Using Dictionary

Finding the right spelling. If you are sure of the first few letters, just look down the page until
you find the right spelling. If you are not sure of the first few letters, try some other possibilities.
If you still can't find the word, think what it is in your language and look it up in your
bilingual dictionary.

How to use a dictionary effectively

Reasons for using a dictionary

A dictionary is a very important tool for anyone who is learning a new language. With a good
dictionary you can do the following:

 look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear

 find the English translation of a word in your language
 check the spelling of a word
 check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
 find out other grammatical information about a word
 find the synonym or antonym of a word
 look up the collocations of a word
 check the part of speech of a word
 find out how to say a word
 find out about the register of a word
 find examples of the use of a word in natural language

To be a good dictionary user, however, it is not enough to know what to use the dictionary for.
You must also decide which is the best dictionary for any of the purposes listed above. As well as
this, you need to be able to find what you are looking for quickly; you need to be sure that you
have found what you were looking for; and, most importantly, you need to know when to use your
dictionary.

Knowing which dictionary to use

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Electronic dictionaries are the best choice for ESL students. Most of them contain native-
language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and example sentences in English.
They can speak the English word to you, and they are easy to carry around. However, they are
expensive and easy to lose, so put your name on yours!

A cheaper possibility, if you are going to work at the computer, is to use an online dictionary. A
very good one for ESL students is the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.
Alternatively, if you open Google and type, for example, define: superstitious, you will get a long
list of different definitions of superstitious.

A good monolingual dictionary is recommended for students who already have a high standard
of English and want to learn about word use.

Finding words quickly

This is a skill that you need to practice. Ask someone to write down 5 words and see how long it
takes you to find them. Of course, you will need to know the English alphabet perfectly, so practice
this too. Use the guide words at the top of each dictionary page; and keep practicing until you can
find any word within 10 seconds. You should also practice finding words in your own language in
your bilingual dictionary. If you use an electronic dictionary, take some time at home to learn how
it works and, again, practice finding words quickly.

Finding the right meaning of an English word

Very often when you look up a new English word, you find that it has more than one meaning. If
you are not sure which one is correct, here’s what you can do:

 First, check through all the meanings and find the one that makes most sense in the
context where you found the word. (Very often, many of the different meanings are
similar and this should be enough to give you a good idea what the word means.)
 Second, if you really want to make sure, think what the word is in your own language and
look it up in a bilingual dictionary. If one of the English translations is the original word
you looked up, then you can be satisfied that you have found the right meaning.

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Finding the right spelling

Another problem you may have is when you want to check your spelling but you can’t find the
word you’re looking for. What can you do?

 If you are sure of the first few letters, just look down the page until you find the right
spelling. (Again, it is helpful to check the meaning is the one you expect.)
 If you are not sure of the first few letters, try some other possibilities. You know for
example that some words that start with an -n sound have k as their first letter;
e.g. knife, knight. So if you can't find the word under N, try looking in the K pages.
 If you still can’t find the word, think what it is in your language and look it up in your
bilingual dictionary.

[Advice on using the computer spellcheck]

Finding the right English translation of a word in your language

When you look up a word in your own language in a bilingual dictionary, you will probably find
that there is more than one English translation. If you are not sure which to use, you could try
a back translation. This means that you look up the English translations one by one in a
monolingual dictionary. If a word has a definition that matches the word in your language, you are
safe to use it.

Knowing when to use the dictionary

If you look up every new word you see or hear, you will spend your whole day with the dictionary
in your hand. That’s no good! You have to be clever and choose the right words to check and the
right time to do it. Try to follow the advice below and you will become a much more efficient
language learner:

 When you find a new word while reading, finish the sentence (better: the paragraph). If
you haven’t guessed the meaning and it still seems important, then you can look it up. To
avoid interrupting your reading for too long, you should find its meaning in your own
language using a bilingual dictionary.

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  When you hear a new word in class (or the teacher has written it on the board), wait and
continue listening. What the teacher says next may help you to understand the word. If
you look in your dictionary, you will not hear what comes next, and this will make
understanding the lesson more and more difficult.
If you think the word is very important, you could copy it from the board or write how
you think it is spelled. Then later you could ask the teacher or another student what it
means.

Word grammar is a general theory of language structure which holds

that grammatical knowledge is largely a body (or network) of knowledge about words. Word
grammar (WG) was originally developed in the 1980s by British linguist Richard Hudson
(University College London).Apr 20, 2017

 [Word Grammar theory] consists of the [following] generalization: 'A language is a

network of entities related by propositions.'"
(Richard Hudson, Word Grammar. Blackwell, 1984)
 Dependency Relations
"In WG, syntactic structures are analyzed in terms of dependency relations between
single words, a parent and a dependent. Phrases are defined by dependency structures
which consist of a word plus the phrases rooted in any of its dependents. In other words,
WG syntax does not use phrase structure in describing sentence structure, because
everything that needs to be said about sentence structure can be formulated in terms of
dependencies between single words."
(Eva Eppler, "Word Grammar and Syntactic Code-Mixing Research." Word Grammar:
New Perspectives, ed. K. Sugayama and R. Hudson. Continuum, 2006)
 Language as a Network
"The conclusions so far, then, are more or less uncontroversial:
 Language is a system of interconnected elements.
 Language is conceptual in the sense that it is 'in the mind,' even if there is also a
sense in which it is 'in society.'

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 [T]he idea of language as a conceptual network actually leads to new questions and
highly controversial conclusions. The words network and conceptual are both
contentious. We start with the notion of language as a network. In WG, the point of this
claim is that language is nothing but a network--there are no rules, principles, or
parameters to complement the network. Everything in language can be defined formally
in terms of nodes and their relations. This is also accepted as one of the main tenets
of cognitive linguistics."
(Richard Hudson, Language Networks: The New Word Grammar. Oxford University
Press, 2007)

 Word Grammar (WG) and Construction Grammar (CG)

"The central claim of WG is that language is organized as a cognitive network; the major
consequence of this claim is that the theory eschews part-whole structures such as are
central in Phrase Structure Grammar. Phrases are not basic to WG analyses and so the
central unit of organization within WG is the dependency, which is a pairwise
relationship between two words. In this respect, the theory is different from Construction
Grammar (CG), because WG has no level of analysis which is larger than the word
and the (pairwise) dependency which associates two words. . . .
"There are, however, some key points of similarity between WG and CG: both theories
assume a symbolic relationship between the units of syntax and an
associated semantic structure; both theories are 'usage based'; both theories are
declarative; both theories have a structured lexicon; and both theories exploit default
inheritance/tradition.

What is Pronunciation?

"Pronunciation" refers to the way in which we make the sound of words.

To pronounce words, we push air from our lungs up through our throat and vocal chords, through
our mouth, past our tongue and out between our teeth and lips. (Sometimes air also travels through
our nose.)

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To change the sound that we are making, we mainly use the muscles of our mouth, tongue and lips
to control the shape of our mouth and the flow of air. If we can control the shape of our mouth and
the flow of air correctly, then our pronunciation is clearer and other people understand us more
easily.

Speakers of different languages tend to develop different muscles of the mouth for pronunciation.
When we speak a foreign language, our muscles may not be well developed for that language, and
we will find pronunciation more difficult. By practicing the foreign language pronunciation, our
muscles develop and pronunciation improves.

As well as creating correct vowel and consonant sounds using the muscles of our mouth, tongue
and lips, there are other important aspects of pronunciation, including:

 word stress - emphasis on certain syllables in a word

 sentence stress - emphasis on certain words in a sentence

 linking - joining certain words together

 intonation - the rise and fall of our voice as we speak

Idioms

an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usualmeanings of its constituent eleme
nts, as kick the bucket or hangone's head, or from the general grammatical rules of a language, as
the table round for the round table, and that is not a constituent of alarger expression of like char
acteristics.
1. A language, dialect, or style of speaking peculiar to a people.
2. A construction or expression of one language whose parts correspondto elements in anoth
er language but whose total structure or meaningis not matched in the same way in the se
cond language.
3. The peculiar character or genius of a language.
4. A distinct style or character, in music, art, etc.:

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Commonly used Idioms

Idiom: a manner of speaking that is natural to native speakers of a language

Every language has its own collection of wise sayings. They offer advice about how to live and
also transfer some underlying ideas, principles and values of a given culture / society. These
sayings are called "idioms" - or proverbs if they are longer. These combinations of words have
(rarely complete sentences) a "figurative meaning" meaning, they basically work with "pictures".
This List of commonly used idioms and sayings (in everyday conversational English), can help to
speak English by learning English idiomatic expressions. This is a list, which contains exactly 66
of the most commonly used idioms and their meaning.

Smart Idioms
A hot potato

Speak of an issue (mostly current) which many people are talking about and which is
usually disputed

A penny for your thoughts

A way of asking what someone is thinking

Actions speak louder than words

People's intentions can be judged better by what they do than what they say.

Add insult to injury

To further a loss with mockery or indignity; to worsen an unfavorable situation.

At the drop of a hat

Meaning: without any hesitation; instantly.

Back to the drawing board

When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over.

Ball is in your court

It is up to you to make the next decision or step

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Barking up the wrong tree

Looking in the wrong place. Accusing the wrong person

Be glad to see the back of

Be happy when a person leaves.

Beat around the bush

Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the issue.

Best of both worlds

Meaning: All the advantages.

Best thing since sliced bread

A good invention or innovation. A good idea or plan.

Bite off more than you can chew

To take on a task that is way too big.

Blessing in disguise

Something good that isn't recognized at first.

Burn the midnight oil

To work late into the night, alluding to the time before electric lighting.

Can't judge a book by its cover

Cannot judge something primarily on appearance.

Caught between two stools

When someone finds it difficult to choose between two alternatives.

Common Spelling Problems

For some writers, their main spelling problem is similar-sounding words, for example,
principle and principal or affect and effect. These problems cannot be flagged by software
Spell-checking functions.

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Here is a list of these commonly confused homophones (different spelling; same or very
similar pronunciation), with examples of their correct use.
All definitions in this section are from the Merriam Webster dictionary via the Merriam
Webster Dictionary mobile application.
accept, except
The construction form accepted the offer to build the bridge.
Everything has been finished except for the paint job.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Accept: (verb) to receive or take (something offered): to take (something) as payment: to
be able or designed to take or hold (something)
Except: (preposition) not including (someone or something): other than (something or
someone)
advice, advise
The construction firm ignored the engineer's advice.
The engineer advised the firm to use single-suspension walkways.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Advice: (noun) an opinion or suggestion about what someone should do
Advise: (verb) to give an opinion or suggestion to someone about what should be done: to
give advice to (someone): to recommend or suggest (something): to give information to
(someone)
affect, effect
The effect of the increased oil prices has been devastating on our economy.
The increased oil prices have affected our economy drastically.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Affect: (verb) have an effect on; make a difference to.
Effect: (noun) a change that results when something is done or happens: an event,
condition, or state of affairs that is produced by a cause: a particular feeling or mood
created by something: an image or a sound that is created in television, radio, or movies to
imitate something real
cite, site, sight
The consulting engineer cited a paragraph from the building code.

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At the construction site, the workers carefully erected the scaffolding.
The collapse of the walkways was a terrible sight.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Cite: (verb) to write or say the words of (a book, author, etc.): to mention (something)
especially as an example or to support an idea or opinion: law: to order (someone) to
appear before a court of law
Site: (noun) the place where something (such as a building) is, was, or will be located: a
place where something important has happened: a place that is used for a particular activity
Sight: (noun) the sense through which a person or animal becomes aware of light, color,
etc. by using the eyes: the ability to see: the act of seeing someone or something: a
position in which someone or something can be seen
complement, compliment
The programmer has received many compliments on her new system.
The colors that have been selected for the room do not complement each other.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Complement: (noun) something that completes something else or makes it better: the usual
number or quantity of something that is needed or used: grammar: a word or group of
words added to a sentence to make it complete
Compliment: (noun) a remark that says something good about someone or something: an
action that expressed admiration or approval
counsel, council, consul
She was appointed consul to the embassy in Beirut.
There was lengthy debate on the tax proposal at city council last night.
He counseld her to get a degree in technical communication.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Counsel: (verb) to give advice to (someone): to suggest or recommend (something)
Council: (noun) a group of people who are chosen to make rules, laws, or decisions about
something: a group of people who provide advice or guidance on something
Consul: (noun) a government official whose job is to live in a foreign country and protect and
help the citizens of his or her own country who are traveling, living, or doing business there:
either one of two chief officials of the ancient Roman republic who were elected every year

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its, it's
It's time to go home; it's getting late.
The car has lost one of its headlights.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Its: (adjective) relating to or belonging to a certain thing, animal, etc.: made or done by a
certain thing, animal, etc.
It's: (contraction) it is: it has
lose, loose
Your car loses power when it is out of tune.
I have some loose change in my pocket.
Don't let Mamie get loose!
Merriam Webster Definitions
Lose: (verb) to be unable to find (something or someone): to fail to win (a game, contest,
etc.): to fail to keep or hold (something wanted or valued)
Loose: (adjective) not tightly fastened, attached, or held: not pulled or stretched tight: of
clothing: not fitting close to your body: not tight
personal, personnel
They plan to take out a personal loan to build the deck.
Send your application to the personnel office.
The CEO wants to have a personal chat with all this company's personnel.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Personal: (adjective) belonging or relating to a particular person: made or designed to be
used by one person --used to describe someone whose job involved working for or helping
a particular person
Personnel: (noun) the people who work for a particular company or organization: a
department within a company or organization that deals with the people who work for it
principal, principle
The principal component of the solar panel is the collector.
Explain to me the principle of convection.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Principal: (adjective) most important

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Principle: (noun) a moral rule or belief that helps you know what is right and wrong and that
influences your actions: a basic truth or theory: an idea that forms the basis of something: a
law or fact of nature that explains how something works or why something happens
stationary, stationery
Use company stationery for company business purposes only.
The derrick may not remain stationary during the gale-force winds.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Stationary: (adjective) not moving: staying in one place or position: not changing
Stationery: (noun) materials (such as paper, pens, and ink) that are used for writing or
typing: paper that is used for writing letters and that usually has matching envelopes
than, then
My utility bill was higher this month than it was last month.
The hurricane reached the Texas coast; then it plunged right into the heart of Houston.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Than: (conjunction) rather than: other than: when
Then: (adverb) at that time: at the time mentioned --used to indicate what happened or
happens next --used to indicate what should be done next
their, there, they're
Their calculus course is much harder than ours.
Over there on the table is your calculus book.
They're not taking calculus this semester.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Their: (adjective) relating to or belonging to certain people, animals, or things: made or
done by certain people animals, or things: his or her: his: her: its
There: (adverb) in that place: at that location: to or into that place: at that point in a process,
activity, story, etc.
They're: (contraction) they are
to, too, two
Are they going to pave the street today?
It is still too rainy to pave the street.
Two hours ago, the sky was clear.

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Merriam Webster Definitions
To: (preposition) --used to indicate the place, person, or thing that someone or something
moves toward --used to indicate the place where someone participates in a particular
activity --used to indicate the direction of something
Too: (adverb) in addition: more than what is wanted, needed, acceptable, possible, etc.: to
a high degree or extent: very or extremely
Two: (adjective) being more than one in number: being the second
whose, who's
Whose technical writing book is this?
There is the woman whose technical report won top honors.
Do you know who's in charge around here?
He's a man who's not afraid of criticism.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Whose: (adjective) --used in questions to ask who owns something, has something, etc. --
used to show which person or thing you are talking about --used to give more information
about a person or thing that has already been mentioned
Who's: (contraction) who is
your, you're
Your technical writing book is on the table.
You're going to have review Part 1 before writing that report.
Merriam Webster Definitions
Your: (adjective) relating to or belonging to you: made or done by you --used to refer to any
person or to people in general --used in the titles or royalty, judges, etc.
You're: (reduction) you are

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