at the bottom of the beam.

Step 5: Check for deflection and cracking

After designing the T-beam for strength, it is important to check for deflection and
cracking. The deflection can be checked using the allowable deflection limit,
which is usually specified by the building code or standards. The cracking can be
checked using the maximum allowable crack width, which is also specified by the
building code or standards.

If the T-beam design does not meet the deflection and cracking limits, the section
dimensions or reinforcement can be adjusted accordingly.

The design of a T-beam involves calculating the section dimensions and

reinforcement required to resist the maximum moment and shear force that the
beam will experience. The design process involves calculating the loads and
span, determining the moment and shear force, choosing the section
dimensions, determining the reinforcement, and checking for deflection and

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 cracking. The design process can be performed using numerical formulas and
the principles of reinforced concrete design.

SLABS

- Slab is an important structural element which is constructed to create flat and

useful surfaces such as floors, roofs, and ceilings. It is a horizontal structural
component, with top and bottom surfaces parallel or near so. To read more about
slab thickness evaluation please click here. Commonly, slabs are supported by
beams, columns (concrete or steel), walls, or the ground. The depth of a
concrete slab floor is very small compared to its span.
- A slab in construction is a flat, horizontal structural element made of concrete,
steel, or other materials. It serves as a crucial component in forming the floors,
ceilings, and foundations of buildings. Slabs provide a stable and level surface
that supports the weight of the structure and its occupants.

Importance in Structural Integrity

Slabs contribute significantly to the structural integrity of a building. They

distribute loads evenly across the foundation, resist bending and shear forces,
and provide thermal and acoustic insulation.

TYPES OF LOADS ON A SLAB

Types of loads acting on a slab include:

● Dead load of the slab

● Live load
● Floor finish load
● Snow load in the case of roof slab

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 ● Earthquake loads

Load Transfer Mechanism in Slabs

The forces transfer from slab to beams occur either in one way or in two ways.
The total system completely counts on the geometrical dimensions of the slab.
Slabs may be supported by columns only, in this case two way action will prevail.
If the ratio Long side / short side < 2 it is considered as 2-way slab, and if Longer
side to shorter side greater than 2 then it is considered as 1-way slab. The load
transfer mechanism from floor slab to supporting elements for one way slab and
two way slab are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. Lastly, Fig. 4 illustrate the transfer of
loads from slabs to different types of supporting elements.

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Page 133
TYPES OF SLAB IN CONSTRUCTION

Concrete Slabs

Concrete slabs are the most common type

used in construction. They are made by pouring
concrete over a reinforced steel framework,
providing strength and durability.

Solid Slabs

Solid slabs are a single, uniform layer of

concrete, commonly used in residential and
light commercial construction.

Hollow-Core Slabs

Hollow-core slabs have hollow spaces running

through their length, reducing weight and material
usage while maintaining structural integrity.

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Steel Slabs

Steel slabs are made from rolled steel and are

used in industrial and commercial buildings where
high load-bearing capacity is required.

Pre-stressed and Post-tensioned Slabs

Pre-stressed and post-tensioned slabs use tensioned steel cables to increase the slab’s
strength and load-bearing capacity, allowing for longer spans and thinner slabs.

COLUMN

- Columns are defined as vertical load-bearing members supporting axial

compressive loads chiefly. This structural member is used to transmit the load of
the structure to the foundation. In reinforced concrete buildings beams, floors,

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 and columns are cast monolithically. The bending action in the column may
produce tensile forces over a part of cross-section. Still, columns are called
compression members because compressive forces dominate their behavior.

There are several types of columns which are used in different parts of
structures. Column is a vertical structural member that carry loads mainly in
compression. It might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or from a
beam, to a floor or foundations. Commonly, columns also carry bending
moments about one or both of the cross-section axes. In this article, different
types of columns used in building construction will be discussed.

TYPES OF COLUMNS IN CONSTRUCTION

Columns are classified based on the several conditions which include:

● Based on Types of Reinforcement

● Based on Types of Loading
● Based on Slenderness Ratio
● Based on Shape
● Based on Construction Material
● Based on Types of Reinforcement

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1). Tied Column

- This type of column is commonly construction from reinforced concrete.

Longitudinal reinforcement are confined within closely spaced tie reinforcement.
It is estimated that 95% of all columns in buildings are tied.

2). Spiral Column

- Spiral column is also construction from reinforced concrete. In this type of

column, longitudinal bars are confined within closely spaced and continuously

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 wound spiral reinforcement. Spiral reinforcement provide lateral restrains
(Poisson’s effect) and delays axial load failure (ductile).

3). Composite column

- When the longitudinal reinforcement is in the form of structural steel section or

pipe with or without longitudinal bars, it is called as a composite column. This
type of column have high strength with fairly small cross section, in addition to
exhibit good fire performance.

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4). Axially Loaded Column

- If vertical axial loads act on the center of gravity of the cross-section of the
column, then it is termed as axially loaded column. Axially loaded column is rare
in construction since coinciding vertical loads on the center of gravity of column
cross section is not practical. Interior column of multi-storey buildings with
symmetrical loads from floor slabs from all sides is an example of this type of
column.

5). Column with Uniaxial Eccentric Loading

- When vertical loads do not coincide with center of gravity of column cross
section, but rather act eccentrically either on X or Y axis of the column cross
section, then it is called uniaxially eccentric loading column. Column with uniaxial
loading are generally encountered in the case of columns rigidly connected beam
from one side only such as edge columns.

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6). Column with Biaxial Eccentric Loading

- When vertical on the column is not coincide with center of gravity of column cross
section and does not act on either axis (X and Y axis), then the column is called
biaxially eccentric loaded column. Columns with biaxial loading is common in
corner columns with beams rigidly connected at right angles at the top of
columns.

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6). Short Column

- If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less
than 12, the column is called the short column. A short column fails by crushing
(pure compression failure).

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7). Long Column

- If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension exceeds
12, it is called as long column. A long column fails by bending or buckling.

8). Square or Rectangular Column

- They are generally used in the construction of buildings. It is much easier to

construct and cast rectangular or square columns than circular ones because of
ease of shuttering and to support it from collapsing due to pressure while the
concrete is still in flowable form.

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9). Circular column

- They are specially designed columns, which are mostly used in piling and
elevation of the buildings.

10). L-Shape Column Commonly, L-shaped column is utilized in the corners of the
boundary wall and has similar characteristics of a rectangular or square column.

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11). T-Shape column

- It is utilized based on design requirements of a structure. T-Shaped column is

widely used in the construction of bridges.

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12). Shape of Steel Column There are different standard and built up shape of steel
columns which are shown in Fig. and Fig. Common shapes of steel columns include I,
channel, equal angle, and T-shape.

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13). Shape of Composite Column

- The usual shape of composite columns are shown in Fig.

14). Reinforced Concrete, Steel, timber, Brick, Block, and Stone Columns

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