Mass Communication Theories and Concepts

1. Normative Theories of Press (Siebert, Paterson and Schramm, book: Four Theories of the Press, 1956)
Normative theories mainly express ideas of how the media ought to (should) or can be expected to operate
under a prevailing set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or classical theories is based on a
particular political theory or economic scenario.
1) Authoritarian Theory
Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are under the control of the governing elite
(kingdom, dictatorship etc.). The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s power in the country rather
than working in the public interest. The authorities have all rights to permit any media and control it by
providing license to the media and make certain censorship.
2) Libertarianism or Free Press Theory
Libertarianism is free from any authority or any control or censorship. The libertarianism is an idea of
individualism and limited government which is not harmful to another. Libertarian theory sees people are
more enough to find and judge good ideas from bad. The theory says people are rational and their rational
thoughts lead them to find out what are good and bad. The press should not restrict anything even a negative
content may give knowledge and can make better decision whilst worst situation. The libertarian thoughts are
exactly against or opposite to the authoritarian theory.
3) Social Responsibility Theory
Social responsibility theory allows free press without any censorship but at the same time the content of the
press should be discussed in public panel and media should accept any obligation from public interference or
professional self-regulations or both. The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and libertarian
theory because it gives total media freedom in one hand but the external controls in other hand. Here, the
press ownership is private but it advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society.
4) Soviet Media/Communist Theory
According to this theory, the government undertakes or controls the total media and communication to serve
working classes and their interest. Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the
benefits of people. They put end to the private ownership of the press and other media. The government
media provide positive thoughts to create a strong socialized society as well as providing information,
education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The theory describes the whole purpose of the mass
media is to educate the greater masses of working class or workers.
Dennis McQuail included these two theories (given below) in the list of ‘Normative Theories’.
5) Development Communication Theory
The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development without
communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the Development
communication theory, or Development Support Communication as it is otherwise called, the media
undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting restrictions and
instructions from the State.
6) Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory
This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its top-down non-participant
character. The need for access and right to communicate for everyone is stressed. Bureaucratic control of
media is strongly disapproved.
2. Magic Bullet/ Hypodermic Needle/ Stimulus Response Theory
Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study on Communication, but knowledge about
mass communication was accumulating. An outcome of World War I propaganda efforts, the Magic
Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Theory came into existence. It propounded the view that the mass media had a
powerful influence on the mass audience and could deliberately alter or control peoples' behaviour.

3. Two Step Flow of Communication Theory (Introduced in 1944, expanded in 1955 by Paul
Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz)
The two-step flow of communication theory suggests that most people form their opinions under the
influence of opinion leaders, who in turn are influenced by the mass media. In contrast to the one-step flow
of the hypodermic needle model or magic bullet theory, which holds that people are directly influenced by
mass media, according to the two-step flow model, ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders, and from
them to a wider population. Opinion leaders pass on their own interpretation of information in addition to
the actual media content.

4. Uses and Gratification Theory (Elihu Katz in 1970)

This theory is concerned with how people use media for gratification (satisfaction) of their needs. The Uses
and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes. As media users become
increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct our attention to the audience.

5. Spiral of Silence Theory (Early 1970s)

Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that the media publicizes opinions that are
mainstream and people adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being
isolated. Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being accepted will express it, whilst those who think
themselves as being a minority, suppress their views.

6. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger, 1950s)

Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about people"s need for consistency in their beliefs
and judgements. In order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief, judgments and action
people expose themselves to information that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they shut out
other communications.

7. Agenda Setting Theory (Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, 1972)

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of events in the public's mind. The
media set the agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order and organize their world. The theory is
consistent with a "use and gratification" approach. McCombs and Shaw assert that the agenda-setting
function of the media causes the correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people
most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high need for orientation.

8. Media Dependency Theory (Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, 1976)

The key idea behind this theory is that audiences depend on media information to meet needs and reach
goals, and social institutions and media systems interact with audiences to create needs, interests, and
motives in the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by the number and centrality of information
functions and social stability.
9. Cultivation Theory (Gerbner and Gross, 1975/76)
George Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of the environment they
lived in. He found that dominance of TV created a common view of the world and that it homogenized
different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful of
the world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages, meanings become dominant and are absorbed as
the truth. Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are established.

10. Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Everett Rogers, 1962)

This theory traces the process by which a new idea or practice is communicated through certain channels
over time among members of a social system. It seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and
technology spread. It also describes the factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the process
of adopting a new technology or idea.

11. Knowledge Gap Theory (Tichenor, Donohue and Olien, 1970)

The Knowledge Gap theory claims, “as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases
higher socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this information faster than lower socioeconomic
status population segments. Hence the gap in knowledge between the two tends to increase rather than
decrease.” In this theory knowledge is treated as any other commodity which is not distributed equally
throughout the society and the people at the top of the ladder has more easy access to it. In other words,
when a new idea invades in the society, the people of the higher strata understand it better and hence the
gap expands. But events such as debates, free talks may help to reduce this gap.
Gatekeeping (Kurt Lewin, 1943, further added by David White, 1950)
Gatekeeping is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, whether for publication,
broadcasting, the Internet, or some other mode of communication. Gatekeeping occurs at all levels of the
media structure—from a reporter deciding which sources are chosen to include in a story to editors deciding
which stories are printed or covered and includes media outlet owners and even advertisers. The gatekeeper
decides which information will go forward, and which will not.

Framing (Erving Goffman, 1974)

Media focuses attention on certain events and then places them within a field of meaning. A frame refers to
the way media organize and present the ideas, events, and topics they cover. Framing is the way media define
and construct any piece of information to audience and it is done through different frames. Frames are a set
of concepts and theoretical perspectives that organize experiences and guide the actions of individuals. It is
also called the second level of agenda setting theory, instead of only what to think about it also tells that how
to think about a particular issue.

Fourth Estate (Edmund Burke (later part of 18th century)

The term ‘Fourth Estate’ is referred to the press. According to this concept, the press had at least as much
power as the other three estates of the realm i.e., Lords, Commons and Church (in England). In America, the
other pillars of the state are executive, legislative and judiciary and the fourth pillar of the estate or fourth
estate is media.

Yellow Journalism (Wardman/Joseph Pulitzer/William Randolph Hearst)

A type of journalism in which substandard practices are adopted by journalists in order to get popularity,
money, revenge etc. The substandard practices include sensationalism, scandal mongering, exaggeration. In
other words, it is a form of journalism done through unethical or unprofessional way. The term was coined by
Erwin Wardman, the editor of the New York Press in the mid-1890s to characterize the sensational journalism
that used some yellow ink in the circulation war between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William
Randolph Hearst's New York Journal.

Watchdog Journalism
The concept of ‘Watchdog Media’ is defined as a role which asks journalists to hold the government,
individuals and institutions, responsible and accountable for its policies and actions. Journalists play their
watchdog role by exposing abuses, corruption, evil practices, fraud, waste, maladministration or malfeasance
of the government. This is also known as fourth estate role of media.

Vernacular Press
Vernacular means slang, informal, common or everyday language. Vernacular press refers to the press in the
local language and more specifically in the subcontinent, the press of the nineteenth century India in which
newspapers were published in the local languages and mostly they were against the colonial empire and they
voiced for the freedom of the locals.

Public Opinion
Public opinion, an aggregate of the individual views, attitudes, and beliefs about a particular topic, expressed
by a significant proportion of a community. Some scholars treat the aggregate as a synthesis of the views of
all or a certain segment of society; others regard it as a collection of many differing or opposing views. The
desires, wants, and thinking of the majority of the people – or the collective opinion of the people of a society
or state on an issue or problem – is called public opinion. The English term "public opinion" dates back to the
seventeenth century work by John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which contains an
early consideration of the importance of public opinion in the ordering of politics.

Types of Communication
There are different types of communication:
Intra-personal Communication = Within a person/monologue
Inter-personal Communication = Between two people
Extra-personal Communication = With non-living things
Group Communication = With a group of people not very large audience
Mediated Communication = Group communication using any device
Mass Communication = With a large audience
Another classification is based on the words:
Verbal Communication = Using written or spoken words/language
Non-verbal Communication = Using signs or symbols/not using words-based language

Propaganda Model (Noam Chomsky & Edward Herman, 1988)

The model elaborates how propaganda works in the mass media. In this model, five filters are proposed
through which a news or piece of information is passed towards the audience. The propaganda model is a
conceptual model in political economy to explain how propaganda and systemic biases function in mass
media. The model seeks to explain how populations are manipulated and how consent for economic, social,
and political policies is "manufactured" in the public mind due to this propaganda. The theory posits that the
way in which news is structured (e.g. through advertising, concentration of media ownership, government
sourcing) creates an inherent conflict of interest that acts as propaganda for undemocratic forces.
Five filters:
i. Ownership (of the medium)
ii. Advertising
iii. Sourcing
iv. Flak
v. Anti-Communism and Fear Ideology

Media Synergy
Synergy is the creation of a whole that is greater than the simple sum of its parts. The term synergy means
"working together. The informational synergies which can be applied also in media involve a compression of
transmission, access and use of information’s time, the flows, circuits and means of handling information
being based on a complementary, integrated, transparent and coordinated use of knowledge. In media
economics, synergy is the promotion and sale of a product (and all its versions) throughout the various
subsidiaries of a media conglomerate, e.g. films, soundtracks or video games.
Media Literacy
Media literacy is the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media. Media literate youth and adults
are better able to understand the complex messages we receive from television, radio, Internet, newspapers,
magazines, books, billboards, video games, music, and all other forms of media. Media literacy skills are
included in the educational standards of every state—in language arts, social studies, health, science, and
other subjects. Many educators have discovered that media literacy is an effective and engaging way to apply
critical thinking skills to a wide range of issues. Media literacy is a repertoire of competencies that enable
people to analyze, evaluate, and create messages in a wide variety of media modes, genres, and formats.

Priming
Priming is the process in which the media attend to some issues and not others and thereby alter the
standards by which people evaluate election candidates.

Opinion Leader
Any individual, group or organization which holds the responsibility of making and shaping the opinions of
people who follow them. An opinion leader is a well-known individual or organization that has the ability to
influence public opinion on the subject matter for which the opinion leader is known. Opinion leaders can be
politicians, business leaders, community leaders, journalists, educators, celebrities, and sports stars.

Media Convergence
Media convergence is the merging of different outlets of mass communication like print, television, radio, the
Internet along with portable and interactive technologies through various digital media platforms.

Barriers to Communication
A communication barrier is anything that prevents us from receiving and understanding the messages used to
convey information, ideas and thoughts. Some of these are: Psychological, Cultural, Physiological, Language,
Gender etc.

Embedded Journalism
Embedded journalism refers to news reporters being attached to military units involved in armed conflicts.
While the term could be applied to many historical interactions between journalists and military personnel, it
first came to be used in the media coverage of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The United States military
responded to pressure from the country's news media who were disappointed by the level of access granted
during the 1991 Gulf War and the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. The practice has been criticized as being
part of a propaganda campaign whereby embedded journalists accompanied the invading forces as
cheerleaders and flacks.

Hot and Cool Media (Marshal McLuhan, 1964)

A distinction made by McLuhan between media such as print, photographs, radio, and movies (hot media)
and media such as speech, cartoons, the telephone, and television (cool media). Hot media are ‘high
definition’ because they are rich in sensory data. Cool media are ‘low definition’ because they provide less
sensory data and consequently demand more participation or ‘completion’ by the audience (a useful
mnemonic is to imagine that hot media are too hot to touch).
Hot media is that which engages one sense completely. It demands little interaction from the user because it
'spoon-feeds' the content. Typically, the content of hot media is restricted to what the source offers at that
specific time. Examples of hot media include radio and film because they engage one sense of the user to an
extent that although the user's attention is focused on the content, their participation is minimal.
Cool media generally uses low-definition media that engages several senses less completely in that it
demands a great deal of interaction on the part of the audience. Audiences then participate more because
they are required to perceive the gaps in the content themselves. The user must be familiar with genre
conventions in order to fully understand the medium. Examples: TV, phone conversations, comic books.

Global Village (Marshall McLuhan, 1964)

Global village is a term that relates to the constant presence between one another due to the use of
telecommunications. In other words, the world viewed as a community in which distance and isolation have
been dramatically reduced by electronic media (such as television and the Internet). The term was coined by
Canadian-born Marshall McLuhan, popularized in his books The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of
Typographic Man (1962) and Understanding Media (1964). McLuhan described how the globe has been
contracted into a village by electric technology and the instantaneous movement of information from every
quarter to every point at the same time.

Media Conglomeration
A media conglomerate is a company that owns a large number of companies in various mass media such as
television, radio, publishing, movies, and the Internet. Media conglomerates strive for policies that facilitate
their control of the markets across the globe.

Militant Journalism
Militant Journalism is a term that was coined during the Pakistan movement. The leading personalities which
are remembered in the context of militant journalism are Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Zafar Ali
Khan, Maulana Hasrat Mohani and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. All these famous personalities used print media
to provoke the people for their political struggle. In their newspapers and journals, they presented an
ideological stance in the favour of the Muslims in the sub-continent for their due rights in the country and
faced very difficult times as a consequence but did not quit their struggle through their newspapers. They
faced hardships in the form of bans and fines, but they continued raising their voice for the freedom from
British raj. This era of journalism is called the era of Militant Journalism in the sub-continent.
Media Effects Paradigm
 Early Models of Communication
What is a Model?
A model is a simplified structure or representation of a phenomenon, process or system. It seeks to show the
main elements of any structure or process and the relationship between those elements.

Characteristics of a Model
▪ Simplification
▪ Representation
▪ Smaller than the original
▪ Organizing and relating function

Communication Model
Communication model helps us understand the process of communication. It answers questions like these:
How does communication work? What is the relationship between sender and receiver? What is message, how
is it encoded or decoded?

Lasswell’s Model of Communication (1948)

Harold Lasswell, an American political scientist and sociologist presented his model in 1948 to understand the
process of communication. In a statement, he said: “A convenient way to describe an act of communication in
to answer the following questions:
1. Who?
2. Says what?
3. In which channel?
4. To whom?
5. With what effect?

Says In which With what

Who? To whom?
what? channel? effect?

Who? Communicator/Sender
Says what? Message
In which channel? Medium
To whom? Audience/Receiver
With what effect? Effects

Critical Analysis of the Model

▪ It is a simple and easy description of the communication process.
▪ It discusses the communicator, message, channel, receiver, effects in the process of communication.
▪ In this model, communication is done intentionally.
▪ It is a linear or one-way model which does not tell us about feedback.
▪ It does not throw light upon the barriers to communication.
The Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication (1949)

Critical Analysis of the Model

▪ It explains the process of communication by focusing on the technical aspects.
▪ It is a linear model and there is nothing to talk about feedback.
▪ It discusses the barriers to communication in the form of noise source.
▪ It informs us about encoding and decoding process.
▪ Interpersonal communication is focused here.
The Osgood-Schramm Model (1954)
The Osgood-Schramm model is built on the theory that communication is a two-way street, with a sender and a
receiver. The model presents the notion that communication was circular rather than linear, meaning that it
required two participants taking turns sending and receiving a message.

Berlo’s Model of Communication (SMCR) (1960)

It represents the process of communication in its simplest form. The acronym SMCR stands for Sender,
Message, Channel, and Receiver. The model describes the different components that form the basic process of
communication.
National and International News Agencies

Sr. No. News Agency Abbreviation Country

1 Associated Press of Pakistan APP Pakistan
2 International News Network INN Pakistan
3 Network News International NNI Pakistan
4 Pakistan International Press Agency PPA Pakistan
5 Pakistan Press International PPI Pakistan
6 United Press of Pakistan UP Pakistan
7 Reuters Limited Reuters England
8 Press Association PA UK
9 Associated Press AP US
10 United Press International UPI US
11 Agence France-Presse AFP France
12 Xinhua Xinhua China
13 Russian News Agency Tass Russia
14 Islamic Republic News Agency IRNA Iran
15 Fars News Agency FNA Iran
16 Kyodo News Agency KNA Japan
17 Bakhtar News Agency BNA Afghanistan
18 Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha BSS Bangladesh
19 Deutsche Presse-Agentur DPA Germany
20 Press Trust of India PTI India
21 Asian News International ANI India
22 Indo-Asian News Service IANS India
23 National Iraqi News Agency NINA Iraq
24 Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata ANSA Italy