UNIT-III(A) DRYING

Points to be covered in thistopic

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVE AND APPLICATION

MECHANISM

EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT

TRAY DRYER

DRUM DRYER

SPRAY DRYER

FLUIDIZED BED DRYER

VACUUM DRYER

FREEZE DRYER
OINTRODUCTION
Drying is amass transfer process consisting of the removal of wa
another solvent by evaporation from asolid, semi-solid or liquid.
This process is often used as a final production step before selling or
packaging products.

OOBJECTIVE
For the purpose of overcoming commonnon challenges facing
pharmaceutical drying development, including material constraints for
scale-up studies and equipment transfer to avariety of types and sizes
of equipment
Identify common development gaps in the drying development
workflow that can be addressed by improving chemical and physical
stability, drying kinetics, and powder properties through
understanding of drying development.
Research and technology advances should be encouraged to improve
the drying process.
Furthermore, it is also necessary to reduce the outsize of the packaging, to
prevent deterioration on storage, to reduce the amount of moisture in
the tablet granules, to reduce the bulk and weight in order to reduce
transportation expenses, in addition to certain preparations such as
spray dried lactose.
To design andmanufacture a dryer with minimal energy consumption,
alow acquisition and operating cost, and optimum localcontent and
flexibility.
Determine the impact of factors on product specifications and define
residual solvents in accordance with regulations, along with the natu
of these residual solvents.
 OAPPLICATION
& PREPARATION OF BULK DRUGS
" In the preparation of bulk drugs, drying is the final stage of processing.
" Afew examples are:
VDried aluminium hydroxide
Spray dried lactose
Powdered extracts

PRESERVATION OF DRUG PRODUCTS

Drying is necessary inorder to avoid deterioration.
" Afew example are:
Crude drugs of animal andvegetable origin - chemical
decomposition
Blood,products ,skin, tissue - microbial growth
Syntheticand semisynthetic drugs - chemical
decomposition
Effervescent tablets - chemical decomposition

IMPROVED CHARACTERISTICS
Drying produces materials of spherical shape, uniform size, free
flowing and enhanced solubility
Some specific areas of importance ar
(1) Granules are dried to improve the fluidity and compression
characteristics. These are essential for the production of tablets and
capsules.
(2) Viscous and sticky materials are not free flowing. Drying
modifies these characteristics. Examples are male fern extract, malt
extract and oleoresin.
 IMPROVED HANDLING
Removal of moisture makes the material light in weight and reduce
the bulk.
Thus cost of transportation will be less and storage will be efficient.
" If,moisture is present, size reduction of drugs is difficult.
Drying reduces the moisture content.

OMECHANISM

Drying involves both heat transfer and mass transfer processes

simultaneously.
Heat transfer takes place from the heating medium to the solid
material.
Mass transfer involves the transfer of moisture to the surface of
the solids and subsequently vapourisation from the surface into
surroundings.
Various theories are proposed to explain the movement of moisture.
These are given below.
Diffusion theory
Capillarity theory
Pressure gradient theory
Gravity flowtheory
Vapourisation and condensation mechanisms

* DIFFUSION THEORY
" In diffusion theory, the rate of flow of water is proportional to
moisture gradient.
According to this theory, moisture movement may be as follows.
Water diffuses through the solid to the surface and subsequently
evaporates into the surroundings.
Evaporation of water occurs at an intermediate zone, much below
the solid surface, then vapours diffuses through the solid into air.
 CAPILLARITY THEORY
Capillary theory is applicable to porous granular solids.
Porous material contains a network of inter - connected pores and
channels, which arenot circular or straight.
As the drying start,a meniscus is formed in the capillary and exerts
a force.
This is the driving force for the movement of water through pores
towards the surface.
The curvature of the meniscus depends on the pore diameter and
determines the strength of capillary force.
" The capillary force is greater in small pores compared to the large
pores.
" Therefore , small pores pull more water from the larger pores and
thus large pores get emptied first.
" Air enters into the emptied pores and the moisture content is
relatively higher near the surface.

PRESSURE GRADIENT THEORY

" Pressure gradient theory is applicable to drying of solids by the
application of radiation.
" Radiation isa source of generating internal heat.
The radiation interacts with the polarized molecules and ions of the
material.
This field aligns the molecules in order, which are otherwise randomly
oriented.
When the field is reversed , the molecules return to the original
orientation.
" Inthis process,it gives up random kinetic energy to the inside of the
surface of the solids itself.
Therefore, liquid inside the solids is vapourised.
" Asa result, vapour pressure.
OEQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT
It is the amount of water present in the solid which exerts a vapour
pressure equal to the vapour pressure of the atmosphere surrounding it.
The moisture which is more difficult to remove in practice is the
equilibrium moisture content.
This moisture content is retained by the solid under steady
conditions.
This water does not vapourize and does not producevapour pressure.
Equilibrium moisture content in wet mass.
Vapour pressure of wet mass =
Vapour pressure of atmosphere
At equilibrium Amount of
water = EMC

Wet mass
The characteristics of air such as temperature and humidity are
maintained constant.
Dependingon these conditions, the solids may absorb or lose moisture.
When air is continuously passed over the solid containing
moisture more than EMC,then solid loses water continuously till
EMC is reached.This phenomenon is known as desorption.
When air is continuously passed over the solid containing
moisture less than EMC is reached. This phenomenon is known as
sorption.
Moisture in the solid > EMC of solid Moisture in the solid > EMC of soid
Moisture
Moisture

Desorption Wet Sorption

mass

At agiven temperature and humidity of air

 MEASUREMENT OF EMC
The solid samples are placed in a series of closed chambers such as
desiccators.
Each chamber consists f solution , which maintains a fixed relative
humidity n the enclosed air spaces.
"In other words , the solid samples are exposed to several humidity
conditions.
The exposure is continued until the material attains a constant
weight.
The difference in the final and initial weights gives the moisture
content.

Moisture
content-per
cent Bentonite

Starch
20

Methylcellulose,
15 cps
10

Ethycellulose

20 40 60 80 100
Relative humidity-per cent
APPLICATION
" The EMCcurve permits the selection of the experimental condition to
be used for drying the product.
Dryingshould be stopped when the moisture content reaches the level
of the EMC under the exposed conditions.
Over drying can be avoided, because over -dried solid quickly regain
the moisture from the ambient conditions.
 FACTORS AFFECTING EMC
Nature of material
Nonporous insoluble solids have an EMC of practically zero. E.g. talc
" For fibrous or colloidal organic substances ,the EMC values are high
and variable
For porous solids , the EMC values are much higher and variable.
VNature of air
" For air of zerohumidity , EMCof allmaterials is zero.
As the temperature of air increases, the EMC of solid decreases.

OTRAY DRYER
> PRINCIPLE
" In traydryer, hot air is continuously circulated.
"Forced convection heatingtakesplace to remove moisture from the
solids placed in trays.
" Simultaneously, the moist air is removed partially.

º CONSTRUCTION
"Steam or electricity can be used to heat a tray dryer.
" It includes a rigid frame constructed by angle iron with double - sided
panels filled with the best compressed fiberglass insulation and a rigid
door with strong hinges and an optimal locking system.
" Alternatively hot air can be circulated with fans.
" An easy to operate control panel is located on the front of the oven.
" With a large functional space, it is constructed of mild steel, finished
outside with synthetic enamel, and painted on the inside with heat
resistant paint in order to withstand temperature up to 300°c.
 --Airoutlet

Granular solid
Tray
Heater

Air inlet+ E+Fan

WORKING
Aside-by-side or base-by-side heater generates heat in the dryer.
" The other option is to use radiator coils that circulate heat using
steam instead of hot air from the oven.
The material to be dried is spread out on trays during the drying
process.
Heating air is circulated through the material.
There are three types of bases for trays ; solid,perforated and wire
mesh.
" Apaper lining could be used to reduce contamination risks from
direct contact with trays.
" A
dryers efficiency depends on its ability to recirculate hot air.
" Furthermore,it sdependent fresh air supply in addition to regular
supply and presence of heated air.
" A fixed proportion of fresh air and heated air is combined for an
efficient performance.
Inorder toensure uniform drying both at the bottom and at the top
of adryer , such regulated drying is essential.
Insulation is provided by heating coils in addition to the double -
walled construction.
> USES
" Chemicals and pharmaceuticals are two industries where tray
dryers are used.
Traydryers are well suited to drying sticky materials, granular
mass or crystallized materials, precipitates and pastes.
Agricultural drying has been made possible with its simple design
and capacity to dry large quantities of products.

º MERITS
Each batch is handled separately since it is operated in a batch
mode.

" It is an energy -efficient dryer since it consumes less energy.

Using andcleaning it is simple.
The tray dryer can be customized to fit different sizes which
reduces the capital cost.
External heating preventscondensation on chamber walls.

º DEMERITS
The process is time consuming because it runs at low to intermediate
temperatures.

Indirectly exposed solid particles make up only a fraction of the total.

Neither heat nor mass is transferred efficiently.
" The dryer isnot suitable for massproduction.
In the lower trays,the contents are prone to over- drying.
As a result of the long cycle time and high labor costs for loading and
unloading, it is expensive to operate.
 ODRUM DRYER
> PRINCIPLE
" In drum dryer, , a heated hallow metal drum rotates on its
longitudinal axis , which is partially dipped in the solution to be
dried.
Thesolution is carried as a film on the surface of the dryer and dried
toform a layer.
" A
suitable knife scrapsthe dried material ,while the drum isrotating.
CONSTRUCTION
Drum dryers move along with the beds they dry.
In addition to being lean and resistant to chemical attacks, the unit
constructed of cast iron and stainless steel.
" It is meticulousy machined so that the drumsachieve a maximum
and repeatable heat transfer over their entire lifetime , both to
ensure maximum heat transfer and to accommodate high steam
temperature and pressure.
Horizontally mounted hollow drums with a diameter of 0.6 to3.0
meters and a length of 0.6 to 4.0 meters have smooth polished
surfaces.
Heating coils or steam can be used toforce heat into the drum.
Using a thermostat heat can be transferred to a material by
conduction.
" The drum is rotated at 1- 10 rpm by an electric motor.

Drum
Doctor blade
(knife)
Dip
applicator Belt conveyer
roller
Doctor's
blade -Product
Feed tray receiver
 WORKING
Steam is passed inside the drum.
" Heat transfer coefficient of the drum metal is high.
Drying capacity is directly proportional to the surface area of the
drum.
Heat is transferred by conduction to the material.
Simultaneously drum is rotated at a rate of 1-10 revolutions per
minute.
The liquid material present in the feed pan adheres as a thin layer to
theexternal surface of the drum during its rotation.
The material is completely dried during its journey in slightly less
than one rotation.
The dried material is scrapped by the doctors knife, which then
falls into a storage bin.
º USES
" Drum dryers are used for drying sticky and highly viscous liquids
and pastes.
" Drying temperature sensitive item is done under vaccum, including
proteins ,vitamins, yeast, pigments, malt extracts , hormones and
antibiotics.
" The process is conducted within an enclosed area, protecting the
environment or product.
"Solution , slurry,suspension etc. are dried with drum dryers.
" Starch , products , ferrous salts, suspension of zinc oxide,
suspension of calcium , insectisides, barium carbonates, etc. can be
dried using these dryers.
MERITS
Itsmass transfer rate is higher than drum dryers, so it provides rapid
drying,
" Heat is applied continuously to the entire material , short drying
times and minimal product heating are characteristics of this
process.
 We offer tailored models that are compact and 100% closed system.
Because of their simplicity, only a few people need to learn how
operate them,and they don't require specialized maintenance.
Drum dryers have the advantages of cheap installation and
continuous operation 24hrs a day.

º DEMERITS
The operating conditions must be monitored since they
Controlling feed rate , film thickness , rotation speed and
temperature requires skilled operators.
How concentration or suspension with low viscosities are not
suitable.

DSPRAY DRYER
> PRINCIPLE
"It atomizes the liquid intosmall droplets providing a large surface for
mass and heat transfer.
Using hot air,the drops are sprayed so that dryinto solid particles.

CONSTRUCTION
Drying chambers with conical bases comprise it.
Allthe partsare stainless steel.
" An inlet for hot air is also provided at the bottom, and a second one
is provided at the top for the spray disk atomizer.
Acyclone separators isconnected to the dryingchamber for
atomization using single - fluid or dual - fuid nozzels.
Inthe bottom ofthe separator, the dry product is collected.
 Atomizer
Drying
gas
Llquld feed
Drying
chamber
oExhaust
gas

Cyclone

Dry particles
collector
> WORKING
When moved through a hot gaseous drying medium, spray drying
produces dry droplets from liquid atomization.
Atomization, mixing spray air, evaporation of moisture, and
separation of the dry product from the exit air are the steps before
drying occurs in a spray dryer.
Atomization is the first step in spray drying. Atomization is the
of turningthe liquid feedstock into small droplets of liquid by using
a nozzle or rotary atomizer.
Following, the solute or suspension is separated from the solvent as
asolid and then into a gas.
As part of thisstage, many desirable properties are developed, such
particle size and viscosity .
In the case of atomizers or nozzles, the droplets dried to form a
powder that is easily packaged and transported.
After the droplets have dried, they form solids.
 Drums or cyclones are usually used to collect solids.
The spray dryer's design and operation, coupled with the
physicochemical propertiesof the feed, determine the finalproduct.
Hot air is commonly used to dry powder.
By adjusting the hot air temperature, the powder's final moisture
content can be controlled.
After the exhaust gas has been re-circulated, the powder can be
recovered from it within a few seconds during the recovery process.
USES
The product is a better form than that obtained by any other dryer.
The quantity of the material to be dried is large.
The product is thermolabile , hygroscopic or undergoes chemical
decomposition.
º MERITS
Spray drying is a continuous process and drying is very rapid. Drying
completes within 3 to 30 seconds.
" Labour costs are low as it combines the function of an evaporator, a
crystallizer,a dryer, asize reduction unit and a classifier.
By using suitable atomizer, the product of uniform and controllable
size can be obtained. Free flowing product of uniform spheres is
formed which is very convenient for tableltting process.
Fine droplets formed provide large surface area for heat and mass
transfer. Product shows excellent solubility.
Either the solution or suspension or thin paste can be dried in one
step to get the final product ready for package.
r DEMERITS
" Spray dryer is very bulky (height of 25.0 metres and diameter of 9.0
metres)and expensive.
Such a hugeequipment is not always easy tooperate.
The thermal efficiency is low, as much heat is lost in the discharged
gases.
 OFLUIDIZED BED DRYER
PRINCIPLE
FBD (Aluidized Bed dryer) works on the fluidization principle.
A high-pressure Hot air from the supply is passed through the
perforated container containing a wet mass of the granules, after some
time granules,particles started tosuspend in the air to become dry
(called (fuidized state),the process is called fludization.
º CONSTRUCTION
The dryer is made up of stainless steel or plastic.
" A
detachable bowlis placed at the bottom of the bottomof the dryer,
which is used for charging and discharging.
The bowel has a perforated bottom with a wire mesh support for
placing, materials to be dried.
Afan is mounted in the upper part for circulating hot :
Fresh air inlet,prefilter and heat exchanger are connected serially
to heat the air to the required temperatures.
The temperatures of hot air and exit air are monitored.
Bag filtersare placed above the drying bowl for the recovery of fines.

Inlet

Fan

Recrculetion
control

Air hesters

Filter bags

Detachable bowt
Hot air
Fluidized solids
Air fiter Perforated plate
WORKING
Fluidbed dryers work according to a basic principle that is explained
here.
Solid powdered material is allowed to flow through an upward
stream of air.
This causes all particlesto move at afaster rate than their setting
rate.

The air will blow up solid particles and suspend them in the air
stream as it passes over them.
Solid bed containing boiling liquids are known as fluidized beds.
Hot air can be used to aid in the fluidization of the bed after it has
been fluidized.
" Hot air accelerates the drying process.
Removable perforated bottom machines with stainless steel
chambers are often called bowl machines.
This bowl must contain all the materials that need to be dried.
The air is introduced into the bowl from the bottom and heated to a
set temperature by heaters.
Filtered air is passed through the bed of the material after it has
filtered.
Fans at the top of the equipment are responsible for the constant air
flow.
" Through the use of a control panel, all parameters of the equipment,
such as flow rate and temperature, can be adjusted.

USES
" Fluidised bed dryer is popularly used for drying of granules in the
production of tablets.
Fluidised bed dryer can be used for three operations such as mixing,
granulation and drying.
" It is modified for coating of granules.
 MERITS
Excellent gas-particle constant results in strong heat and mass
transfer rates,resulting in high moisture removal rates.
If part of the thermal energy for drying is supplied by the internal
heat exchanger, high thermalefficiency is usually achieved.
Lower initial and ongoing costs.
Drying contact time is reduced.
Stability and easy tocontrol.
º DEMERITS
Considerable pressure drops are caused by the necessity to suspend
the entire bed in gas, resulting in high energy usage.
Increased gas handling is required due to substantial exhaust gas
recirculation for high thermal efficiency operation.
Inadequate fluidization and flexibility, particularly if the feed is
overly wet.
When organic solvents must be eliminated during drying, this is not
the best equipment to use.
" For certain types of fluidized bed dryers, product quality is
uniform.

OVACUUM DRYER

º PRINCIPLE
" Invacuum dryer, material is dried by the application of vacuum.
"When vacuum is created, the pressure is lowered so that water boils
at a lower temperature.
Hence water evaporates faster.
" The heat transfer becomes efficient , iLe. rate of drying enhances
substantially.
CONSTRUCTION
The pharmaceutical industry also refers tovacuum dryersas vacuum
Ovens.

" Due to their high vacuum pressure,vacuum dryers are made of cast
iron or stainless steel so they can withstand the pressure without
deforming.
Heat conduction is improved by the hollow trays that divide the
oven.

" It'spossible to reduce the pressure by connecting a vacuumpump to

the oven door.
" Hot water and steam are supplied through a hollow shelf to provide
heat.

Vacuum

Condenser

Connection to
vacuum pump

Steam or Condensate
water jacket receiver

WORKING
Vacuum dryers use trays to holdthe materials to be dried, while the
vacuum pump reduces the pressure steam is passed between trays
and jackets through the tightly closed dryer door to transfer heat
through conduction in the condenser, vaporized water is collected
from the feed.

Thevacuum pump is disconnected once the product has dried, and

trays fullof dried products are collected.
 It is possible to dry itemsfaster if the pressure is lowered during the
drying process, you can regulate the temperature, and the wetting
agent's boiling points maintained largely throughout .
There is along drying time, usually between 12 and 48 hours.
As the material contacts the heated surface of the dryer, heat
transferred, allowing the material to dry by conduction.

º USES
Heat sensitive materials, which undergo decomposition.
Dusty and hygroscopic materials.
Drugs containing toxic solvents. These can be separated into These ar
recovered by closed containers
Feed containing valuable solvents ,condensation.
" Drugs which are required as porous end products.
Friable dry extracts.

> MERITS
Vacuum dryer provides large surface area for heat transfer.
" Handling of the material, trays and equipment is easy.
" It is easy for switching over to the next materials.
" Hot water of desired temperatures can be supplied.
Electrically heated hollow shelves can be used.

º DEMRITS
In vacuum dryer, heat transfer coefficients are low.
It has a limited capacity and used for batch process.
It is more expensive than tray dryer. Labour and running costs are
also high.
Sometimes, there is adanger of over heating as the material is in
contact with steam heated surface for longer period.
OFREEZE DRYER
PRINCPLE
The process of lyophilization involves a phenomenon known
sublimation An object that is liquid passes directly from one state to
another, unlikean object that is solid (ice).
Itinvolves removing the water from the frozen state material and then
heating it to the point that the evaporated liquid leaves only the
solidsor dry components of the original liquid.
It is necessary to dry materials at lower temperatures and pressures
than the triple point.
CONSTRUCTION
There three types of freeze dryers The tray-style freeze-dryer,
the rotary freeze-dryer, and the manifold freeze-dryer are the three
types of freeze-dryers.
Each of these methods relies on a vacuum pump to lower the
atmosphere pressure in a vessel that holds the substance to be dried
and a condenser to remove moisture through condensation on a
surface that is chilled to between 20 and 80°C.
Freeze-dried substances are connected to condensers in three
different ways manifold, rotary, and tray.
An insulated tube connected by a circular bend connects multiple
containers filled with dried goods to a condenser.
An insulated tube connected by a circular bend connects multiple
containers filled with driedgoods to a condenser.
Within rotary freeze-dryers are large reservoirs used to store drying
substances Pellets, cubes and other liquids are usually dried with
rotary freeze-dryers.
The cylindrical reservoir of a rotary dryer rotates during drying so
that the substance is evenly dried.
For storing dried materials, a tray freeze-dryer includes a large
reservoir.
 Arectangular reservoir with shelves and trays is usually used
pharmaceutical solutions and tissue extracts, which
collected in the reservoir.
" In a freeze dryer ,products are kept in a vacuum chamber that cools
and heats the containersand contents as they are dried.
Vacuum chambers are connected t vacuum pumps , refrigeration
units, and electronic controls.
Non-aseptic area
Aseptic Area
Heat ranster
Hydraulic piston fluid manilold To vacuumpump

Isolation valve
Door

Retrigerant

Chamber Condenser

> WORKING
After aproduct has been frozen, water is removed from it and the
product is put under a vacuum, causing the ice to turn directly into
vapour without passing through a liquid phase.
Under these conditions, frozen material can be sublimated at
temperatures below the triple point of liquid.
Water vapour pressure increases as temperature rises during the
primary drying process Keeping the primary drying temperature
above the critical temperature willprevent the loss of cake structure.
Freeze-drying consists of four important steps: pretreatment,
freezing, primary drying, and secondary drying.
& PRETREATMENT
"This stage is for determining the freezing point of the product,
solution-phase concentration, preserving product appearance,
stabilizing reactive products, reducing the concentration of high
vapor pressure solvents, and increasing surface area before freezing.
FREEZING
" The liquid sample is cooled down to between 40° Cand 60°C in the
freezing stage until parts of it crystallize into pure ice, and the
remainder is freeze-concentrated into a glassy state when the viscosity
is too high to permit further crystallization.

* PRIMARY DRYING
" Aprimary dry process removes the ice formed by freezing by
sublimating it under vacuum at low temperatures.
" The resulting amorphous solute, typicaly 109% water, has a very
porous structure that is highly porous.
Apressure of 10-4 to 10-5 atmospheres is used, and a temperature of
-45 to -20°C is used in this step Heat and mass are transferred during
the sublimation process during primary drying.

SECONDARY DRYING
" As the sample is gradually heated between 10 °C and 15 °C while
maintaining low pressure, most of the remaining water is desorbed
from the glass.
" A good cake should be dry, reconstituted easily, and have a low
amount of moisture (below 5% weight to weight).
 IUSES
" Blood plasma and its fractionated products.
" Bacterial and viral cultures.
Human tissue
Antibiotics and plant extracts
" Steroids, vitamins and enzymes.
MERITS
Thermolabile materials can be dried.
The product retains its bulk volume.
It is porous and uniform.
Denaturation doesnot occur.
Migrationof salts and other solutes does not take place.
" Loss of volatile material is less.

º DEMERITS
" It may be necessary to use a high vacuum to remove volatile
compounds.
Operation with the highest untilcost.
The ability of an individual drugto cope with temperature is one of its
primary drawbacks.
Aseptic loading of vials into the dryer chamber and sterilization and
sterility assurance of the chamber raises some concerns.
 (B)MIXING

Pointsto be covered inthis topic

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVE AND APPLICATION

FACTOR AFFECTING MIXING

MECHANISM

DOUBLECONE BLENDER

TWIN SHELL BLENDER

RIBBON BLENDER

SIGMA BLADE MIXER

PLANETARY MIXERS

PROPELLERS

TURBINES

PADDLES

SILVERSON EMULSIFIER
 OINTRODUCTION
Mixing is adefined as a process that
tends to result in a randomization of
dissimilar particles within system.
The term mix means to put together
in one mass or assemblage with more
or less thorough diffusion of the
constituent elements among One
another.
The term blending means to mix smoothly and inseparably together.
During blending a minimum energy is imparted to the bed.
These terms are commonly used interchangeably in the industry.

O OBJECTIVE

TO PRODUCEA SINGLE PHYSICAL MIXTURE

"This may besimply the production of ablend of two or more miscible
liquids or twoor more uniformly divided solids.
" In pharmaceutical practice, the degree of mixing must commonly be
of a high order as many of such mixtures are dilutions of active
substances and must be in accurate amount for dose uniformity in
dosage forms.

TO PRODUCEPHYSICAL CHANGE
" Mixing can be performed to produce physical as well as chemical
change, for example, solution of a soluble substance.
" In such cases, a the lower efficiency of mixing is often acceptable
because mixing merely accelerates a dissolution and diffusion
process that could occur by simply agitation.
& TO PRODUCE DISPERSION
Mixing is also aimed to include the dispersion of two immiscible
liquids to form an emulsion or dispersion of a solid in liquid to give a
suspension or paste.
" Usually, good mixing is required to ensure stability and
effectiveness.

TO PROMOTE CHEMICAL REACTION

Mixing encourages and at the same time control achemical reaction.
Mixing ensures auniform product such as reactions where accurate
adjustment to pH is required and the degree of mixing will decide the
possibility of reaction.

OAPPLICATION

* DRYMIXING
Mixing helps various powders to be mixed in varying proportions
prior to granulation or tableting.
Dry mixing of the materials makes them suitable for direct
compression into tablets.
PRODUCT FEATURES
" The mixing helps to deliver an accurate dosage that has an acceptable
appearance and texture, or to maintain formulation stability for the
appropriate length of time.
The importance of proper mixer selection and its optimal operation
can hardly be over-estimated.

DRY BLENDING
Mixing is used for dry blending in the manufacture of many vitamins,
dietary supplements, and drugs in powders (insuflations, face
powders,and tooth powders), capsules, and tablets.
" Dry blending operation combines the active ingredient with other
solidexcipients in the most appropriateway.
& EMULSIONS
Throughoutthe pharmaceutical industry, high shear mixing is widely
used inthe preparation of emulsions such as creams and medicated
lotions.

HETEROGENEQUS MIXTURES
" Mixing is usedwhen different powders behave differently when added
into liquid, and some require more coaxing in order to dissolve,
hydrate or disperse completely than others.

TOUGH AGGLOMERATES
It is used to deal with solids that tend to form tough agglomerates
which do not easily break apart.
Ahigh shear mixer is often used to resolve such issues and many
solutions and dispersions are made.
For example, tablet coatings, vaccines, and disinfectants.
FLUID BLENDING
Mixing is used for continuous blending of fluid streams,
emulsification, and dispersion of gases into liquid, pH control,
dilution, and heat exchange.
Astaticmixer is unique with no moving part that relies on external
pumps to move the fluids through it.
For example, dissolution of soluble solids in viscous liquids for
dispensing in soft capsules and inthe preparation of syrups.

VISCOUS FLUIDS
" Mixing is used for batch mixing of viscous formulations.
Mixers are used in the pharmaceutical industry for batch
manufacturing of moderate to relatively high viscosity applications
such as syrups, suspensions, pastes, creams, ointments,and gels.
> DIEEERENCE BETWEEN SOLID AND LIOUID MIXING
LIQUIDMIXING SOLID MIXING

Flow currents are responsible Flow currents are not possible

for transporting unmixed
material to the mixing zone
adjacent to impeller
Truly homogeneous liquid Product often consists of two or
phase can be observed more easily identifiable phase.
Small sample size is sufficient Large sample size is required
tostudy degree of mixing
Mixing requires low power Mixing requires high power

DFACTOR AFFECTINGMIXING
& MATERIAL DENSITY
Different mixture components with different densities sink through
each other, which will have a different effect on the mixer depending
their relative positions.
" It is recommended to place the denser material at the bottom of the
mixer during the mixing process in an attempt to maximize mixing.
PARTICLE SIZE
Material segregation caused by different particle sizes can cause non
uniform distribution of materials.
In between larger particles, the smaller particles will settle.
large particle that slips through the void in the open packing is
allowed to dilate during the mixing process, resulting in
distribution.
PARTICLE SHAPE
The mixing process can be easier when particles possess spherical
shapes, but are more challenging when particles have other shapes.
" If theparticles are mixed, they will become interconnected and reduce
the risk of segregation.
UNIEORMITY IN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Mixing helps in particle size distribution and other related parameters
which dependon cycle time andmixer design.

PARTCLE ATTRACTION
The adsorption of liquid films and electrostatic charges on some
particlesresult in attractive forces that cause them to aggregate.

PROPORTION OF MATERIALS
An important factor determining the efficacy of mixing is the
proportion of chemicals in a given mixture.
" Apowder mixing process is very dependent on the proportions of
materials to be combined.

The mixing of powders is easy if the ingredients are of equal strength,

but it is difficult to mix a small quantity of powder with a large
quantity of another ingredient or diluent.

METHOD OF HANDLING
Standard operating procedures must be followed to minimize the risk
of segregation after mixing.
Separation iscommon when goods are handled

NATURE OF PRODUCT
Powder components with rough surfaces may not mix effectively
Generally, very fine substances may enter pores and cavities on the
surfaces of larger ingredients due to their size.
 OMECHANISM
> MECHANISM OE SOLID MIXING
CONVECTIVE MIXING
" It is achieved by the inversion of the powder bed using blades or
paddles or screw element.
" Alarge mass of material moves from one part to another.
Convective mixing isreferred to as macromixing.
& SHEAR MIXING
" In this type, the forces of attraction are broken down so that each
particle moves on its own between regions of different composition
and parallel to their surfaces.
" In aparticulate mass, the forces of attraction are predominating,
which make the layers slip over one another. Such types of attraction
forces are predominant among same type of particles.
Shear forces reduce these attractions and reduce the scale of
segregation.
DIFFUSIVE MIXING
" It involves the random motion of particles within the powder bed,
thereby particles change their positions relative to one another.
Diffusive mixing occurs at the interfaces of dissimilar regions.
Diffusion is sometimes referred to as micro mixing.

MECHANISM 0F LIQUD MIXING

* BULK TRANSPORT
" Bulk transport is defined as the movement of a large portion of a
material from one location to another location in a given system.
For this purpose, mixing devices such as rotating blades and paddles
areused, which moves the material in different directions.
TURBULENT MIXING
"Turbulent mixing is defined as mixing due to turbulent flow, which
results in random fluctuation of the fluid velocity at any given point
within the system.
" In the turbulent low, fluid velocity at a given point fluctuates
continuously in three directions, x,yand z.
" However, the liquid moves in one direction depending on the
dominant component.
" In general, the liquid has different velocities at different locations at
the same time.

LAMINAR MIXING
Laminar mixing is the mixing of two dissimilar liquids through
laminar flow, i.e., the applied shear stretches the interface between
them.

" Inthis mechanism,layers fold back upon themselves.

Thus the number of layers increases.
" Hence, the interfacial area between them also increases exponentially
with time.
Mixing may alsoresult in simple stretching of the fluid layers without
any significant folding action.
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION
Molecular diffusion is the mixing at molecular level in which
molecules diffuse due to thermal motion.
Molecular diffusion is explained by the Fick's law, which depends
the concentration gradient at different regions.
" The concentration gradient decreases with time and it reaches zero
when mixing is completed, i.e., equilibrium condition.
> MECHANISMLOE SEMLSOLID MIXING
& SIGMA BLADEMIXER
" It consist of two blades moving at different speeds in a mixing vessel
having the shape a double trough.
" The mixer is suitable for granules and other liquid products.
TRIPLE ROLLER MILL
" Asmallvolume of material is sheared by the differential speed and
narrow clearance between rollers.

Rollers mills are commonly used to grind ointments and homogenize

them.

$ PLANETARY MIXERS
" In the mixers , the mixing arm rotates around its own axis around a
common axis,typically the mixing wheel itself.
Kneading is provided by the blades, while shearing is accomplished
by the narrow passage between them and the wall of the can.

O DOUBLECONE BLENDER
º PRINCIPLE
Dry blending of free solids is the most frequent application for
double cone blenders.

" These blenders can blend solids of different bulk densities and
percentages in different ratios.
" During the rotation of the double cone, the matter is continuously
intermixed.

" It normally takes 10 minutes to mix materialsand may take longer or

shorter depending on the complexity and size of the materials.
º CONSTRUCTION
Two cylindrical cones are welded to a central cylindrical section to
form the main body of this blender.
During rotation, the axis passes through the cylindrical section and is
parallel to the cone axis.
"The blender'smotor is built intoone of its two lateral supports.
Stainless steel is used to construct the double cone blender.
The blender is welded using argon arc welding.
It is both mirrors polished from the inside and out.
Amild steel or stainless steelball-bearing stand supports the device.
There are capacities ranging from 20L to 3000 L.
Because both ends are conical, it facilitates easy mixing and
dispensing.
" By statically balancing the cone, excessive load is protected from the
motor and gearbox.
The cone has a butterfly valve at one end, a hole with an openable
cover at the other end, and a butterfly valve at the other end for
material discharge and cleaning.
"Within the blender are stainless steel baffles and a motor connected
through a reduction gearbox.
Variable speeds can be selected.
Bigger models can be equipped with safety railings, limit switches,
and platforms as options.
An ancillary provision allows liquids to be introduced in spray form
during the process through the inclusion of aliquid spray system.
Using a vacuum unit with cleaning hoses, powders and granules can
be loaded into the blender body through an automated loading
system.
There is also a self-cleaning automatic filter in the product receiving
hopper, and a control panel for the unit.
A retractable hermetic below can be used to load/discharge the
material pneumatically.
 Tank Filter Seal seat
Rotating Frame
connector
Vacuum valve

Heat source

Rotating connector
Condensate water

º WORKING
A vacuum intake system or manual feeding are used to feed powdery
or granular materials into double cone containers.
By rotating continuously, the material is continually moved in a complex
and forceful manner toensure uniform mixing.
Both ends are conical, promoting uniform mixing and making
discharge easier.
" It is possible to provide paddle-type bafles on the shaft, depending
on the characteristics of the material, to help with mixing, uniform
blending, and deagglomeration.
Minimum dust handling is ensured with dust-free bin charging Solid
materials are loaded with the loading aperture into the blender.
By moving through the various sections, the powder bed mixes
axially.
" However, the speed at which it rotates affects how thorough the mixing
is , Hermetic butterfly valves are used to discharge the mixture via
ther manual or automatic operation.
A volume that promotes homogeneity should be between 35-70% of
the gross volume.
 USES
" It is used to mix dry granules sublots in bulk lubrication stages of
tablet granules in order increase the batch size.
Wet powder to dry powder mixing can be performed with this
equipment.
"The product can be used for pharmaceuticals , foods, chemicals, and
cosmetic products ,among others.
The mixer is well suited for mixing granular and property materials
with excellent mixing quality.

º MERITS
With a close container design , the DCB blender provides good
product rolling and cross mixing.
Conical shapes at both ends and the 'slant' design create uniform
mixing and allow for easy discharge.
This device mixes , blends uniformly , and de-agglomerates
materials.
By statically balancing the cone , any excessive load is prevented
from damaging the gearbox or motor.
" It is possible to provide paddle type baffles on the shaft for better
mixing depending on the products characteristics.

r DEMERITS
" Fine powders cannot be handled by DCB.
" Due to the low shear exhibited by this equipment , fine and large
particles cannot be effectivelymixed together.
Rooms with lowceiling heights may not be suitable for installation
since it requires more space.
 OTWIN SHELL BLENDER
> PRINCIPLE
Blending with av- blender,is primarily achieved through diffusion.
"During diffusion blending , solid particles move in a random manner
on a small scale.
Blender movements help particles move around and , as a result
diffuse blending takes place.
over freshly formed interfaces during
Particles are diffused over
blending.
" There are no segregating effects when diffuse blending is used.
CONSTRUCTION
" V- blenders are made by connecting two hollow cylinders at an angle
of 75° to 90°.
Using a tank made out of two V- shaped cylinders rotating around a
horizontal shaft , the components of the mix can be homogenized
perfectly and quickly.
At the tip of the v, the product easily enters and exits with out dust
accumulating.
" In addition to trunnion - to vessel intensifiers , a v- blender can
employ liquid addition spray pipes to add liquids to the vessel through
trunnion bars.
By dissolving agglomerates in the charged material or those formed
during wet mixing, intensifiers can dissolve agglomerates.
"An illustration of av-blend showing the intensifier bar.
" V- blenders are available in a range of sizes with volumes ranging
from 0.25 to 100ft3.
"Anumber of features are included , including a vacuum system,
intensifier bar, spray nozzles , a heating / cooling jacket,and a
motor and controlsystem that are explosion proof .
" Further,heavy duty models with capacities of 90- 100 kg/ft3 are
available.
 -Intensifier bar

Direction of
-Packaging
Bearing
rotation Blender shaft
-Intensifier bar shaft
- Axisof rotation
-Tank

> WORKING
Ablender is used to blend the material.
" V- blenders should be filled to a volume between 50 and 60% of
their entire capacity.
Tumbling occurs when the blender is rotated.
The v- blender continuously separates and recombines the
naterial as it tumbles.
Continual convergence and divergence between the material and
the blender results in homogeneous mixing.
" Ablend is usualy completed in between 5 and 15 minutes depending
on the properties of a material being blended.
Mixing efficiency canalso be affected by blender speed.
Low speed reduce shear forces in blenders.
Although higher mixing speedsprovide greater shear, this can result
in more dust as fines are segregated.
The mixing efficiency willbe greatlyreduced if the critical speed is
approached.
Increasing thew number of revolutions per minute will result in
centrifugal forces exceeding the gravitational forces needed for
mixing at the extreme points of the blender.
Therefore , the powder must tend to move towards the outer walls
of the blender casing.
" In general, the rotational speed decreases with the size of the
blender in proportionto the peripheralspeed.
 USES
V- blenders are used in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical to
blend free- flowing solids.
" Usually, v- blenders are used to mix food products , coffee, milk
powder , pigments , pesticides and herbicides,plastic powder
animalfeed ,spice blends, fertilizers, baby food , cosmetics , and
polyethylene.
" Up toten ingredients can be mixed in this blender.

>MERITS
" By eliminating moving blades, there is minimal reduction of particle
size and attrition. This makes it suitable for fragile materials.
"The material is easily charged and discharged
By design, blender bodies like those with sanitary butterfly discharge
valves produce a near - complete discharge of product.
Without shaft projections, contamination is prevented.
" During the feeding and discharge of products , there is no dust
generated

º DEMERITS
Installation and operation of equipment require a large amount of
headroom.
These machines are not designed to blend particles of different sizes
and densities, which may separate once discharged.
There may be unwanted particle attrition and cleaning problems
ssociated with intensifiers bars.
Several soft powders and granules cannot be mixed effectively due to
the low mixing shear.
O RIBBON BLENDER

PRINCIPLE
The mechanism of mixing is shear.
Shear is transferred to the powder bed by moving blades (ribbon
shaped) in a fixed (non movable) shell.
" High shear rates are effective in breaking lumps and aggregates.
Convective mixing also occurs as the powder bed is lifted and allowed
tocascade to the bottom of the container.
An equilibrium state of mixing can be achieved.
CONSTRUCTION
" It consists of a non-movable horizontal cylindrical trough (shell)
usually open at the top.
" It is fitted with two helical blades, which are mounted on the samne
shaft through the long axis of the trough.
The blades have both right and left hand twists.
Theblades areconnected to a fixed speed drive.
Ribbonblender is top loading with a bottom discharge spout.
The trough can be closed with a lid.

>WORKING
Through the fixed speed drive, ribbons are allowed to rotate.
One blademoves the solids slowly in one direction and the other
movesthem quickly in opposite direction.
Differentpowders are introduced from the top of the trough.
The body is covered because considerable dust may be evolved during
dry blending and granulating solution may evaporate during wet
granulation.
The powders are lifted by a centrally located vertical screw and
allowed to cascade to the bottom of the container (tumbling action).
The counteracting blades set up high shear and are effective in
breaking up lumps or aggregates
 Helicalblades move the powders from one end to another.
The final stage of mix represents an equilibrium state.
The operating conditions of a given mixer can markedly effect the
steady state and thus the quality of the mixing.
The blend is discharged from the bottom opening.
Helical ribbon Lid

Lid

Bearing
box
-Trough -Pull
po
-Trough Shaft transn

(Side view) -Support

> USES
"Using a ribbon blender, you can blend large quantities of dry
material, wet material, bulk drugs , chemicals and cosmetic
powders.
MERITS
Both batch and continuous operations are possible with ribbon
blends.
Headspace is less of a requirement.
DEMERITS
"Ribbon blenders are incapable of achieving 1009% discharge.
 DSIGMA BLADEMIXER
> PRINCIPLE
" The mechanism of mixing is shearing
" The inter-meshing of sigma shaped blades creates high shear and
kneading actions.
Convective mixing is achieved by cascading the material.
CONSTRUCTION
" It consists of double trough shaped stationary bowl.
Two sigma (indicating the shape of the Greek letter) shaped blades are
fittedhorizontally in each trough of the bowl.
These are connected to a fixed speed drive.
Themixer is loaded from the top and unloaded by tilting the entire
bowl by means of a rack-and-pinion drive.

Intermeshing blade design A Blades

Direction
of rotation

A
Cross-section Top view Mixing trough

WORKING
" Different powders are introduced from the top of the trough.
" The body is covered because considerable dust may be evolved
during dry blending and granulating solution may evaporate du
wet granulation.
Through the fixed speed drive, the sigma blades are allowed to rotate.
 The blades move at different speeds, one usually about twice the
speedother, resulting in lateral pulling of the material.
They turn towards each other so that the powders move from the
sidesto the centre of the bowl.
The material further moves downwards over the point and then
sheared between the blades and the wallof the trough.
Thus cascading action (convective) as well as shear action can be
achieved.
The perforated blades help in breaking lumps and aggregates.
Thus high shear forces are set up.
The final stage of mix represents an equilibrium state
The operating conditions of a given mixer can markedly effect the
steady state and thus the quality of the mixing.
By means of arack-and pinion drive the bowl is tilted to empty the
blend.

º USES
Sigma blade mixer is commonly used for mixing of dough ingredients
in the baking industry.
" It is used in wet granulation process in the manufacture of tablets,
pillmasses and ointments.
" It is primarily used for liquid-solid mixing, although it can be used for
solid-solid mixing.

MERITS
Sigma blade mixer creates a minimum dead space during mixing.
" It has close tolerances between the blades and the side-walls as well as
bottom of the mixer shell.
º DEMERITS
Sigmablade mixer works at afixed speed.
 OPLANETARY MIXERS
> PRINCIPLE
Planetary Mixers work on the principle of shear that develops
between the stationary wall and the rotating blade.
The blade is alsoused to reduce the size.
The planetary blades rotate on their axis while they travel around the
center of the mixing bowl which ensures complete and effective
mixing.

>CONSTRUCTION
It consists ofa vertical cylindrical shell or bowl that can be removed.
The shell or bowl is covered and may be provided with nozzles, a
liquid spray arrangement viewing por
The material can be loaded into the mixer either through the nozzles
on the top cover, or directly loaded into the nmixer bowl.
The mixer has two blades that rotate on their axes when they orbit the
mixing container on acommon axis.
The mixing Blade is mounted at the top of the shell.
The drive system consists of a motor and a gearbox that drives the
planetary head.
Each planetary blade is generally driven by gears that rotate due to
the movement of the planetary head.

WORKING
The material to be mixed isloaded intoa mixing bowl or shell.
The blades rotate on their axis when they orbit the mixing bowl on a
common axis.
Therefore there is no dead spot in the mixing and high shear is
applied for mixing.
After mixing, the material is discharged through a bottom valve, or
by manual scooping of the material from the bowl.
 USES
Chemical plants and cosmetics manufacturers commonly use single
planetary mixers.
Mixing solid-solid materials wet and dry s done with planetary
mixers.
With or without a flush bottom discharge valve this device is used
manufacture starch paste heated with steam or thermal fluid in an
electrically heated jacket.
Wet granulation is achieved by mixing dry powder with wet phase.

MERITS
The mixing bowl has very few dead spaces.
Despite being relatively inexpensive , single planetary mixers have
plenty of applications.
Occupational labor accidents are reduced by security covers or bars
and sensors technology.
Hygiene is more closely monitored,as wellas the ease of cleaningthe
mixer.

The stainless - steel construction ensures that the equipment will

last for a long time.
It occupies less space since it is compact equipment.

r DEMERITS
This equipment generates heat that is incompatible with proper
mixing,
Material handling involving high viscosity requires more energy.
Maintenance is required since moving parts are present in this
equipment.
" Labor cost are high because labor requirements are higher.
OPROPELLERS
PRINCIPLE
Shearing force is the main principle behind the propeller mixer:
CONSTRUCTION
The vessel has a propeller attached to it.
Angular blades enable fluid to flow in both axial and radial directions
through a propeller.
" Propellers are small and can increase up to 0.5 meters in size
depending on the size of the tank 8000rpm is the maximum speed or
asmall propeller.
Blade root
The stern

Trailing edge

Suction surface
Blade tip

Leading edge
Pressure surface
>WORKING
When a centrifugal force is exerted by the propeller blades on the
liquid, it backs up on the vessels sides causing a depression around
the shaft.
Increasing the rotation speed may cause air to be sucked into the
fluid,causing possible frothing and oxidation.
Incorporate vertical baffles into the vessel as another method of
suppressing vortex.
Vortex reduction can be achieved by installing vertical propelers.
" A horizontal propeller or an inclined propeller or a marine
propeller can also be used n a side entry mixer.
" Their impeller shaft is inclined so their impeller shaft is at an angle
with the vessel axis to improve the process.
These propellers provide good blending ability on a small batches
of low to medium viscosity.
 USES
Liquids and dispersion need to be mixed up with propellers with
large quantities are involved.
" A
glass lining makes these capable of handling corrosive materials.
MERITS
Whenever high mixing capacity is needed, propellers are used
Lab -scale mixing of gas -liquid dispersion is possible with them.
Materials become more homogeneous hen propellers are used.
º DEMERITS
Foaming and oxidation are caused by avortex.

TURBINES

PRINCPLE
the combination of centrifugal and rotational movement
turbine mixer agitators can create turbulent movement of fluids.
" This will effectively mix low to medium viscosity fluids.
CONSTRUCTION
They usually consist of acircle with several short blades attached.
.Turbine diameters differ from propeller diameters by 0.13 - 0.57
with 0.331 being the most common.
Flat blade turbines produce radial and tangential flow , but as speed
increases , radial flow takes over.
Blade design may be straight, pitched , curved, or disk type.
" The turbine rotates slower, usually between 50 and 200 rpm, than
propellers.
Pitch bladed turbines produce axial flow , which demonstrates high
turbulence and intense shear at the impeller zone.
Diffuse ringsare used to further enhance turbine shear.
"Turbines are enclosed in a stationary ring of perforated metal called
adiffuse ring.
 Disc-mounted lat Hub-mounted Hub-mounted Shrouted turbine
blade turbine fat-blade turbine curved-blade turbine imppeller

º WORKING
With amixing blade,a drum or pan is filledwith material.
The variable speed drill with a turbine mixer whirls air into the
mixture as it revolves.
Several different turbines and impellers are included in the top entry
turbine mixer tohandle both heat and mass transfer of liquids and
solids.
The product does not get damaged whenusing this type of mixer.
Atop entry high shear mixer emulsifies and homogenizes materials
uniformly.
Themixing blades revolve about a vertical axis.
> USES
Extraction and chemical reactions are highly used methods. Chemical
reactions in liquidsand gases, for instance.
Aliquid used for preparing suspensions ,emulsions and syrups.
º MERITS
Emulsification is performed with turbines because their high
shearing forces allow them to produce a higher pumping rate even at
low pumping rates.
Despite its high viscosity , these mixers can mix high viscous solutions
of up 7.0 pa.s.
Dispersion containing 60% solids can be made with them.
 With the addition of baffles in the tank, turbines can handle liquids
of large volume and high viscosity.
" The mixing efficiency is high since they generate high radial flows.
" Low viscous materials with large volumes are used with a turbine,
which eliminates stagnant pockets by producing a strong current.
DEMERITS
Solvents with aviscosity greater than 20 cp should not be with
these filters.
Mixing materials in an enclosed space may result in oxidation due to
air entrapment.

OPADDLES

º INTRODUCTION
An agitator works with a paddle to produce a laminar flow of liquid.
The paddles push the liquid in radial and tangential directions, with
little or no axial movement unless the blades are pitched.
As the blades possess a large surface area relative to the container
they are able to rotate in close proximity to the container walls for
effective mixing of viscous liquids or semisolids.
º CONSTRUCTION
Long at blades are attached
Shat Sample probe
vertically to a central hub in the
middle of the paddle.
It is not uncommon for blades to have Dissolution
fluid
different shapes such as dish
shaped or hemispherical, and to
have an increased surface area
relative to the tank in which they are
-Paddle
used.
 Paddles rotate at 100 rpmthey are attached to shafts one above the
other in deep tanks.
In tanks without baffles , it gives mild agitation at very low speeds,
but at high speeds,baffles are required
º WORKING
To mix materials, the material is placed at the top of the trough.
" It is possible to spray liquids if needed.
" It is typical to fillthe shafts slightly above the level of the liquid.
Thus there is excess space in the mixer through the allow air to
surround each particle , allowing them to move freely.
It results in a mixing homogeneity of 98 - 99% based on random
movements in the trough.
Each paddle rotates at about 100 rpm.

º USES
"An acidicsuspension and antidiarrhea mixture such as bismuth kaolin
mixture use paddles.
"When super saturated cooling is occurring ,these systems are used to
mix solids, slurriesand crystals forming phases.

MERITS
Due to the low speed at which paddle - impellers mix liquids, vortex
formation isleast likely.
Suitable for slow operation , these mixers are heavy - duty.
With 2 or 4 blades, they are able to mix system effectively.
DEMERITS
" A
baffled tank is required due to the poor mixing of the suspension.
" Due to their heavy - duty nature,they consume a lot of power.
Mixing different materials with different consistencies is difficult
with them.
 OSILVERSON EMULSIFIER
> PRINCIPLE
Silverson mixer emulsifiers use high-speed rotors to create
turbulence and intense shearing forces.
" Through the turbulence created by the perforated metal sheets, the
liquid passes through fine interstices.
" Suction from the bottom of the head causes matenal to circulate
through the head.
" The dispersed liquid is rapidly broken down into smaler globules
because of the circulation of the material.
CONSTRUCTION
" The figure depicts the process of constructing a Silverson emulsifier
" Amotor attached to long columns provides support to the head
" A shaft runs through the center of the machine, with one end
connected tothe motor and the other to the head.
Turbine blades are attached to the head.
" In addition to the mesh surrounding the blades, there is a cover with
openingsthat surrounds them.
Motor

Central Turbine blade

rotating
shaft
Electric
motor
Circular mesh

-Shaft
Stand Perforations Circular
covering
of the head
Immiscible
Emulsifying
head
liquids
 WORKING
Emulsifier heads are introduced into vessels containing immiscible
liquids (or coarse emulsions) in such a way that they are fully
submerged in the liquid.
Motors rotate the head with the help of the central rotating shaft,
which in turn spins turbine blades at high speeds.
" The result is a pressure differential.
Consequently, liquids are drawn into the head of the device from the
base,where they are mixed vigorously.
In acentrifugal fashion, the contents of the head are pushed out of
the head through the mesh and onto the cover.
Through the outer cover openings,a fineemulsion emerges
" As the mixture is taken in and expelled, a pattern develops that
facilitates the breakdown ofthe larger globules intosmaller ones.
> USES
mixed, emulsified
Solid can be mixed homogenized dissolved
suspended, dispersed , and disintegrated using it.
Emulsion between 0.5 and 5 microns are prepared using this device.
" The silverson mixer can disintegrate matter from any source,
including animal, vegetable, mineral, and synthetic sources.
Solid and semisolidmaterials can be uniformlyground into solution
or fine suspensions with the aid of this equipment.
MERITS
Mixing times can be reduced by up to 90% with this efficient, fast
machine.
Shear mixers are efficient,aeration - free, reliable and versatile.
Typically it produce micron sized droplets or particles, usually
between 2 and 5 microns.
It reduces operating costs by being efficient.
Homogenizers normally pass the product more quickly , normally in
asingle pass.
> DEMERITS
" Premixed feeds should have fine globules or particles that ai
uniform in size.
" It consumes more energy.