B.Tech.

Physics-II (CE, ME & PI)

(PHIC12)

R P Chauhan
Department of Physics
NIT Kurukshetra
E-mail: [email protected]
 Syllabus
 UNIT-I: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
Phase diagram, Gibbs phase rule, Binary phase diagram its
types, solid solution: Hume Rothery Rules, Concepts of stress
and strain, Stress-Strain diagrams; Tensile test; Elastic
deformation, Plastic deformation. Impact Testing & toughness
behavior. Hardness of materials, Imperfections and
dislocations

 UNIT-II: THERMAL PHYSICS: Seebeck effect, Peltier effect,

Thomson effect, Kelvin relationships, Wiedemann-Franz law, Thermal
equilibrium, Entropy, The laws of thermodynamics, Thermal
conductivity of bulk materials, Phonons: lattice vibration heat
transfer, specific heat of solids, classical, Einstein and Debye Model,
Ideal quantum gases: Maxwell-Boltazmann, Bose–Einstein, Fermi-
Dirac statistics.

 UNIT-III : MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND
SUPERCONDUCTORS: Orbital diamagnetism, Magnetic
moments, orbital diamagnetism, Classical theory of
Paramagnetism, Ferromagnetism, molecular field theory and
domains, applications of magnetic materials, Type I and II
Superconductors, London equation, Applications of
superconductivity.

 UNIT-IV: NANOTECHNOLOGY: Classifications of

nanomaterials (3D, 2D, 1D and 0D) and their density of
states, nanocomposites, carbon nanotubes (CNTs),
graphene, nanoclusters, structural, thermal and mechanical
properties of nanomaterials, bottom up and top down
synthesis processes, basic characterization techniques for
nanomaterials, Applications of nanotechnology.
 UNIT-IV

Nanotechnology
 5

What is Nanoscale Science?

 The study of objects and phenomena at a very small scale,
roughly 1 to 100 nanometers (nm)
◦ 10 hydrogen atoms lined up measure about 1 nm
◦ A grain of sand is 1 million nm, or 1 millimeter, wide
 An emerging, interdisciplinary science involving
◦ Physics
◦ Chemistry
◦ Biology
◦ Engineering
◦ Materials Science
◦ Computer Science
Science +Engineering=Technology

1 nanometer = one billionth (10-9) meter

Some common terms used in Technology
 Nanoscale - at the 1-100 nm scale, roughly

 Nanostructure - an object that has nanoscale features

 Nanoscience -- the behavior and properties of

nanostructures

 Nanotechnology - the techniques for making and

characterizing nanostructures and putting them to use.

 Nanomanufacturing -- methods for producing

nanostructures in reliable and commercially viable ways
Why Nanostructures are different from bulk
materials?
The two main reasons why materials at the nano scale can
have different properties are;

 Surface effect (greater surface area to volume

ratio): With the decrease in the size, the fraction of
surface increases with high average binding energy per
atom. These variations endow distinct surface science of
the materials at nano scale.

 Quantum confinement effects: Under confinement

conditions, energy states suffer profound alterations. Due
to which the quantum mechanical effects are used to
explain their properties.
Types of Nanostructures

Macro scale (3D) object Nanofilm or nanolayer (2D)

height

depth
width

Nanoparticle,nanodot,
quantum dot (0D)

Nanowire, Nanorod, or Nanocylinder (1D)

 Quantum Confinement in Nanostructures
Electrons Confined in 1 Direction:
Quantum Wells (thin films):
 Electrons can easily move in ky
2 Dimensions! kx

nz
1 Dimensional
Quantization!
ny
Electrons Confined in 2 Directions:
kx
Quantum Wires:
 Electrons can easily move in 2 Dimensional z
n
1 Dimension! Quantization!

nz
Electrons Confined in 3 Directions:
Quantum Dots: nx 3 Dimensional
 Electrons can easily move in ny Quantization!
0 Dimensions!
Density of states
• The density of states (DOS) of a system describes
the number of states per interval of energy at each
energy level available to be occupied.
• It is mathematically represented by a density
function D(E) = 2 (dn/dE) and it is generally an
average over the space and time domains of the
various states occupied by the system.

• A high DOS at a specific energy level means that

there are many states available for occupation.

• A DOS of zero means that no states can be

occupied at that energy level.
 As the dimensions of the material is reduced the
electronic properties change drastically as the
density of states and the spatial length scale of the
electronic motion are reduced with decreasing size.

Figure: Density of states in (a) bulk, (b) 2-dimensional,

(c) 1-dimensional and (b) 0-dimensional materials
Density of states in 3D, 2D, 1D and 0D
• In 3D
1
dn Vm 2mE
 2 2  E 2
dE  2 2
• In2D
dn Am

dE 2 2

• In 1D 1
dn Lm 
 E 2
dE 2 k
2

• In 0D
In zero dimensions the energy states are sharp
levels corresponding to the eigen states of the
Density of states in 3D, 2D, 1D and 0D
 Nanocomposites
 A composite material or composite is a material
made from two or more constituent materials with
significantly different physical or chemical
properties that, when combined, produce a material
with characteristics different from the individual
components. The new material may be preferred for
many reasons: stronger, lighter, or less expensive
when compared to traditional materials.

 Concrete is the most common artificial composite

material of all and typically consists of loose stones
(aggregate) held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is
an inexpensive material, and will not compress or
shatter even under quite a large compressive force
 A nanocomposite is a matrix to which nanoparticles
have been added to improve a particular property of
the material. The properties of nanocomposites have
caused researchers and companies to consider
using this material in several fields.

 Nanocomposite is a multiphase solid material

where one of the phases has one, two or three
dimensions of less than 100 nm, or structures having
nano-scale repeat distances between the different
phases that make up the material.

 The mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical,

electrochemical, catalytic properties of the
nanocomposite will differ markedly from that of the
component materials.
Size limits for these effects have been proposed:

 <5 nm for catalytic activity,

 <20 nm for making a hard magnetic material soft,

 <50 nm for refractive index changes,

 <100 nm for achieving superparamagnetism,

mechanical strengthening or restricting
matrix dislocation movement.
Applications of nanocomposites:
 Producing batteries with greater power output.
Researchers have developed a method to make
anodes for lithium ion batteries from a composite
formed with silicon nanospheres and carbon
nanoparticles. The anodes made of the silicon-
carbon nanocomposite make closer contact with
the lithium electrolyte, which allows faster charging
or discharging of power.
 Speeding up the healing process for broken
bones. It has been seen that growth of replacement
bone is speeded up when a nanotube-polymer
nanocomposite is placed as a kind of scaffold which
guides growth of replacement bone.
 Making lightweight sensors with
nanocomposites. A polymer-nanotube nanocomposite
conducts electricity; how well it conducts depends upon
the spacing of the nanotubes. This property allows
patches of polymer-nanotube nanocomposite to act as
stress sensors on windmill blades. When strong wind
gusts bend the blades the nanocomposite will also bend.
Bending changes the nanocomposite sensor's electrical
conductance, causing an alarm to be sounded. This alarm
would allow the windmill to be shut down before
excessive damage occurs.
 Using nanocomposites to make flexible
batteries. A nanocomposite of cellulous materials and
nanotubes could be used to make a conductive paper.
When this conductive paper is soaked in an electrolyte,
a flexible battery is formed.
Different Forms of Carbon
 Introduction
Carbon
• Melting point: ~ 3500oC
• Atomic radius: 0.077 nm
• Basis in all organic componds
• 10 mill. carbon componds
Crystalline carbon exist in three forms: Diamond, Graphite, Fullerene

At nano scale broadly carbon divided into four strutures:

 Fullerene
 Tubes
 Cones
 Carbon black
 Bonding
Before 1985, carbon could form two types of lattice: the
diamond lattice with sp3 - hybridization, where each atom is
connected with four others, and the graphite lattice.

Graphite is formed by flat hexagonal layers of carbon atoms,

separated by 3.35 Å (angstroms), and the distance between each
two nearest carbon atoms in the layer is 1.42 Å. The bonding
energy of two atoms located in the same layer exceeds the same
energy for different layers, and as a good approximation one can
consider these atoms as having sp2 hybridization.
 Fullerene
”The most symmetrical large molecule”
 Discovered in 1985 - Nobel prize Chemistry 1996, Curl, Kroto, and Smalley
The history of fullerenes begins in 1985, when Kroto with colleagues
carried out an experiment to simulate the condition of red giant star
formation, when cold carbon clusters are produced. With the use of
the mass-spectrometer, they found a large peak commensurate with
60 carbon atoms. After intensive discussions, they concluded that this
construction could be a truncated icosahedron, or the
Epcot center, Paris
Buckminsterfullerene C60 .

Since that time, the family of fullerenes (closed

spherical carbon structures) increased, and now it
consists of C70, C76, C84, C240, C540 and so on.

2 facets (12 pentagons and 20 hexagons)

- prototype Architect: R. Buckminster Fuller
 Bucky Ball
 Named buckminsterfullerene in honor of
Richard Buckminster Fuller, an architect that
created geodesic domes that looked like it.
 Buckminsterfullerene is the smallest
fullerene in which no two pentagons share an
edge. It is also the most common in terms of
natural occurrence, as it can often be found in
soot.
The structure of C60 is a truncated T=3
icosahedron, which resembles a soccer ball of
the type made of hexagons and pentagons,
with a carbon atom at the corners of each
hexagon and a bond along each edge.
The diameter of a C60 molecule is about 1
nanometer (nm).
When compressed to 70 percent of
its original size, the buckyball
becomes more than twice as hard
as its cousin, diamond.

Atoms inside of the Ball has the

potential to carry a drug in the interior of
the molecule and release the drug once
the buckyball reaches a certain cell or
tissue within the body.
Buckyballs with metal ions inside may
be used in organic solar cells and may
become crucial parts to nanoelectronic
devices
 Nanotube
The nanotubes, discovered by Ijima in 1991, are for now the most studied
carbon nanostructures. The nanotubes are the tubes made from graphene
plain, with one (Single Walled) or more than one (Multiwalled) layers.
Sometimes they could have the cap at their ends.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon. These cylindrical

carbon molecules have interesting properties that make them potentially
useful in many applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics and
other fields of materials science, as well as potential uses in architectural
fields. They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties,
and are efficient conductors of heat. Their final usage, however, may be
limited by their potential toxicity.
The main parameters determining their type are their diameter and
chirality. The chirality, or the orientation of six-folds in the nanotube, is an
“internal” property, but it determines their stability and electronic
properties.
Tpes of nanotubes: (a) armchair, (b) zigzag, and (c) chiral
tubes
A CNT is characterized by its Chiral
Vector: Ch = n â1 + m â2,
  Chiral Angle with respect to the
zigzag axis A Single-Walled Carbon
Nanotubes structure is expressed in
terms of one-dimensional unit cell.
The way the graphene sheet is wrapped
is represented by a pair of indices (n,m).
The integers n and m denote the number
of unit vectors along two directions in the
honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene.
If m = 0, the nanotubes are called zigzag
nanotubes, and if n = m, the nanotubes
are called armchair nanotubes.
Otherwise, they are called chiral.
a b

c
a) Armchair (n=m) e.g (5,5)
 = 30
b) Zig Zag (n=0,m≠0) e.g (9,0)
 = 0
c) Chiral (n≠0,m≠0) e.g (10,5)
0 < < 30
 Multi-Wall Nanotubes SWNTs
Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) consist of
multiple rolled layers (concentric tubes) of
graphene. There are two models that can be used
to describe the structures of multi-walled
nanotubes. The interlayer distance in multi-
walled nanotubes is close to the distance
between graphene layers in graphite,
approximately 3.4 Å.

 In the Russian Dollmodel, sheets of graphite are arranged in

concentric cylinders, e.g., a (0,8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT)
within a larger (0,17) single-walled nanotube.

 In the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in

around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled
newspaper.
 Properties of CNTs:

Mechanical Strength
• Carbon nanotubes have the strongest tensile strength
of any material known.
• It also has the highest modulus of elasticity.
Electrical Properties
• If the nanotube structure is armchair then the electrical properties are
metallic.
• If the nanotube structure is chiral then the electrical properties can be
either semiconducting with a very small band gap, otherwise the
nanotube is a moderate semiconductor.

• In theory, metallic nanotubes can carry an electrical current density of

4×109 A/cm2 which is more than 1,000 times greater than metals such
as copper.
Electrical Properties
• If the nanotube structure is armchair then the electrical
properties are metallic.

• If the nanotube structure is chiral then the electrical

properties can be either semiconducting with a very
small band gap, otherwise the nanotube is a moderate
semiconductor.

• In theory, metallic nanotubes can carry an electrical

current density of 4×109 A/cm2 which is more than
1,000 times greater than metals such as copper.
Thermal Properties:
• All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal
conductors along the tube, but good insulators laterally to
the tube axis.

• It is predicted that carbon nanotubes will be able to

transmit up to 6000 watts per meter per Kelvin at room
temperature; compare this to copper, a metal well-known
for its good thermal conductivity, which transmits 385 watts
per meter per K.

• The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is estimated

to be up to 2800oC in vacuum and about 750oC in air.
 Applications
 Nanotubes hold the promise of creating
novel devices, such as carbon-based single-
electron transistors, that significantly smaller
than conventional transistors.

•Nanotubes excellent strength to

weight ratio creates the potential
to build an elevator to space.
 Quantum Computing: Nanotubes and other Fullerenes can be
filled with molecules that have either an electronic or structural
property which can be used to represent the quantum bit
(Qubit) of information, and which can be associated with other
adjacent Qubits.
 Structural- properties, many structures have been proposed
ranging from everyday items like clothes and sports gear to
combat jackets and space elevators
 Electrical circuits- Large structures of carbon nanotubes can
be used for thermal management of electronic circuits.
 Electric cables and wires- Wires for carrying electrical current
may be fabricated from pure nanotubes and nanotube-polymer
composites.
 Ultracapacitors- MIT Laboratory for Electromagnetic and
Electronic Systems uses nanotubes to improve ultracapacitors
 Paper batteries (a battery engineered to use a paper-thin
sheet of cellulose) - The nanotubes act as electrodes; allowing
the storage devices to conduct electricity.

 Solar cells- developed at the New Jersey Institute of

Technology use a carbon nanotube complex, formed by a
mixture of carbon nanotubes and carbon buckyballs (known as
fullerenes) to form snake-like structures

 Medical- In the cancer therapy, single-walled carbon nanotubes

are inserted around cancerous cells, then excited with radio
waves, which causes them to heat up and kill the surrounding
cells.
Synthesis Processes
For
Nanomaterials
Top-down Synthesis Bottom-up Synthesis
It is a subtractive It is an additive
process from bulk process that starts with
starting materials to precursor atoms or
make nanomaterials. molecules to make
nanomaterials.
Approaches : Top-down and Bottom-up
TOP-DOWN APPROACH

 Lithography
 Etching
 Ball milling
BOTTOM- UP APPROACH
Physical Chemical
PLD Self-assembly
MBE Sol-gel
Sputtering PECVD
Thermal Evaporation Solvo-thermal
Spray pyrolysis Hydrothermal
Electro-explosion Electrochem. Deposition
Ion Implantation

38
Top Down synthesis processes

Lithography:
Optical Lithography/Photolithography
AFM Lithography
• Conventional “lithography is a top down
approach. The word lithography has its origin in
the Geek word “litho” which means stone.
Lithography therefore literally means carving a
stone or writing on a stone .

• It is used now to mean a process in which a

sample is patterned by removing some part of it
or sometimes even organizing some material on
a suitable substrate.

• Lithography is very intensively used in

electronics industry so as to obtain integrated
circuits (IC) or very large scale integration (VLSI)
on small piece of semiconductor substrate often
called a “chip”.
• Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments, USA.,
invented in 1958 what we know today as
integrated circuit (IC) which had complete
circuit fabricated on a single silicon wafer.

• This made a great revolution in electronics

and Jack Kilby was awarded the Nobel
Prize in the year 2000 for this
development.
• Common Principle in most of the lithography techniques is
to expose a material sensitive to either electromagnetic
radiation or to particles at some regions. Such a radiation
sensitive material is known as resist.

• The selection of area is made using a mask, which is

transparent in some regions and opaque in the other
regions. This causes selective exposure of the resist, making
it weaker or stronger compared to unexposed material
depending upon the type of resist being used.

• By removing the exposed or unexposed material in suitable

chemicals or plasma, desired pattern is obtained. This may
be done in a number of steps depending upon the pattern
and materials involved.
 STEPS USED IN LITHOGRAPHY
Various steps involved in photolithography are:

1. To transfer a pattern on some semiconductor

surface, A thin film coating of a metal (like chromium)
is deposited on a suitable substrate (for example
glass or silicon).

2. A Positive or a negative photoresist, usually some

polymer, is coated on metal thin film. Positive
photoresist material has the property that when
exposed to the appropriate radiation, It degrades or
some chemical bonds are broken. Negative resist on
the other hand is a material, which hardens
(crosslinks) on exposure to a radiation.
3. A mask is placed between the resist coated
substrate and the source of light.

4. By using a suitable chemical (developer) the

weakened portion is removed (or image is
developed).

5. Exposed to UV radiation

6 Remaining unexposed part also can be removed by

appropriate chemical treatment. The remaining
material can be dissolved in one step and the
hardened material in another step.
Depending upon the radiation used like visible light,
X-rays, electrons, ions etc. the lithography name is
tagged with it.
 AFM Lithography
 AFM is used to image a surface without damaging it.
However, AFM can be used to modify the surface
deliberately by applying either excessive force or high-
field pulses.This technique is known as AFM lithography.
 Nanolithography patterns are created on the sample
surface by two methods:
 The first method is to scratch the sample surface with
hard tips, mechanically deforming the sample surface.
 The second method is to apply a bias between the tip
and the surface, inducing a change of the surface's
chemical properties. The lithographic patterns can be
generated in diverse forms: point or grid. Raster
Nanolithography is common where the entire image is
scanned.
Pattern created on the surface by plowing the surface with the tip
(a) and by changing the surface with applied bias (b)
 Applying a negative potential to the AFM needle tip,
while the silicon substrate is held grounded causes a
negative electric field to be generated in the region.
When the ambient is highly humid, a water meniscus
forms between the AFM needle tip and the silicon
substrate.

 The water meniscus, together with the high electric

field, causes the water molecules to break up into ions
(H, OH, O). The negatively charged ions are accelerated
along the electric field lines towards the substrate,
where they interact with the silicon to form silicon
dioxide and byproducts.
 Since the introduction of the AFM as a lithographic
tool has helped to grow the technology into one of
the most promising methods for localized oxidation
of silicon.

 The generated oxide can act as a mask for

subsequent etching steps or as an insulating
barrier for thin semiconductor film on insulator
processes.

 Over the years, empirical and analytical models

have been suggested in order to predict how the
semiconductor topography changes, when different
voltages, pulse times, and tip velocities are applied
to the AFM system
Bottom Up synthesis processes

 Sol-gel
 Hydrothermal
Sol-gel Synthesis
 Sol-gel is a chemical solution process used to make
different materials in the form of thin films, fibers, or
powders.
 A sol is a colloidal (the dispersed phase is so small that
gravitational forces do not exist; only Van der Waals forces
and surface charges are present) or molecular suspension
of solid particles of ions in a solvent.
 A gel is a semi-rigid mass that forms when the solvent
from the sol begins to evaporate and the particles or ions
left behind begin to join together in a continuous
network .
 Typical precursors are metal oxides and metal chlorides,
which undergo Hydrolysis (Hydrolysis is a chemical
reaction or process in which a chemical compound is
broken down by reaction with water).
 Two or more molecules combine upon the separation of
water or some other simple substance to form a colloid
composed of solid particles (size ranging from 1 nm to 1
μm) dispersed in a solvent.
 The sol evolves then towards the formation of an
inorganic network containing a liquid phase (gel).
 The drying process serves to remove the liquid phase from
the gel thus forming a porous material, then a thermal
treatment (firing) may be performed in order to favor
further polycondensation and enhance mechanical
properties.
 The precursor sol can be either deposited on a
substrate to form a film, cast into a suitable container
with the desired shape
e.g. to obtain a ceramics, glasses, fibers, membranes, or
used to synthesize powders (e.g. microspheres,
nanospheres).

 The sol-gel approach is interesting as it is a cheap and

low-temperature technique that allows for the fine
control on the product’s chemical composition, as
even small quantities of dopants, such as organic dyes
and rare earth metals, can be introduced in the sol
and end up in the final product finely dispersed.
Hydrothermal synthesis
 Hydrothermal synthesis includes the various
techniques of crystallizing substances from high-
temperature aqueous solutions at high vapor pressues;
also termed "hydrothermal method".
 Hydrothermal synthesis can be defined as a method of
synthesis of single crystals that depends on the
solubility of minerals in hot water under high pressure.
 The crystal growth is performed in an apparatus
consisting of a steel pressure vessel called an autoclave,
in which a nutrient is supplied along with water. A
temperature gradient is maintained between the
opposite ends of the growth chamber. At the hotter end
the nutrient solute dissolves, while at the cooler end it
is deposited on a seed crystal, growing the desired
crystal.
 Advantages of the hydrothermal method over other
types of crystal growth include the ability to create
crystalline phases which are not stable at the
melting point. Also, materials which have a high
vapour pressure near their melting points can be
grown by the hydrothermal method.
 The method is also particularly suitable for the
growth of large good-quality crystals while
maintaining control over their composition.
 Disadvantages of the method include the need of
expensive autoclaves, and the impossibility of
observing the crystal as it grows.
Structural Properties of Materials
and
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
Sir William Henry Bragg:
•William Henry and William Lawrence Bragg
(father and son) found a simple interpretation
Bragg’s law
of von Laue’s experiment.
• They assume that each crystal plane reflects radiation as
a mirror and analyze this situation for cases of constructive
and destructive interference.

Noble
prize
1915!

Conditions for reflection: 2d sin   n 

Derivation of Bragg’s law
x
sin( )  θ
d
 x  d sin( )
θ
d
θ x

Path difference Δ= 2x => phase shift

Constructive interference if Δ=nλ
This gives the criterion for constructive interference:

   2d sin( )  n
Bragg’s law tells you at which angle θB to expect maximum diffracted intensity for
a particular family of crystal planes.
For large crystals, all other angles give zero intensity.
 The X-Ray diffractometers

Detector
X-ray
tube

w  2

 The incident angle, w, is defined between the X-ray source and the
sample.
 The diffracted angle, 2, is defined between the incident beam and
the detector angle.
 The incident angle w is always half of the detector angle 2 .
Thermal properties of Materials

 Melting Point is the Temperature at which the atoms,

ions, or molecules in a substance have enough energy to
overcome the intermolecular forces that hold the them in
a fixed position in a solid.

 At macroscopic length scales, the melting temperature of

materials is size-independent. For example, an ice cube
and a glacier both melt at the same temperature.

 With decrease in nanocrystal size the surface energy

increases and the melting point decreases. The surface
atoms require less energy to move because they are in
contact with fewer atoms of the substance
Melting point as a function of size
Melting point as a function of size
 The dimensions of a material decrease towards the atomic
scale, the melting temperature scales with the material
dimensions.
 Melting-point depression is most evident in nanowires,
nanotubes and nanoparticles, which all melt at lower
temperatures than bulk amounts of the same material.
 Changes in melting point occur because nanoscale
materials have a much larger surface-to-volume ratio than
bulk materials, drastically altering their thermodynamic
and thermal properties.
 As the metal particle size decreases, the melting
temperature also decreases
Thermal Transport
 Heat is transported in materials by two different
mechanisms:
 lattice vibration waves (phonons) and Free
electrons.
 In metals, the electron mechanism of heat
transport is significantly more efficient than
phonon processes.
 In the case of nonmetals, phonons are the main
mechanism of thermal transport.
 In both metals and nonmetals, as the system length
scale is reduced to the nanoscale, there are
quantum confinement and classical scattering
effects
Mechanical properties
 Yield strength: maximum stress before
permanent strain

 Tensile strength: maximum stress

 Ductility: measure of deformation (Lf – Lo)/ Lo

 Toughness: ability to absorb energy: area under

curve
Nanoparticles

 Conventional materials: Grain size micron

to mm
 In Nanoparticles there is an increase in
grain boundaries
 Influence on mechanical properties:
Increased hardness, yield strength, elastic
modulus, toughness
Mechanical properties of nanomaterials
compared to coarse grain materials

 Higher Young modulus and tensile

strength (to 4 times higher)

 Lower plastic deformation

 More brittle
Comparison of Young modulus
Material Young modulus (GPa)
Rubber 0.1
Al 70
Fe 200
SiC 440
Fe nanoparticles (100 nm) 800
C nanotubes 1000
Diamond 1200
SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
History
 TEM constructed in 1931
 Von Ardenne first STEM in 1938 by rastering the
electron beam in a TEM
 Zworykin et al. 1942, first SEM for bulk samples
 1965 first commercial SEM by Cambridge Scientific
Instruments

Resolution at that time ~ 50 nm : Today < 1 nm

Morphology only at that time : Today analytical instrument

Components of the SEM

• electron gun (filament)

• electromagnetic optics
• scan coils
• sample stage
• detectors
• vacuum system
• computer hardware and software
Electron guns
 We want many electrons per time
per unit area (high current density)
and as small electron spot as
possible
 Traditional guns: thermionic
electron gun (electrons are emitted
when a solid is heated)
 W-wire, LaB6-crystal
 Modern: field emission guns (FEG)
(cold guns, a strong electric field is
used to extract electrons)
 Single crystal of W, etched to a thin tip
 HOW THE SEM WORKS?
 The SEM uses electrons instead of light to form an image.

 A beam of electrons is produced at the top of the microscope by heating of a

metallic filament.
 The electron beam follows a vertical path through the column of the microscope.
It makes its way through electromagnetic lenses which focus and direct the beam
down towards the sample.
 Once it hits the sample, other electrons
(backscattered or secondary) are ejected from the sample. Detectors collect the
secondary or backscattered electrons, and convert them to a signal that is sent to a
viewing screen similar to the one in an ordinary television, producing an image.
 Signals from the sample
Incoming electrons
Secondary electrons
Auger electrons
Backscattered Cathodo-
electrons luminescence (light)

X-rays

Sample
Where does the signals come from?

• Diameter of the interaction volume is

larger than the electron spot
 resolution is poorer than the size of the
electron spot
Resolution of SEM
 Best resolution that can be obtained from SEM depends upon the size of the
electron spot on the sample surface
 The introduction of FEG has dramatically improved the resolution of SEM’s

 The volume from which the signal electrons are formed defines the resolution
 SE image has higher resolution than a BSE image

 Scanning speed:
 a weak signal requires slow speed to improve signal-to-noise ratio
 when doing a slow scan drift in the electron beam can affect the accuracy of the
analysis
 Applications of Nanomaterials
Current Applications Short-term Applications
 Cosmetics  Paints
 Composites  Remediation
 Clays  Fuel Cells
 Coatings  Displays
 Tougher Tools  Batteries
-
 Fuel Additives
Longer-term Applications  Catalysts
 Nanotube Composites
 Lubricants
 Magnetic Materials
 Medical Implants
 Machinable Ceramics
 Water Purification
 Military Battle Suits
 Potential Impacts of Nanotechnology
• Materials • Technology
– Stain-resistant – Better data
clothes storage
• Health Care and computation
– Chemical and • Environment
biological sensors, – Clean energy,
drugs clean air

Thin layers of gold are Carbon nano tubes

used in tiny medical can be used for H fuel Possible entry point for
devices storage Nano medical device