64% found this document useful (11 votes)

2K views53 pages

Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF (Etextbook) All Chapter Instant Download

ebook

Uploaded by

konfojuaky

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

64% found this document useful (11 votes)

2K views53 pages

Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF (Etextbook) All Chapter Instant Download

ebook

Uploaded by

konfojuaky

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 53

Download More ebooks [PDF]. Format PDF ebook download PDF KINDLE.

Full download ebooks at ebookmass.com

Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences

10th Edition PDF (eTextbook)

For dowload this book click BUTTON or LINK below

https://ebookmass.com/product/statistics-for-the-
behavioral-sciences-10th-edition-pdf-etextbook/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWLOAD NOW

Download More ebooks from https://ebookmass.com

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF

(eTextbook)

https://ebookmass.com/product/statistics-for-the-behavioral-
sciences-10th-edition-pdf-etextbook/

Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition

Edition Gravetter

https://ebookmass.com/product/statistics-for-the-behavioral-
sciences-10th-edition-edition-gravetter/

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 3rd Edition,

(Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/statistics-for-the-behavioral-
sciences-3rd-edition-ebook-pdf/

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

10th Edition Edition Frederick J. Gravetter

https://ebookmass.com/product/essentials-of-statistics-for-the-
behavioral-sciences-10th-edition-edition-frederick-j-gravetter/
Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social
Sciences

https://ebookmass.com/product/using-basic-statistics-in-the-
behavioral-and-social-sciences/

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences,

9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter

https://ebookmass.com/product/essentials-of-statistics-for-the-
behavioral-sciences-9th-9th-edition-frederick-j-gravetter/

Fundamental statistics for the behavioral sciences, 9th

Ed 9th Edition David C. Howell

https://ebookmass.com/product/fundamental-statistics-for-the-
behavioral-sciences-9th-ed-9th-edition-david-c-howell/

Research Integrity: Best Practices for the Social and

Behavioral Sciences Lee Jussim

https://ebookmass.com/product/research-integrity-best-practices-
for-the-social-and-behavioral-sciences-lee-jussim/

Statistics: A Tool for Social Research 10th Edition,

(Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/statistics-a-tool-for-social-
research-10th-edition-ebook-pdf/
vi CONTENTS

CHAPtER 3 Central Tendency 67

PREVIEW 68
3.1 Overview 68
3.2 The Mean 70
3.3 The Median 79
3.4 The Mode 83
3.5 Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency 86
3.6 Central Tendency and the Shape of the Distribution 92
Summary 94
Focus on Problem Solving 95
Demonstration 3.1 96
Problems 96

CHAPtER 4 Variability 99
PREVIEW 100
4.1 Introduction to Variability 101
4.2 Defining Standard Deviation and Variance 103
4.3 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Population 108
4.4 Measuring Standard Deviation and Variance for a Sample 111
4.5 Sample Variance as an Unbiased Statistic 117
4.6 More about Variance and Standard Deviation 119
Summary 125
Focus on Problem Solving 127
Demonstration 4.1 128
Problems 128

z-Scores: Location of Scores

CHAPtER 5 and Standardized Distributions 131
PREVIEW 132
5.1 Introduction to z-Scores 133
5.2 z-Scores and Locations in a Distribution 135
5.3 Other Relationships Between z, X, 𝛍, and 𝛔 138

5.4 Using z-Scores to Standardize a Distribution 141

5.5 Other Standardized Distributions Based on z-Scores 145
5.6 Computing z-Scores for Samples 148
5.7 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 150
Summary 153
Focus on Problem Solving 154
Demonstration 5.1 155
Demonstration 5.2 155
Problems 156

CHAPtER 6 Probability 159

PREVIEW 160
6.1 Introduction to Probability 160
6.2 Probability and the Normal Distribution 165
6.3 Probabilities and Proportions for Scores
from a Normal Distribution 172
6.4 Probability and the Binomial Distribution 179
6.5 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 184
Summary 186
Focus on Problem Solving 187
Demonstration 6.1 188
Demonstration 6.2 188
Problems 189

Probability and Samples: The Distribution

CHAPtER 7 of Sample Means 193
PREVIEW 194
7.1 Samples, Populations, and the Distribution
of Sample Means 194
7.2 The Distribution of Sample Means for any Population
and any Sample Size 199
7.3 Probability and the Distribution of Sample Means 206
7.4 More about Standard Error 210
7.5 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 215

Summary 219
Focus on Problem Solving 219
Demonstration 7.1 220
Problems 221

CHAPtER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 223

PREVIEW 224
8.1 The Logic of Hypothesis Testing 225
8.2 Uncertainty and Errors in Hypothesis Testing 236
8.3 More about Hypothesis Tests 240
8.4 Directional (One-Tailed) Hypothesis Tests 245
8.5 Concerns about Hypothesis Testing: Measuring Effect Size 250
8.6 Statistical Power 254
Summary 260
Focus on Problem Solving 261
Demonstration 8.1 262
Demonstration 8.2 263
Problems 263

CHAPtER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 267

PREVIEW 268
9.1 The t Statistic: An Alternative to z 268
9.2 Hypothesis Tests with the t Statistic 274
9.3 Measuring Effect Size for the t Statistic 279
9.4 Directional Hypotheses and One-Tailed Tests 288
Summary 291
Focus on Problem Solving 293
Demonstration 9.1 293
Demonstration 9.2 294
Problems 295

CHAPtER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 299

PREVIEW 300
10.1 Introduction to the Independent-Measures Design 300
10.2 The Null Hypothesis and the Independent-Measures t Statistic 302
10.3 Hypothesis Tests with the Independent-Measures t Statistic 310
10.4 Effect Size and Confidence Intervals for the
Independent-Measures t 316
10.5 The Role of Sample Variance and Sample Size in the
Independent-Measures t Test 322
Summary 325
Focus on Problem Solving 327
Demonstration 10.1 328
Demonstration 10.2 329
Problems 329

CHAPtER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 335

PREVIEW 336
11.1 Introduction to Repeated-Measures Designs 336
11.2 The t Statistic for a Repeated-Measures Research Design 339
11.3 Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-Measures Design 343
11.4 Effect Size and Confidence Intervals for the Repeated-Measures t 347
11.5 Comparing Repeated- and Independent-Measures Designs 352
Summary 355
Focus on Problem Solving 358
Demonstration 11.1 358
Demonstration 11.2 359
Problems 360

CHAPtER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 365

PREVIEW 366
12.1 Introduction (An Overview of Analysis of Variance) 366
12.2 The Logic of Analysis of Variance 372
12.3 ANOVA Notation and Formulas 375

12.4 Examples of Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with ANOVA 383
12.5 Post Hoc Tests 393
12.6 More about ANOVA 397
Summary 403
Focus on Problem Solving 406
Demonstration 12.1 406
Demonstration 12.2 408
Problems 408

CHAPtER 13 Repeated-Measures Analysis of Variance 413

PREVIEW 414
13.1 Overview of the Repeated-Measures ANOVA 415
13.2 Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with the
Repeated-Measures ANOVA 420
13.3 More about the Repeated-Measures Design 429
Summary 436
Focus on Problem Solving 438
Demonstration 13.1 439
Demonstration 13.2 440
Problems 441

Two-Factor Analysis of Variance

CHAPtER 14 (Independent Measures) 447
PREVIEW 448
14.1 An Overview of the Two-Factor, Independent-Measures, ANOVA: Main
Effects and Interactions 448
14.2 An Example of the Two-Factor ANOVA and Effect Size 458
14.3 More about the Two-Factor ANOVA 467
Summary 473
Focus on Problem Solving 475
Demonstration 14.1 476
Demonstration 14.2 478
Problems 479

CHAPtER 15 Correlation 485

PREVIEW 486
15.1 Introduction 487
15.2 The Pearson Correlation 489
15.3 Using and Interpreting the Pearson Correlation 495
15.4 Hypothesis Tests with the Pearson Correlation 506
15.5 Alternatives to the Pearson Correlation 510
Summary 520
Focus on Problem Solving 522
Demonstration 15.1 523
Problems 524

CHAPtER 16 Introduction to Regression 529

PREVIEW 530
16.1 Introduction to Linear Equations and Regression 530
16.2 The Standard Error of Estimate and Analysis of Regression:
The Significance of the Regression Equation 538
16.3 Introduction to Multiple Regression with Two Predictor Variables 544
Summary 552
Linear and Multiple Regression 554
Focus on Problem Solving 554
Demonstration 16.1 555
Problems 556

The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

CHAPtER 17 of Fit and Independence 559
PREVIEW 560
17.1 Introduction to Chi-Square: The Test for Goodness of Fit 561
17.2 An Example of the Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit 567
17.3 The Chi-Square Test for Independence 573
17.4 Effect Size and Assumptions for the Chi-Square Tests 582
17.5 Special Applications of the Chi-Square Tests 587

Summary 591
Focus on Problem Solving 595
Demonstration 17.1 595
Demonstration 17.2 597
Problems 597

CHAPtER 18 The Binomial Test 603

PREVIEW 604
18.1 Introduction to the Binomial Test 604
18.2 An Example of the Binomial Test 608
18.3 More about the Binomial Test: Relationship with Chi-Square
and the Sign Test 612
Summary 617
Focus on Problem Solving 619
Demonstration 18.1 619
Problems 620

A PPE N D IX E S
A Basic Mathematics Review 625
A.1 Symbols and Notation 627
A.2 Proportions: Fractions, Decimals, and Percentages 629
A.3 Negative Numbers 635
A.4 Basic Algebra: Solving Equations 637
A.5 Exponents and Square Roots 640
B Statistical Tables 647
C Solutions for Odd-Numbered Problems in the Text 663
D General Instructions for Using SPSS 683
E Hypothesis Tests for Ordinal Data: Mann-Whitney,
Wilcoxon, Kruskal-Wallis, and Friedman Tests 687

Statistics Organizer: Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 701
References 717
Name Index 723
Subject Index 725

M any students in the behavioral sciences view the required statistics course as an
intimidating obstacle that has been placed in the middle of an otherwise interest-
ing curriculum. They want to learn about human behavior—not about math and science.
As a result, the statistics course is seen as irrelevant to their education and career goals.
However, as long as the behavioral sciences are founded in science, knowledge of statistics
will be necessary. Statistical procedures provide researchers with objective and systematic
methods for describing and interpreting their research results. Scientific research is the
system that we use to gather information, and statistics are the tools that we use to distill
the information into sensible and justified conclusions. The goal of this book is not only
to teach the methods of statistics, but also to convey the basic principles of objectivity and
logic that are essential for science and valuable for decision making in everyday life.
Those of you who are familiar with previous editions of Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences will notice that some changes have been made. These changes are summarized
in the section entitled “To the Instructor.” In revising this text, our students have been
foremost in our minds. Over the years, they have provided honest and useful feedback.
Their hard work and perseverance has made our writing and teaching most rewarding. We
sincerely thank them. Students who are using this edition should please read the section of
the preface entitled “To the Student.”
The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics
courses. We begin with descriptive statistics, and then examine a variety of statistical pro-
cedures focused on sample means and variance before moving on to correlational methods
and nonparametric statistics. Information about modifying this sequence is presented in the
To The Instructor section for individuals who prefer a different organization. Each chapter
contains numerous examples, many based on actual research studies, learning checks, a
summary and list of key terms, and a set of 20–30 problems.

Ancillaries
Ancillaries for this edition include the following.
■■ MindTap® Psychology: MindTap® Psychology for Gravetter/Wallnau’s Statistics
for The Behavioral Sciences, 10th Edition is the digital learning solution that helps
instructors engage and transform today’s students into critical thinkers. Through paths
of dynamic assignments and applications that you can personalize, real-time course
analytics, and an accessible reader, MindTap helps you turn cookie cutter into cutting
edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.
As an instructor using MindTap you have at your fingertips the right content and
unique set of tools curated specifically for your course, such as video tutorials that
walk students through various concepts and interactive problem tutorials that provide
students opportunities to practice what they have learned, all in an interface designed
to improve workflow and save time when planning lessons and course structure. The
control to build and personalize your course is all yours, focusing on the most relevant
xiii

material while also lowering costs for your students. Stay connected and informed in
your course through real time student tracking that provides the opportunity to adjust
the course as needed based on analytics of interactivity in the course.
■■ Online Instructor’s Manual: The manual includes learning objectives, key terms,
a detailed chapter outline, a chapter summary, lesson plans, discussion topics, student
activities, “What If” scenarios, media tools, a sample syllabus and an expanded test
bank. The learning objectives are correlated with the discussion topics, student
activities, and media tools.
■■ Online PowerPoints: Helping you make your lectures more engaging while effec-
tively reaching your visually oriented students, these handy Microsoft PowerPoint®
slides outline the chapters of the main text in a classroom-ready presentation. The
PowerPoint® slides are updated to reflect the content and organization of the new
edition of the text.
■■ Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero®: Cengage Learning Testing,
Powered by Cognero®, is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit,
and manage test bank content. You can create multiple test versions in an instant and
deliver tests from your LMS in your classroom.

Acknowledgments
It takes a lot of good, hard-working people to produce a book. Our friends at Cengage
have made enormous contributions to this textbook. We thank: Jon-David Hague, Product
Director; Timothy Matray, Product Team Director; Jasmin Tokatlian, Content Develop-
ment Manager; Kimiya Hojjat, Product Assistant; and Vernon Boes, Art Director. Special
thanks go to Stefanie Chase, our Content Developer and to Lynn Lustberg who led us
through production at MPS.
Reviewers play a very important role in the development of a manuscript. Accordingly,
we offer our appreciation to the following colleagues for their assistance: Patricia Case,
University of Toledo; Kevin David, Northeastern State University; Adia Garrett, Univer-
sity of Maryland, Baltimore County; Carrie E. Hall, Miami University; Deletha Hardin,
University of Tampa; Angela Heads, Prairie View A&M University; Roberto Heredia,
Texas A&M International University; Alisha Janowski, University of Central Florida;
Matthew Mulvaney, The College at Brockport (SUNY); Nicholas Von Glahn, California
State Polytechnic University, Pomona; and Ronald Yockey, Fresno State University.

To the Instructor
Those of you familiar with the previous edition of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences will
notice a number of changes in the 10th edition. Throughout this book, research examples
have been updated, real world examples have been added, and the end-of-chapter problems
have been extensively revised. Major revisions for this edition include the following:
1. Each section of every chapter begins with a list of Learning Objectives for that
specific section.
2. Each section ends with a Learning Check consisting of multiple-choice questions
with at least one question for each Learning Objective.

3. The former Chapter 19, Choosing the Right Statistics, has been eliminated and
an abridged version is now an Appendix replacing the Statistics Organizer, which
appeared in earlier editions.
Other examples of specific and noteworthy revisions include the following.

Chapter 1 The section on data structures and research methods parallels the new
Appendix, Choosing the Right Statistics.

Chapter 2 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the concept and purpose
of frequency distributions.

Chapter 3 Minor editing clarifies and simplifies the discussion the median.

Chapter 4 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the topic of Central
Tendency. The sections on standard deviation and variance have been edited to increase
emphasis on concepts rather than calculations.

Chapter 5 The section discussion relationships between z, X, μ, and σ has been

expanded and includes a new demonstration example.

Chapter 6 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the topic of Probability.
The section, Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics, has been substantially shortened and
simplified.

Chapter 7 The former Box explaining difference between standard deviation and
standard error was deleted and the content incorporated into Section 7.4 with editing to
emphasize that the standard error is the primary new element introduced in the chapter.
The final section, Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics, was simplified and shortened to
be consistent with the changes in Chapter 6.

Chapter 8 A redundant example was deleted which shortened and streamlined the
remaining material so that most of the chapter is focused on the same research example.

Chapter 9 The chapter opens with a new Preview to introduce the t statistic and explain
why a new test statistic is needed. The section introducing Confidence Intervals was edited
to clarify the origin of the confidence interval equation and to emphasize that the interval
is constructed at the sample mean.

Chapter 10 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing the independent-mea-
sures t statistic. The section presenting the estimated standard error of (M1 – M2) has been
simplified and shortened.

Chapter 11 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing the repeated-measures t
statistic. The section discussing hypothesis testing has been separated from the section on
effect size and confidence intervals to be consistent with the other two chapters on t tests.
The section comparing independent- and repeated-measures designs has been expanded.

Chapter 12 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing ANOVA and explaining
why a new hypothesis testing procedure is necessary. Sections in the chapter have been
reorganized to allow flow directly from hypothesis tests and effect size to post tests.

Chapter 13 Substantially expanded the section discussing factors that influence the
outcome of a repeated-measures hypothesis test and associated measures of effect size.

Chapter 14 The chapter opens with a new Preview presenting a two-factor research
example and introducing the associated ANOVA. Sections have been reorganized so that
simple main effects and the idea of using a second factor to reduce variance from indi-
vidual differences are now presented as extra material related to the two-factor ANOVA.

Chapter 15 The chapter opens with a new Preview presenting a correlational research
study and the concept of a correlation. A new section introduces the t statistic for evaluat-
ing the significance of a correlation and the section on partial correlations has been simpli-
fied and shortened.

Chapter 16 The chapter opens with a new Preview introducing the concept of regression and
its purpose. A new section demonstrates the equivalence of testing the significance of a correla-
tion and testing the significance of a regression equation with one predictor variable. The sec-
tion on residuals for the multiple-regression equation has been edited to simplify and shorten.

Chapter 17 A new chapter Preview presents an experimental study with data consisting
of frequencies, which are not compatible with computing means and variances. Chi-square
tests are introduced as a solution to this problem. A new section introduces Cohen’s w as
a means of measuring effect size for both chi-square tests.

Chapter 18 Substantial editing clarifies the section explaining how the real limits for
each score can influence the conclusion from a binomial test.
The former Chapter 19 covering the task of matching statistical methods to specific
types of data has been substantially shortened and converted into an Appendix.

■■Matching the Text to Your Syllabus

The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics courses.
However, different instructors may prefer different organizations and probably will choose
to omit or deemphasize specific topics. We have tried to make separate chapters, and even
sections of chapters, completely self-contained, so they can be deleted or reorganized to fit
the syllabus for nearly any instructor. Some common examples are as follows.
■■ It is common for instructors to choose between emphasizing analysis of variance
(Chapters 12, 13, and 14) or emphasizing correlation/regression (Chapters 15 and 16).
It is rare for a one-semester course to complete coverage of both topics.
■■ Although we choose to complete all the hypothesis tests for means and mean
differences before introducing correlation (Chapter 15), many instructors prefer to
place correlation much earlier in the sequence of course topics. To accommodate
this, Sections 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3 present the calculation and interpretation of
the Pearson correlation and can be introduced immediately following Chapter 4
(variability). Other sections of Chapter 15 refer to hypothesis testing and should be
delayed until the process of hypothesis testing (Chapter 8) has been introduced.
■■ It is also possible for instructors to present the chi-square tests (Chapter 17) much
earlier in the sequence of course topics. Chapter 17, which presents hypothesis tests
for proportions, can be presented immediately after Chapter 8, which introduces the
process of hypothesis testing. If this is done, we also recommend that the Pearson
correlation (Sections 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3) be presented early to provide a foundation
for the chi-square test for independence.

To the Student
A primary goal of this book is to make the task of learning statistics as easy and painless
as possible. Among other things, you will notice that the book provides you with a number
of opportunities to practice the techniques you will be learning in the form of Learning
Checks, Examples, Demonstrations, and end-of-chapter problems. We encourage you to
take advantage of these opportunities. Read the text rather than just memorizing the for-
mulas. We have taken care to present each statistical procedure in a conceptual context that
explains why the procedure was developed and when it should be used. If you read this
material and gain an understanding of the basic concepts underlying a statistical formula,
you will find that learning the formula and how to use it will be much easier. In the “Study
Hints,” that follow, we provide advice that we give our own students. Ask your instructor
for advice as well; we are sure that other instructors will have ideas of their own.
Over the years, the students in our classes and other students using our book have given
us valuable feedback. If you have any suggestions or comments about this book, you can
write to either Professor Emeritus Frederick Gravetter or Professor Emeritus Larry Wallnau
at the Department of Psychology, SUNY College at Brockport, 350 New Campus Drive,
Brockport, New York 14420. You can also contact Professor Emeritus Gravetter directly at
[email protected].

■■Study Hints
You may find some of these tips helpful, as our own students have reported.
■■ The key to success in a statistics course is to keep up with the material. Each new
topic builds on previous topics. If you have learned the previous material, then the
new topic is just one small step forward. Without the proper background, however,
the new topic can be a complete mystery. If you find that you are falling behind, get
help immediately.
■■ You will learn (and remember) much more if you study for short periods several
times per week rather than try to condense all of your studying into one long session.
For example, it is far more effective to study half an hour every night than to have
a single 3½-hour study session once a week. We cannot even work on writing this
book without frequent rest breaks.
■■ Do some work before class. Keep a little ahead of the instructor by reading the appro-
priate sections before they are presented in class. Although you may not fully under-
stand what you read, you will have a general idea of the topic, which will make the
lecture easier to follow. Also, you can identify material that is particularly confusing
and then be sure the topic is clarified in class.
■■ Pay attention and think during class. Although this advice seems obvious, often it is
not practiced. Many students spend so much time trying to write down every example
presented or every word spoken by the instructor that they do not actually understand
and process what is being said. Check with your instructor—there may not be a need
to copy every example presented in class, especially if there are many examples like
it in the text. Sometimes, we tell our students to put their pens and pencils down for a
moment and just listen.
■■ Test yourself regularly. Do not wait until the end of the chapter or the end of the
week to check your knowledge. After each lecture, work some of the end-of-chapter
problems and do the Learning Checks. Review the Demonstration Problems, and
be sure you can define the Key Terms. If you are having trouble, get your questions
answered immediately—reread the section, go to your instructor, or ask questions in
class. By doing so, you will be able to move ahead to new material.

■■ Do not kid yourself! Avoid denial. Many students observe their instructor solve
problems in class and think to themselves, “This looks easy, I understand it.” Do
you really understand it? Can you really do the problem on your own without having
to leaf through the pages of a chapter? Although there is nothing wrong with using
examples in the text as models for solving problems, you should try working a prob-
lem with your book closed to test your level of mastery.
■■ We realize that many students are embarrassed to ask for help. It is our biggest chal-
lenge as instructors. You must find a way to overcome this aversion. Perhaps contact-
ing the instructor directly would be a good starting point, if asking questions in class
is too anxiety-provoking. You could be pleasantly surprised to find that your instruc-
tor does not yell, scold, or bite! Also, your instructor might know of another student
who can offer assistance. Peer tutoring can be very helpful.

Frederick J Gravetter
Larry B. Wallnau

Frederick J Gravetter is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the

State University of New York College at Brockport. While teaching at
Brockport, Dr. Gravetter specialized in statistics, experimental design, and
cognitive psychology. He received his bachelor’s degree in mathematics from
M.I.T. and his Ph.D in psychology from Duke University. In addition to pub-
lishing this textbook and several research articles, Dr. Gravetter co-authored
Research Methods for the Behavioral Science and Essentials of Statistics for
the Behavioral Sciences.
Frederick Gravetter

Larry B. WaLLnau is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the State

University of New York College at Brockport. While teaching at Brockport,
he published numerous research articles in biopsychology. With
Dr. Gravetter, he co-authored Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences. Dr. Wallnau also has provided editorial consulting for numerous
publishers and journals. He has taken up running and has competed in 5K
races in New York and Connecticut. He takes great pleasure in adopting
neglected and rescued dogs.
Larry B. Wallnau

xix

Introduction to Statistics 1

PREVIEW
1.1 Statistics, Science, and Observations
1.2 Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics
1.3 Variables and Measurement
1.4 Statistical Notation
Summary
Focus on Problem Solving
Demonstration 1.1
Problems

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PREVIEW
Before we begin our discussion of statistics, we ask you The objectives for this first chapter are to provide
to read the following paragraph taken from the philoso- an introduction to the topic of statistics and to give you
phy of Wrong Shui (Candappa, 2000). some background for the rest of the book. We discuss
the role of statistics within the general field of scientific
The Journey to Enlightenment
inquiry, and we introduce some of the vocabulary and
In Wrong Shui, life is seen as a cosmic journey,
notation that are necessary for the statistical methods
a struggle to overcome unseen and unexpected
that follow.
obstacles at the end of which the traveler will find
As you read through the following chapters, keep
illumination and enlightenment. Replicate this quest
in mind that the general topic of statistics follows a
in your home by moving light switches away from
well-organized, logically developed progression that
doors and over to the far side of each room.*
leads from basic concepts and definitions to increas-
Why did we begin a statistics book with a bit of twisted ingly sophisticated techniques. Thus, each new topic
philosophy? In part, we simply wanted to lighten the serves as a foundation for the material that follows. The
mood with a bit of humor—starting a statistics course is content of the first nine chapters, for example, provides
typically not viewed as one of life’s joyous moments. In an essential background and context for the statistical
addition, the paragraph is an excellent counterexample for methods presented in Chapter 10. If you turn directly
the purpose of this book. Specifically, our goal is to do to Chapter 10 without reading the first nine chapters,
everything possible to prevent you from stumbling around you will find the material confusing and incomprehen-
in the dark by providing lots of help and illumination as sible. However, if you learn and use the background
you journey through the world of statistics. To accomplish material, you will have a good frame of reference for
this, we begin each section of the book with clearly stated understanding and incorporating new concepts as they
learning objectives and end each section with a brief quiz are presented.
to test your mastery of the new material. We also intro-
duce each new statistical procedure by explaining the pur-
pose it is intended to serve. If you understand why a new *Candappa, R. (2000). The little book of wrong shui. Kansas City:
procedure is needed, you will find it much easier to learn. Andrews McMeel Publishing. Reprinted by permission.

1.1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

LEARNING OBJECTIVEs 1. Define the terms population, sample, parameter, and statistic, and describe the
relationships between them.
2. Define descriptive and inferential statistics and describe how these two general
categories of statistics are used in a typical research study.
3. Describe the concept of sampling error and explain how this concept creates the
fundamental problem that inferential statistics must address.

■■Definitions of Statistics
By one definition, statistics consist of facts and figures such as the average annual snowfall
in Denver or Derrick Jeter’s lifetime batting average. These statistics are usually informative
and time-saving because they condense large quantities of information into a few simple fig-
ures. Later in this chapter we return to the notion of calculating statistics (facts and figures)
but, for now, we concentrate on a much broader definition of statistics. Specifically, we use
the term statistics to refer to a general field of mathematics. In this case, we are using the
term statistics as a shortened version of statistical procedures. For example, you are prob-
ably using this book for a statistics course in which you will learn about the statistical tech-
niques that are used to summarize and evaluate research results in the behavioral sciences.

Research in the behavioral sciences (and other fields) involves gathering information.
To determine, for example, whether college students learn better by reading material on
printed pages or on a computer screen, you would need to gather information about stu-
dents’ study habits and their academic performance. When researchers finish the task of
gathering information, they typically find themselves with pages and pages of measure-
ments such as preferences, personality scores, opinions, and so on. In this book, we present
the statistics that researchers use to analyze and interpret the information that they gather.
Specifically, statistics serve two general purposes:
1. Statistics are used to organize and summarize the information so that the researcher can
see what happened in the research study and can communicate the results to others.
2. Statistics help the researcher to answer the questions that initiated the research by
determining exactly what general conclusions are justified based on the specific
results that were obtained.

DEFInItIon The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing, sum-
marizing, and interpreting information.

Statistical procedures help ensure that the information or observations are presented
and interpreted in an accurate and informative way. In somewhat grandiose terms, statistics
help researchers bring order out of chaos. In addition, statistics provide researchers with a
set of standardized techniques that are recognized and understood throughout the scientific
community. Thus, the statistical methods used by one researcher will be familiar to other
researchers, who can accurately interpret the statistical analyses with a full understanding
of how the analysis was done and what the results signify.

■■Populations and Samples

Research in the behavioral sciences typically begins with a general question about a specific
group (or groups) of individuals. For example, a researcher may want to know what factors
are associated with academic dishonesty among college students. Or a researcher may want
to examine the amount of time spent in the bathroom for men compared to women. In the
first example, the researcher is interested in the group of college students. In the second
example, the researcher wants to compare the group of men with the group of women. In sta-
tistical terminology, the entire group that a researcher wishes to study is called a population.

DEFInItIon A population is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.

As you can well imagine, a population can be quite large—for example, the entire set
of women on the planet Earth. A researcher might be more specific, limiting the population
for study to women who are registered voters in the United States. Perhaps the investigator
would like to study the population consisting of women who are heads of state. Populations
can obviously vary in size from extremely large to very small, depending on how the inves-
tigator defines the population. The population being studied should always be identified by
the researcher. In addition, the population need not consist of people—it could be a popula-
tion of rats, corporations, parts produced in a factory, or anything else an investigator wants
to study. In practice, populations are typically very large, such as the population of college
sophomores in the United States or the population of small businesses.
Because populations tend to be very large, it usually is impossible for a researcher to
examine every individual in the population of interest. Therefore, researchers typically select

a smaller, more manageable group from the population and limit their studies to the individ-
uals in the selected group. In statistical terms, a set of individuals selected from a population
is called a sample. A sample is intended to be representative of its population, and a sample
should always be identified in terms of the population from which it was selected.

DEFInItIon A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to

represent the population in a research study.

Just as we saw with populations, samples can vary in size. For example, one study might
examine a sample of only 10 students in a graduate program and another study might use a
sample of more than 10,000 people who take a specific cholesterol medication.
So far we have talked about a sample being selected from a population. However, this is
actually only half of the full relationship between a sample and its population. Specifically,
when a researcher finishes examining the sample, the goal is to generalize the results back
to the entire population. Remember that the research started with a general question about
the population. To answer the question, a researcher studies a sample and then generalizes
the results from the sample to the population. The full relationship between a sample and a
population is shown in Figure 1.1.

■■Variables and Data

Typically, researchers are interested in specific characteristics of the individuals in the pop-
ulation (or in the sample), or they are interested in outside factors that may influence the
individuals. For example, a researcher may be interested in the influence of the weather on
people’s moods. As the weather changes, do people’s moods also change? Something that
can change or have different values is called a variable.

DEFInItIon A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for
different individuals.

THE POPULATION
All of the individuals of interest

The results
The sample
from the sample
is selected from
are generalized
the population
to the population

F I G U R E 1.1 THE SAMPLE

The relationship between a The individuals selected to
population and a sample. participate in the research study

Once again, variables can be characteristics that differ from one individual to another,
such as height, weight, gender, or personality. Also, variables can be environmental condi-
tions that change such as temperature, time of day, or the size of the room in which the
research is being conducted.
To demonstrate changes in variables, it is necessary to make measurements of the variables
being examined. The measurement obtained for each individual is called a datum, or more com-
monly, a score or raw score. The complete set of scores is called the data set or simply the data.

DEFInItIon Data (plural) are measurements or observations. A data set is a collection of mea-
surements or observations. A datum (singular) is a single measurement or observa-
tion and is commonly called a score or raw score.

Before we move on, we should make one more point about samples, populations, and
data. Earlier, we defined populations and samples in terms of individuals. For example,
we discussed a population of graduate students and a sample of cholesterol patients. Be
forewarned, however, that we will also refer to populations or samples of scores. Because
research typically involves measuring each individual to obtain a score, every sample (or
population) of individuals produces a corresponding sample (or population) of scores.

■■Parameters and Statistics

When describing data it is necessary to distinguish whether the data come from a popula-
tion or a sample. A characteristic that describes a population—for example, the average
score for the population—is called a parameter. A characteristic that describes a sample is
called a statistic. Thus, the average score for a sample is an example of a statistic. Typically,
the research process begins with a question about a population parameter. However, the
actual data come from a sample and are used to compute sample statistics.

DEFInItIon A parameter is a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a population. A

parameter is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the population.
A statistic is a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a sample. A statistic
is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the sample.

Every population parameter has a corresponding sample statistic, and most research
studies involve using statistics from samples as the basis for answering questions about
population parameters. As a result, much of this book is concerned with the relationship
between sample statistics and the corresponding population parameters. In Chapter 7, for
example, we examine the relationship between the mean obtained for a sample and the
mean for the population from which the sample was obtained.

■■Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

Although researchers have developed a variety of different statistical procedures to orga-
nize and interpret data, these different procedures can be classified into two general catego-
ries. The first category, descriptive statistics, consists of statistical procedures that are used
to simplify and summarize data.

DEFInItIon Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and
simplify data.

Descriptive statistics are techniques that take raw scores and organize or summarize
them in a form that is more manageable. Often the scores are organized in a table or a graph
so that it is possible to see the entire set of scores. Another common technique is to sum-
marize a set of scores by computing an average. Note that even if the data set has hundreds
of scores, the average provides a single descriptive value for the entire set.
The second general category of statistical techniques is called inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics are methods that use sample data to make general statements about a
population.

DEFInItIon Inferential statistics consist of techniques that allow us to study samples and then
make generalizations about the populations from which they were selected.

Because populations are typically very large, it usually is not possible to measure
everyone in the population. Therefore, a sample is selected to represent the population.
By analyzing the results from the sample, we hope to make general statements about the
population. Typically, researchers use sample statistics as the basis for drawing conclusions
about population parameters. One problem with using samples, however, is that a sample
provides only limited information about the population. Although samples are generally
representative of their populations, a sample is not expected to give a perfectly accurate
picture of the whole population. There usually is some discrepancy between a sample sta-
tistic and the corresponding population parameter. This discrepancy is called sampling
error, and it creates the fundamental problem inferential statistics must always address.

DEFInItIon Sampling error is the naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists between
a sample statistic and the corresponding population parameter.

The concept of sampling error is illustrated in Figure 1.2. The figure shows a popula-
tion of 1,000 college students and 2 samples, each with 5 students who were selected from
the population. Notice that each sample contains different individuals who have different
characteristics. Because the characteristics of each sample depend on the specific people in
the sample, statistics will vary from one sample to another. For example, the five students
in sample 1 have an average age of 19.8 years and the students in sample 2 have an average
age of 20.4 years.
It is also very unlikely that the statistics obtained for a sample will be identical to the
parameters for the entire population. In Figure 1.2, for example, neither sample has sta-
tistics that are exactly the same as the population parameters. You should also realize that
Figure 1.2 shows only two of the hundreds of possible samples. Each sample would contain
different individuals and would produce different statistics. This is the basic concept of
sampling error: sample statistics vary from one sample to another and typically are differ-
ent from the corresponding population parameters.
One common example of sampling error is the error associated with a sample propor-
tion. For example, in newspaper articles reporting results from political polls, you fre-
quently find statements such as this:
Candidate Brown leads the poll with 51% of the vote. Candidate Jones has 42%
approval, and the remaining 7% are undecided. This poll was taken from a sample of regis-
tered voters and has a margin of error of plus-or-minus 4 percentage points.
The “margin of error” is the sampling error. In this case, the percentages that are reported
were obtained from a sample and are being generalized to the whole population. As always,
you do not expect the statistics from a sample to be perfect. There always will be some
“margin of error” when sample statistics are used to represent population parameters.

F I G U R E 1. 2
A demonstration of sampling error. Two
samples are selected from the same population.
Notice that the sample statistics are different Population
of 1000 college students
from one sample to another and all the sample
statistics are different from the corresponding Population Parameters
population parameters. The natural differ- Average Age 5 21.3 years
ences that exist, by chance, between a sample Average IQ 5 112.5
statistic and population parameter are called 65% Female, 35% Male
sampling error.

Sample #1 Sample #2

Eric Tom
Jessica Kristen
Laura Sara
Karen Andrew
Brian John

Sample Statistics Sample Statistics

Average Age 5 19.8 Average Age 5 20.4
Average IQ 5 104.6 Average IQ 5 114.2
60% Female, 40% Male 40% Female, 60% Male

As a further demonstration of sampling error, imagine that your statistics class is sepa-
rated into two groups by drawing a line from front to back through the middle of the room.
Now imagine that you compute the average age (or height, or IQ) for each group. Will the
two groups have exactly the same average? Almost certainly they will not. No matter what
you chose to measure, you will probably find some difference between the two groups.
However, the difference you obtain does not necessarily mean that there is a systematic
difference between the two groups. For example, if the average age for students on the
right-hand side of the room is higher than the average for students on the left, it is unlikely
that some mysterious force has caused the older people to gravitate to the right side of
the room. Instead, the difference is probably the result of random factors such as chance.
The unpredictable, unsystematic differences that exist from one sample to another are an
example of sampling error.

■■Statistics in the Context of Research

The following example shows the general stages of a research study and demonstrates
how descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are used to organize and interpret the
data. At the end of the example, note how sampling error can affect the interpretation of
experimental results, and consider why inferential statistical methods are needed to deal
with this problem.

ExamplE 1.1 Figure 1.3 shows an overview of a general research situation and demonstrates the roles that
descriptive and inferential statistics play. The purpose of the research study is to address a
question that we posed earlier: Do college students learn better by studying text on printed
pages or on a computer screen? Two samples are selected from the population of college
students. The students in sample A are given printed pages of text to study for 30 minutes
and the students in sample B study the same text on a computer screen. Next, all of the
students are given a multiple-choice test to evaluate their knowledge of the material. At this
point, the researcher has two sets of data: the scores for sample A and the scores for sample
B (see the figure). Now is the time to begin using statistics.
First, descriptive statistics are used to simplify the pages of data. For example, the
researcher could draw a graph showing the scores for each sample or compute the aver-
age score for each sample. Note that descriptive methods provide a simplified, organized

Step 1
Experiment: Population of
Compare two College
studying methods Students

Data
Test scores for the Sample A Sample B
students in each Read from printed Read from computer
sample pages screen
25 26 28 20 22 27
27 21 27 23 17 23
30 28 24 25 28 21
19 23 26 22 19 22
29 26 22 18 24 19

Step 2
Descriptive statistics: 20 25 30 20 25 30
Organize and simplify

Average Average
Score = 26 Score = 22

Step 3 The sample data show a 4-point difference

Inferential statistics: between the two methods of studying. However,
Interpret results there are two ways to interpret the results.
1. There actually is no difference between
the two studying methods, and the sample
difference is due to chance (sampling error).
2. There really is a difference between
the two methods, and the sample data
F i g u r E 1. 3 accurately reflect this difference.
The role of statistics in experimental The goal of inferential statistics is to help researchers
research. decide between the two interpretations.

description of the scores. In this example, the students who studied printed pages had an aver-
age score of 26 on the test, and the students who studied text on the computer averaged 22.
Once the researcher has described the results, the next step is to interpret the outcome.
This is the role of inferential statistics. In this example, the researcher has found a difference
of 4 points between the two samples (sample A averaged 26 and sample B averaged 22). The
problem for inferential statistics is to differentiate between the following two interpretations:
1. There is no real difference between the printed page and a computer screen, and
the 4-point difference between the samples is just an example of sampling error
(like the samples in Figure 1.2).
2. There really is a difference between the printed page and a computer screen, and
the 4-point difference between the samples was caused by the different methods
of studying.
In simple English, does the 4-point difference between samples provide convincing
evidence of a difference between the two studying methods, or is the 4-point difference just
chance? The purpose of inferential statistics is to answer this question. ■

lE arn in g Ch ECk 1. A researcher is interested in the sleeping habits of American college students.
A group of 50 students is interviewed and the researcher finds that these students
sleep an average of 6.7 hours per day. For this study, the average of 6.7 hours is an
example of a(n) .
a. parameter
b. statistic
c. population
d. sample
2. A researcher is curious about the average IQ of registered voters in the state of Florida.
The entire group of registered voters in the state is an example of a .
a. sample
b. statistic
c. population
d. parameter
3. Statistical techniques that summarize, organize, and simplify data are classified
as .
a. population statistics
b. sample statistics
c. descriptive statistics
d. inferential statistics
4. In general, statistical techniques are used to summarize the data from
a research study and statistical techniques are used to determine what
conclusions are justified by the results.
a. inferential, descriptive
b. descriptive, inferential
c. sample, population
d. population, sample

5. IQ tests are standardized so that the average score is 100 for the entire group of
people who take the test each year. However, if you selected a group of 20 people
who took the test and computed their average IQ score you probably would not get
100. What statistical concept explains the difference between your mean and the
mean for the entire group?
a. statistical error
b. inferential error
c. descriptive error
d. sampling error

an s wE r s 1. B, 2. C, 3. C, 4. B, 5. D

1.2 Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics

LEARNING OBJECTIVEs 4. Differentiate correlational, experimental, and nonexperimental research and describe
the data structures associated with each.
5. Define independent, dependent, and quasi-independent variables and recognize
examples of each.

■■Individual Variables: Descriptive Research

Some research studies are conducted simply to describe individual variables as they exist
naturally. For example, a college official may conduct a survey to describe the eating, sleep-
ing, and study habits of a group of college students. When the results consist of numerical
scores, such as the number of hours spent studying each day, they are typically described
by the statistical techniques that are presented in Chapters 3 and 4. Non-numerical scores
are typically described by computing the proportion or percentage in each category. For
example, a recent newspaper article reported that 34.9% of Americans are obese, which is
roughly 35 pounds over a healthy weight.

■■Relationships Between Variables

Most research, however, is intended to examine relationships between two or more vari-
ables. For example, is there a relationship between the amount of violence in the video
games played by children and the amount of aggressive behavior they display? Is there a
relationship between the quality of breakfast and academic performance for elementary
school children? Is there a relationship between the number of hours of sleep and grade
point average for college students? To establish the existence of a relationship, research-
ers must make observations—that is, measurements of the two variables. The resulting
measurements can be classified into two distinct data structures that also help to classify
different research methods and different statistical techniques. In the following section we
identify and discuss these two data structures.

I. One Group with Two Variables Measured for Each Individual: The Corre-
lational Method One method for examining the relationship between variables is to
observe the two variables as they exist naturally for a set of individuals. That is, simply

measure the two variables for each individual. For example, research has demonstrated a
relationship between sleep habits, especially wake-up time, and academic performance
for college students (Trockel, Barnes, and Egget, 2000). The researchers used a survey to
measure wake-up time and school records to measure academic performance for each stu-
dent. Figure 1.4 shows an example of the kind of data obtained in the study. The research-
ers then look for consistent patterns in the data to provide evidence for a relationship
between variables. For example, as wake-up time changes from one student to another, is
there also a tendency for academic performance to change?
Consistent patterns in the data are often easier to see if the scores are presented in a
graph. Figure 1.4 also shows the scores for the eight students in a graph called a scatter
plot. In the scatter plot, each individual is represented by a point so that the horizontal
position corresponds to the student’s wake-up time and the vertical position corresponds
to the student’s academic performance score. The scatter plot shows a clear relationship
between wake-up time and academic performance: as wake-up time increases, academic
performance decreases.
A research study that simply measures two different variables for each individual and
produces the kind of data shown in Figure 1.4 is an example of the correlational method,
or the correlational research strategy.

DEFInItIon In the correlational method, two different variables are observed to determine
whether there is a relationship between them.

■■Statistics for the Correlational Method

When the data from a correlational study consist of numerical scores, the relationship
between the two variables is usually measured and described using a statistic called a
correlation. Correlations and the correlational method are discussed in detail in Chap-
ters 15 and 16. Occasionally, the measurement process used for a correlational study
simply classifies individuals into categories that do not correspond to numerical values.
For example, a researcher could classify a group of college students by gender (male

(a) (b) 3.8

Wake-up Academic
3.6
Academic performance

Student Time Performance

3.4
A 11 2.4
3.2
B 9 3.6
C 9 3.2 3.0
D 12 2.2 2.8
E 7 3.8 2.6
F 10 2.2
2.4
G 10 3.0
H 8 3.0 2.2
2.0

7 8 9 10 11 12
Wake-up time
F i g u r E 1. 4
One of two data structures for evaluating the relationship between variables. Note that there are two separate measure-
ments for each individual (wake-up time and academic performance). The same scores are shown in a table (a) and in
a graph (b).

or female) and by cell-phone preference (talk or text). Note that the researcher has two
scores for each individual but neither of the scores is a numerical value. This type of data
is typically summarized in a table showing how many individuals are classified into each
of the possible categories. Table 1.1 shows an example of this kind of summary table. The
table shows for example, that 30 of the males in the sample preferred texting to talking.
This type of data can be coded with numbers (for example, male = 0 and female = 1)
so that it is possible to compute a correlation. However, the relationship between vari-
ables for non-numerical data, such as the data in Table 1.1, is usually evaluated using
a statistical technique known as a chi-square test. Chi-square tests are presented in
Chapter 17.

Ta b lE 1.1 Correlational data consisting of non-numerical scores. Note that there are two measurements for
each individual: gender and cell phone preference. The numbers indicate how many people are in
each category. For example, out of the 50 males, 30 prefer text over talk.
Cell Phone Preference
Text Talk

Males 30 20 50

Females 25 25 50

■■Limitations of the Correlational Method

The results from a correlational study can demonstrate the existence of a relationship
between two variables, but they do not provide an explanation for the relationship. In
particular, a correlational study cannot demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship. For
example, the data in Figure 1.4 show a systematic relationship between wake-up time and
academic performance for a group of college students; those who sleep late tend to have
lower performance scores than those who wake early. However, there are many possible
explanations for the relationship and we do not know exactly what factor (or factors) is
responsible for late sleepers having lower grades. In particular, we cannot conclude that
waking students up earlier would cause their academic performance to improve, or that
studying more would cause students to wake up earlier. To demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables, researchers must use the experimental method, which
is discussed next.

II. Comparing Two (or More) Groups of Scores: Experimental and Nonexperi-
mental Methods The second method for examining the relationship between two
variables involves the comparison of two or more groups of scores. In this situation, the
relationship between variables is examined by using one of the variables to define the
groups, and then measuring the second variable to obtain scores for each group. For exam-
ple, Polman, de Castro, and van Aken (2008) randomly divided a sample of 10-year-old
boys into two groups. One group then played a violent video game and the second played
a nonviolent game. After the game-playing session, the children went to a free play period
and were monitored for aggressive behaviors (hitting, kicking, pushing, frightening, name
calling, fighting, quarreling, or teasing another child). An example of the resulting data is
shown in Figure 1.5. The researchers then compare the scores for the violent-video group
with the scores for the nonviolent-video group. A systematic difference between the two
groups provides evidence for a relationship between playing violent video games and
aggressive behavior for 10-year-old boys.

F i g u r E 1. 5 One variable (type of video game)

Violent Nonviolent
Evaluating the rela- is used to define groups
tionship between 7 8
variables by compar- 8 4
ing groups of scores. 10 8
Note that the values of A second variable (aggressive behavior) 7 3
is measured to obtain scores within each group 9 6
one variable are used 8 5
to define the groups 6 3
and the second vari- 10 4
able is measured to 9 4
obtain scores within 6 5
each group.

Compare groups
of scores

■■Statistics for Comparing Two (or More) Groups of Scores

Most of the statistical procedures presented in this book are designed for research stud-
ies that compare groups of scores like the study in Figure 1.5. Specifically, we examine
descriptive statistics that summarize and describe the scores in each group and we use
inferential statistics to determine whether the differences between the groups can be gen-
eralized to the entire population.
When the measurement procedure produces numerical scores, the statistical evalua-
tion typically involves computing the average score for each group and then comparing
the averages. The process of computing averages is presented in Chapter 3, and a variety
of statistical techniques for comparing averages are presented in Chapters 8–14. If the
measurement process simply classifies individuals into non-numerical categories, the sta-
tistical evaluation usually consists of computing proportions for each group and then com-
paring proportions. Previously, in Table 1.1, we presented an example of non-numerical
data examining the relationship between gender and cell-phone preference. The same data
can be used to compare the proportions for males with the proportions for females. For
example, using text is preferred by 60% of the males compared to 50% of the females. As
before, these data are evaluated using a chi-square test, which is presented in Chapter 17.

■■Experimental and Nonexperimental Methods

There are two distinct research methods that both produce groups of scores to be compared:
the experimental and the nonexperimental strategies. These two research methods use
exactly the same statistics and they both demonstrate a relationship between two variables.
The distinction between the two research strategies is how the relationship is interpreted.
The results from an experiment allow a cause-and-effect explanation. For example, we can
conclude that changes in one variable are responsible for causing differences in a second
variable. A nonexperimental study does not permit a cause-and effect explanation. We can
say that changes in one variable are accompanied by changes in a second variable, but we
cannot say why. Each of the two research methods is discussed in the following sections.

■■The Experimental Method

One specific research method that involves comparing groups of scores is known as the
experimental method or the experimental research strategy. The goal of an experimental
study is to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables. Specifically,

O
nce there lived a king who had two sons, and, though they were
twins, they were as different as if they had been strangers.
Nardo was kind and good, while his brother Stephen was greedy
and selfish, never doing any one kindness.
One day there came to the King’s gates an old beggar man who
asked for a night’s lodging and food.
The brothers were standing near and Stephen told the servants to
close the gates, that a palace was no place for beggars.
“Stop,” said Nardo to the servant; “a palace is just the place for
beggars. Brother, we have a plenty and to spare; let the poor man
enter.”
The beggar thanked Nardo and said: “You shall never regret your
kindness. Wear this ring, and whenever you wish for something
money cannot buy you shall have your wish.”
Nardo put the ring in his pocket and forgot all about it until he fell
in love with a beautiful princess, and, like all lovers, he was afraid
she did not love him.
Then he remembered the old beggar man and the ring, and put it
on and wished for the love of the beautiful Princess.
It happened that Stephen also loved the Princess, but he knew
she did not love him, and, seeing the ring the old beggar had given
Nardo on his hand one day, he remembered what the beggar had
said when he gave his brother the ring.
“I must have the ring,” said Stephen. “Then I will have the love of
the Princess; besides that, her father, the King, is old, and when he
dies I shall be king in his place.”
But it was no easy matter to possess the ring, for Nardo was as
big and strong as Stephen. There was no way to get the ring from off
his finger unless he took it by force or could get some witch to weave
a spell over him.
And all this time the beautiful Princess was in love with Nardo.
Had he only known it, he needed no magic ring to win her love for
him.
One night after trying in vain to get the ring Stephen went to an old
witch who lived in a cave by the sea and asked her to get the ring for
him, promising to make her rich if she would get it.
The witch was greedy for gold, so one night while Nardo slept she
crept into the palace, aided by the wicked Stephen, and cast a spell
over Nardo, which made him forget the ring and also his love for the
beautiful Princess.
Stephen, with the ring on his finger, felt that all was easy now, and
he promptly forgot all about the old witch and the gold he promised
her.
The beautiful Princess looked with sad eyes upon the now cold
and indifferent Nardo, and, while she did not love Stephen, she felt
each day that she was being drawn to him, though she knew well
enough she did not love any one but Nardo.
The old witch, however, helped the Princess out of part of her
troubles, for when she found that Stephen did not intend to give her
the gold, she waited for him one day in the palace grounds, hidden
behind a clump of bushes, and when he came out for a walk she
pointed her lean fingers at him and placed him under a spell which
made him follow her to her cave by the sea.
Here she chained him to a rock and put a dragon to watch that he
did not escape; but while the Princess escaped marrying Stephen,
he still possessed the ring which kept Nardo from remembering he
had ever loved the Princess.
One night when the Princess was sitting in her window looking at
the moon and sighing over her lost lover and his love she saw a
nightingale caught by its wing in a tree.
The tree was so close that the Princess had only to reach out and
rescue the poor bird and set it free.
The nightingale, in gratitude for its life, began to sing so sweetly
that the Princess exclaimed, “Oh, sing each night by my window,
beautiful bird, that I may for a little while at least forget my sorrow.”
The hour of midnight was just then striking, and as the last stroke
of twelve died away the nightingale changed into a fairy.
“I am powerless to use my magic until the hour of midnight
strikes,” said the little fairy. “I have chosen to become a nightingale
until then, and the Queen will not give me the power of a fairy until I
change my form to one.
“If it had not been for your kindness I might never have become a
fairy again, for the nightingale’s wing would have been broken, and
no imperfect creature can reclaim its form, once it has changed from
a fairy.
“If I can help you, tell me and I will go to the Queen and ask to
remain a fairy, and then no matter how hard the task you set I am
sure I can make you happy.”
Of course, the Princess did not know about the magic ring, and
she could only tell the fairy how once she had felt sure that Nardo
loved her and then suddenly he had changed and would not notice
her at all.
The fairy listened to the Princess and told her not to worry; that
she was sure there was something wrong; that Nardo still loved her,
and at midnight the next night she would return, and away she
flittered in the moonlight, leaving the Princess happier than she had
been for many a day.
It took the fairy but a short time to unravel the mystery, and the
next night when the Princess went to her window she found the little
fairy waiting for her, perched on the sill.
“Do not grieve, my Princess,” said the fairy. “Nardo still loves you;
it is all the work of his wicked brother Stephen, who loved you, too.”
Then she told the Princess the story of the ring and how Stephen
had got the old witch to get it for him, and that if he had given her the
gold he would have married the Princess in spite of all she could
have done.
“But if Nardo still loves me, why does he keep away? Why does he
not tell me of his love?” asked the Princess.
“He will, my dear Princess, when he remembers,” said the fairy,
“and there is where the difficult part comes in.
“We must get the ring or the stone. It is only the stone that holds
the charm, but that is still on Stephen’s finger, and to get near to him
the dragon must be overpowered.”
“Oh! I will send all my father’s soldiers,” said the Princess; “they
can kill the dragon, I am sure.”
“Not a dragon that belongs to a witch,” said the fairy, “and if my
plan works, and I think it will, we shall not need soldiers. I will be
back before the sun rises. Wait for me.”
Away went the fairy to her Queen and again asked to be changed
into a nightingale. “It is to help some one in trouble, dear Queen,”
she said, “and never again will I ask to change my form.”
The Queen granted her wish and away flew the nightingale toward
the sea, where lived the witch and the dragon.
When she was near the cave she began her sweetest song, and
as she flew nearer she sang more sweetly and softly until she
alighted on a tree right over the rock where lay the dragon and the
sleeping Stephen.
The eyes of the dragon were wide open, watching on all sides for
any one who might dare attempt to rescue Stephen.
When he heard the sweet tones of the nightingale the dragon
raised its head and looked around, but, seeing only a bird perched
over his head, he had no fear. Softly, sweetly, the nightingale trilled
and sang its soothing song until at last the dragon began to nod its
head, and after a while it dropped to the ground, fast asleep.
The poor nightingale was so worn out with singing so long that it
hardly had strength to fly down to where Stephen was sleeping.
Very carefully it did so with only a soft waving of its wings, and
then its bill plucked from the ring on Stephen’s hand the red stone,
and off it flew with the stone held tightly in its bill.
Only once did it stop, and that was to sip a drop of dew from a
rose-bush where it alighted to rest, and then on it went to the palace
where Nardo was sleeping and flew through the window of his
bedroom.
Nardo’s hand was open on the pillow beside his face, and into his
hand the nightingale placed the red stone and flew away to the
Princess.
“Your lover will be here with the sun,” she said, “and as it is not far
from that time I must fly to my Queen.
“Farewell, my kind Princess. May you be happy with your Prince,
and if you are as good and kind as a Queen as you were when a
Princess I shall never regret my night’s work.”
The Princess thanked her again and again, but the fairy was away
before she had finished, and just then the sun peeped through the
trees and at the same time the sound of horses’ hoofs was heard
coming along the road.
The Princess’s cheeks grew red, for she knew it was her lover,
and when she reached the palace door there he was just riding up.
When the spell was broken for Nardo it released poor Stephen
from the power of the witch; the sea rolled in and the wind shrieked
among the trees and the next thing Stephen knew he was running
through the forest toward his home.
Of course, he was too much ashamed to tell of all that had
happened to him and said he had been hunting in the forest and lost
his way; and Nardo and the Princess kept his secret and did not let
him know they were aware of his treachery, and as he grew to be a
better man as the years went by, they were glad they did.
OLD THREE HEADS
nce upon a time there was a little girl named Lucy. She was
O always opening doors and looking into rooms that did not
belong to her, and it made her appear very rude.
One day Lucy was sent to the woods to gather berries, but instead
of filling her basket as she should have done she walked about,
looking behind rocks and trees, thinking that she might find an
opening in some of them.
“Better look out for Old Three Heads,” said a squirrel, as he ran
past her.
“I wonder what he means,” she said. “I must keep on looking, for
somewhere around here Old Three Heads must live, or the squirrel
would not have said ‘look out,’ and I want to see what he is like.”
“Better look out for Old Three Heads,” called a bird from the limb
of a tree.
“Better look out for Old Three Heads,” called a rabbit as he ran
into his hole.
“I wish some one would tell me where Old Three Heads lives,”
said Lucy, “instead of just saying look out for him.”
Just then she came to a path which led through thick bushes.
“I will see where this leads,” she said. “Perhaps it leads to Old
Three Heads’ house.”
Lucy walked along the path and soon she saw a castle standing
among the trees. Most little girls would have hesitated about going
into a strange house, but Lucy’s curiosity was so great she thought
only of seeing the inside of the castle. She walked up the steps and
opened the door. The hall was long and dark, but she was not afraid.
So she closed the door and walked along.
There were many doors on each side of the hall, and Lucy opened
one and looked in. In one corner of the room was a horse with three
heads. “What a queer place to keep a horse!” thought Lucy.
“Better look out for Old Three Heads,” said the horse, shaking all
three heads and looking sad.
“How did you get three heads?” asked Lucy.
“I looked in the window one day when Old Three Heads was
eating his dinner, and he saw me. You better look out,” he warned
her again.
Lucy thought of the other doors and decided to keep on, for she
was very anxious to see what was behind all of them.
She opened another door and a three-headed cat ran toward her.
“You have only one head!” said the cat, in a tone of surprise. “You
better look out for Old Three Heads.”
“I am not afraid,” said Lucy, as she left the room and opened
another door. In this room was a three-headed dog. He looked at her
and said, “Better look out for Old Three Heads; you will find him if
you keep on opening doors.”
“I want to see him,” answered Lucy. “Where is he?”
“You better run while you can,” said the dog, “but you will find him
if you keep on, and then you will wish you had taken my advice.”
But Lucy only laughed and went to another door. In that room she
saw a three-headed cow.
“What a queer place!” she said. “I never saw animals living in a
house before. Why are the animals kept in the house?” she asked
the cow.
“We belong to Old Three Heads,” replied the cow, “and every
creature that comes in this castle has three heads. You better look
out for Old Three Heads,” she warned her.
“Why did you come in, if you knew you had to wear three heads?”
asked Lucy.
“We wanted to see what was in here, just as you did,” replied the
cow. “The cat found the door open and she walked in to look about;
the dog saw her enter and he followed. Old Three Heads saw them.
You better look out,” she warned Lucy again.
But Lucy was more curious than ever, and she kept on with her
questions.
“How did you and the horse get three heads?” she asked. “You did
not walk in the door, did you?”
“Not at first,” answered the cow. “The horse put his head in the
window one day when it was open and Old Three Heads saw him.”
“And you,” asked Lucy again, for the cow stopped and hung her
three heads, “what did you do?”
“I saw some green corn on the window-sill,” the cow confessed,
very slowly, “and I put my head in the window to get it and Old Three
Heads saw me.”
“What happens when he sees you?” she asked.
“Wait and see,” replied the cow. “But I have warned you; you’d
better look out for Old Three Heads and run while you can.”
As that was all the information she could get from the cow, Lucy
told her she would find out for herself how they all got their three
heads, and she went to the next door and opened it.
The room was dark, and at first Lucy could not see anything, but
some one said, “Who-who,” and as the sound came from a corner of
the room Lucy went in and looked about.
As her eyes became accustomed to the darkness she saw
perched on the back of a chair an owl with three heads.
“Well, of all things!” exclaimed Lucy. “How did so wise a bird as
you happen to be caught by Old Three Heads?” she asked.
“Who-who are you?” stuttered the owl. “You-you better look out for
Old Three Heads,” he warned Lucy.
“Tell me how it happened that you have three heads,” asked Lucy,
ignoring the warning as she had before.
“Who-who are you?” stuttered the owl again.
“I am a girl,” said Lucy. “Can’t you see?”
“Bet-bet-better look out,” warned the owl again.
“Oh dear!” said Lucy. “You are worse than the others. I am going to
find Old Three Heads and find out, if I can, how all of you got three
heads.”
“Who-who,” said the owl as she went out of the room.
Lucy opened another door, and there on the throne in this room
sat a giant with three heads. She had found Old Three Heads at last.
For the first time since she entered the castle Lucy was frightened
when she saw the curious-looking creature; but there was no chance
to escape; it was too late.
The giant looked at her a second, and then he called out to his
attendants, who all had three heads but were much smaller men:
“Bring the intruder before me.”
“Bring two heads,” he said, when Lucy stood before him.
When the heads were brought one had black hair and one red.
“I do not want those heads,” said Lucy; “they do not match my hair.
Can’t I have two golden-haired heads?”
“Those are all I have,” said the giant, “and you will have to wear
them. On with them,” he said, and the attendants fastened the heads
on Lucy’s shoulders, one on each side of her own head.
“I wish I could see myself,” said Lucy, still curious.
“Take her to her room,” said the giant, and Lucy was taken to one
of the rooms that opened out of the long hall.
When she was alone she looked around the room and saw a
mirror hanging on the wall. She ran and looked into it. The new
heads looked very cross.
“What is the matter with you?” asked Lucy.
“I do not like red hair or light hair,” said the dark-haired head.
“And I do not like dark hair or light hair,” said the head with red
hair.
“I cannot help that,” said Lucy. “I did not want either of you.”
“I will not stay here,” said the dark-haired head.
“Neither will I,” said the head with the red hair.
And they began to pull away. Lucy bent first to one side and then
to the other, with the pulling of the quarrelsome heads.
“Do keep quiet,” she said at last. “I am sorry I said anything about
the color of your hair. If you will be good I’ll try to get you something
nice to eat.”
This plan quieted the heads, and Lucy went to the door. It was not
locked, and she opened it and went out.
First she went to the room where the horse was.
“Horse, can you tell me where I can get something to eat?” she
asked.
“Yes,” said the horse. “Go to the fireplace and call up the chimney.”
“I want my dinner,” Lucy called.
Down came a table with food upon it and a chair standing beside
it. Lucy seated herself and began to eat.
Then the trouble began; every time she raised the fork to her
mouth the dark head or the head with red hair would stretch out their
necks and take the food from the fork before Lucy could get a
chance.
The new heads quarreled because each thought the other was
getting more than its share.
Lucy put her fork and knife on the table in despair. “You are a pair
of greedy heads,” she said. “I have not had a bite.”
“It is all your fault,” said one; “you should not have got us.”
Lucy went into the room where the cat was and asked her if she
would tell her where she could get something to drink.
“Rap three times on the wall,” said the cat.
Lucy tried this and a cup appeared filled with water. Lucy tried to
put it up to her lips, but the head with the red hair reached it and
drank all the water.
Lucy rapped again, and another cup appeared, and this time the
head with dark hair reached it and drank every drop of water before
Lucy could stop it.
She tried several times, but each time the greedy heads drank it
before she could get her lips to the cup.
She went into the room where the dog was kept.
“Where can I find a comfortable chair and a book?” she asked.
“Tap on the floor three times,” the dog said.
Lucy did as he said, and a chair appeared, and beside it a table
filled with books. Lucy opened one of the books and looked at the
pictures.
“I cannot see them,” said the head with the red hair. Lucy moved
the book to one side.
“I should think you would remember that you have three heads,”
said the head with the dark hair. “How do you expect me to see if
you keep the book over that side?”
Lucy moved the book to the other side, and then the head with the
red hair began to fuss again.
“Oh dear!” said Lucy. “You are the most selfish heads I ever saw. I
will go to the cow and see if she can help me,” she said.
“Where can I find a bed?” she asked the cow. “These heads have
just tired me out.”
“I will get you one,” said the cow. “Moo, moo!” she called up and
from the floor came a bed.
Lucy lay down upon it. “I do not want to go to sleep,” said the head
with dark hair. “I do,” said Lucy. “I am tired and I am going to sleep;
you can stay awake if you wish to.”
“I do not feel tired,” said the head with red hair; “I feel like singing,”
and it began to sing so loudly that Lucy had to get up.
“I’ll go to the owl and see if he can help me,” she said, as she went
out of the room.
She went into the room where the owl was and opened the
window. The owl hid its three heads.
“You are such a wise bird,” she said to the owl, “I wish you would
tell me what to do with these new heads; they quarrel all the time.”
“Who-who!” said the owl.
“I cannot understand how any one could ever think you were
wise,” said Lucy; “all you can say is who-who. I wish I could be rid of
these troublesome heads.”
“Why don’t you, then?” said the head with red hair. “We come off if
you pull hard.”
“I never thought of that,” said Lucy, pulling at the head with red
hair.
Off it came and flew through the window.
Then she tried the other and it came off and followed the other
through the window.
“Would you like to be rid of your extra heads?” Lucy asked the owl.
“Who-who,” answered the owl.
“You silly bird!” said Lucy, pulling at his extra heads. Off they came
and followed Lucy’s heads.
“Let’s go to the cow,” said Lucy, “and take off her heads.”
The owl tried to follow her, but bumped against the wall and fell to
the floor.
“Oh, I forgot that you could not see in the daytime,” said Lucy. “I’ll
put you on my shoulder,” she said, picking him up from the floor.
“Would you like to get rid of your extra heads?” Lucy asked the
cow.
“Of course I would,” she said. “How did you get rid of yours?”
“I will show you,” said Lucy, pulling at the cow’s extra heads. Off
they came and out the window they flew.
“Well, I never should have thought of that,” said the cow.
“Let us go to the cat and the dog and the horse,” said Lucy, “and
help them to get rid of their troubles.”
Each of them said they had never thought to try pulling the extra
heads off, and they were very grateful to Lucy for helping them.
The heads all flew out of the window and that was the last that
was ever seen of them.
“I think we should get out of this place as soon as we can,” said
Lucy. “Old Three Heads might get us again.”
They hurried out of the house and soon were in the woods a long
way from the castle.
“Did Old Three Heads get you?” asked the animals they met in the
woods.
Lucy told them he did. “But he will not bother you,” she said, “if you
keep away from his house, and I warn you that three heads are a
nuisance, and you may not be so fortunate as we have been in
escaping from them.”
“Did you have to feed them all?” asked a squirrel.
“Yes,” answered Lucy, “or at least I tried to, but they quarreled so
that I had to go without.”
“I will never go near Old Three Heads,” said the squirrel. “I have all
I can do to take care of one head.”
“I have had my lesson,” said Lucy. “I shall never look into rooms
again when the door is closed, for one head is all I care to have.”
THE ENCHANTED BOAT
nce there was a King who had a very beautiful daughter, and
O when the Queen died the King married a woman who had a son
named Tito because he thought this new Queen would be kind
and good to the Princess.
But in this the King was greatly mistaken, for the Queen thought
only of her son and wished to make him King.
She told the King that if he would make the Princess marry Tito
that he need have no fear about the future of his kingdom, for he
could be sure her son would make a good king.
“And a woman should not be Queen and rule alone such a big
kingdom as you possess,” said the scheming Queen.
The King, who thought more of his daughter’s happiness than
anything in the world, called the Princess and told her of his plan.
“Marry your stepmother’s son and all will be well with you and I can
die happy,” he told the Princess.
But the Princess did not want to marry Tito, for she did not love
him, and when she found that her father would not listen to her
pleadings, but told her that very night she should wed Tito, the little
Princess ran out of the palace and threw herself face down on the
grass and wept.
When it came time for the wedding she was nowhere to be found,
and though the palace and the gardens were searched, it was all in
vain. The Princess had disappeared.
What had happened was that while the Princess was crying and
bemoaning her sad lot she heard a sound, and when she looked up
there was a lake she had never seen at the foot of the garden, and
on it a beautiful boat with a sail of silk the color of gold.
There was no one in the boat, and the Princess, forgetting her
sorrow in her wonderment at this strange sight, ran down to the
water’s edge, where another surprise awaited her. For the boat
came sailing straight to the place where she stood.
The Princess stepped in, and away went the boat out over the
blue water, and in a few minutes she was in a country she had never
seen before.
The little Princess was not frightened, for she felt sure nothing
worse could befall her than if she stayed at the palace and had to
marry Tito, and, while she was sorry to leave her father, she could
not be happy with a man she did not love.
The lake led to a river, along the banks of which were high hills
and beautiful woods, and the Princess was so lost in admiring the
beauty of the scene she did not notice they were approaching a
castle until her boat sailed under a white marble bridge, which soon
brought her at the steps which led into the garden of the castle.
Here the strange boat stopped and the Princess knew she was
expected to get out.
She walked up the steps into a garden filled with pink and white
roses, with a fountain of pearl and gold in the center which threw a
perfumed spray all about, which filled the air with fragrance.
There were no paths in the garden, but the grass was like green
velvet and yellow birds flittered among the small green trees and
sang sweet songs.
Through the roses and trees the Princess saw the entrance to the
castle, and on the broad steps of marble and gold came a queer-
looking creature followed by more servants than the Princess had
ever seen in her father’s palace.
The Princess did not feel at all afraid, although the strange-looking
creature had the body of a beautiful leopard, while his head was that
of the handsomest youth the Princess had ever beheld.
His hair was dark and as he came nearer to her the Princess saw
that his eyes were deep blue, the kindest eyes she had ever seen.
He held out one huge paw toward her and then withdrew it and
said, “I fear you will not care to take the paw of such a beast as I am,
but I can assure you I will not harm you, Princess.”
“I am not afraid,” said the Princess, putting out her hand, “but tell
me how you know that I am a princess?”
After the leopard-man had taken her hand he led her up the steps,
and as they walked along he told her that no one but a princess
could have entered the boat. “It had sailed for many a year in quest
of the princess who would be willing to sail away in it,” he told her,
“and as only a princess can help me, no one but a princess could get
into the enchanted boat.”
When the Princess and the leopard-man entered the castle he told
her his strange story. He was a prince who had been changed by a
witch into the shape she saw, and the only thing that could save him
was a gold root which grew far up on a blue mountain-peak.
“But that root must be brought to me by a princess and no one
else,” said the leopard-man, “so you see how impossible it is that I
shall ever regain my own shape.”
“If you will tell me where this blue mountain-peak can be found,”
said the Princess, “I will undertake the task, for I do not wish to
return to my father’s palace, and I would like to help you.”
“The enchanted boat will take you if you really wish to try,” said the
leopard-man, “but I fear it is a task you are far from fitted to
undertake, for no one can go with you; that would break the spell.”
The Princess, however, told him she would try, and at once set out
on the strange errand, the boat sailing along the river and then out
into the open sea.
By and by the Princess saw on the side of a high mountain, the
top of which was blue, something growing which shone like gold, and
she knew it must be the golden root for which she was seeking.
The enchanted boat sailed close to the foot of the mountain and
stopped, and the Princess knew she was to get out, but how was
she to reach the golden root which grew far up on the mountain?
The Princess stepped out of the boat on the rocks and sat down to
think what she could do, for to climb up the steep, smooth side of the
mountain was out of the question; if only she could fly she thought
she might reach it.
Just then she heard a swishing sound, and, looking up, she saw a
big eagle coming toward her with a broken leg.
The bird fell at her feet, and, as so many strange things had
already happened, the Princess did not feel afraid of the big
creature, for she felt sure that in some way he would help her.
“Oh, you poor hurt bird!” she said, tearing off a piece of her dress
to bind up its leg; then from a stream falling from the mountain she
brought in the hollow of her hand water for him to drink.
At night the Princess took off her cloak and covered the eagle,
while she huddled close to the mountain and behind a rock to keep
the cold from herself.
In the morning she was surprised to find the eagle had flown away,
but on the rocks was her cloak, and two feathers from the wings of
the bird lay beside it.
The Princess put on her cloak and took up one of the feathers,
and to her surprise the hand that held the feather flew up over her
head.
She picked up the other feather with the other hand and up she
was carried, her cloak spreading out like a pair of wings.
With the feathers she guided herself until she alighted on the top
of the blue-peaked mountain.
She laid the feathers down and began to dig for the root which the
Prince had said was the only thing that could save him.
When she had enough of the golden root she again took the
feathers, one in each hand, and flew down to the water, where the
enchanted boat, which had sailed away when she left it, now stood
waiting.
The feathers from the eagle she put carefully on the rocks, but the
bird was nowhere to be seen, and, knowing that it must have been a
part of the magic plan to help her, the Princess sailed away, feeling
sure the eagle was safe and his broken leg quite well.
When she reached the castle of the leopard-man he was on the
steps to meet her and without waiting to enter the castle he took the
golden root from her and tasted it.
The leopard body disappeared and there he stood before her, a
tall, handsome youth whom any maiden, even a princess, would fall
in love with.
The Princess told him her story and the Prince told her they would
go at once to her father and he would ask for her hand, for he had
already asked for her heart and found that it was his.
The enchanted boat took them back to the garden of the King,
where they found that the Queen, when she knew that her son had
lost the chance of becoming King when the Princess disappeared,
had put the King in a dungeon under the palace and she and her son
had become the rulers of the kingdom.
The Prince quickly undid all this mischief by setting the King free,
and when he found out how treacherous his Queen really was he
sent her, with her son, away from the palace and told them never to
return or they would both be put in prison.
He was a kind-hearted King and gave them gold to care for them
the rest of their days, and it did not take them long to leave the

Full Download (eBook PDF) Statistics Unplugged 4th Edition by Sally Caldwell PDF DOCX
100% (8)
Full Download (eBook PDF) Statistics Unplugged 4th Edition by Sally Caldwell PDF DOCX
37 pages
Download full (eBook PDF) Statistics Unplugged 4th Edition by Sally Caldwell ebook all chapters
100% (1)
Download full (eBook PDF) Statistics Unplugged 4th Edition by Sally Caldwell ebook all chapters
55 pages
Download Full Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter PDF All Chapters
100% (3)
Download Full Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter PDF All Chapters
51 pages
Instant Download Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J. Gravetter PDF All Chapters
100% (1)
Instant Download Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J. Gravetter PDF All Chapters
62 pages
Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach Eighth Edition David H. Barlow Download PDF
100% (5)
Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach Eighth Edition David H. Barlow Download PDF
52 pages
Marriages and Families Intimacy, Diversity, and Strengths 9th Edition Textbook
100% (1)
Marriages and Families Intimacy, Diversity, and Strengths 9th Edition Textbook
49 pages
To Practical Applications (Amy Batchelor)
No ratings yet
To Practical Applications (Amy Batchelor)
206 pages
Unit Normal Table
No ratings yet
Unit Normal Table
4 pages
Bracketing in Qualitative Research
No ratings yet
Bracketing in Qualitative Research
17 pages
Case Study 2
100% (1)
Case Study 2
2 pages
Audelis Cruz Convicted
No ratings yet
Audelis Cruz Convicted
1 page
Role of Statistics in Psychology
No ratings yet
Role of Statistics in Psychology
4 pages
Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis
No ratings yet
Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis
70 pages
Hypothesis Testing Z 2
No ratings yet
Hypothesis Testing Z 2
5 pages
Get Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health 10th Edition Linda Brannon free all chapters
100% (3)
Get Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health 10th Edition Linda Brannon free all chapters
41 pages
Untitled
No ratings yet
Untitled
590 pages
240E3A - Statistics For Behavioral Science
No ratings yet
240E3A - Statistics For Behavioral Science
3 pages
2015 SPSS Exercise
No ratings yet
2015 SPSS Exercise
69 pages
Key Concepts, Issues and Debates in CP - 2023 PSYC766
No ratings yet
Key Concepts, Issues and Debates in CP - 2023 PSYC766
89 pages
Abnormal Psychology: Session 3: Diagnosis of Mental Disorders
No ratings yet
Abnormal Psychology: Session 3: Diagnosis of Mental Disorders
38 pages
Partial Correlation
No ratings yet
Partial Correlation
2 pages
Clinical Assessment, Diagnosis, and Research Methods
No ratings yet
Clinical Assessment, Diagnosis, and Research Methods
53 pages
Spss Tutorial
100% (2)
Spss Tutorial
95 pages
PSYCH STATS OLD EXAMS, Provided For Self-Learning
No ratings yet
PSYCH STATS OLD EXAMS, Provided For Self-Learning
24 pages
Health Psychology
No ratings yet
Health Psychology
58 pages
Free Access to Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach 8th Edition Barlow Test Bank Chapter Answers
100% (11)
Free Access to Abnormal Psychology An Integrative Approach 8th Edition Barlow Test Bank Chapter Answers
70 pages
802
No ratings yet
802
51 pages
(eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition download
No ratings yet
(eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition download
50 pages
Download Complete Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF (eTextbook) PDF for All Chapters
100% (3)
Download Complete Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF (eTextbook) PDF for All Chapters
65 pages
(eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Editioninstant download
100% (4)
(eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Editioninstant download
53 pages
Where can buy (eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition ebook with cheap price
100% (2)
Where can buy (eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition ebook with cheap price
41 pages
802
No ratings yet
802
55 pages
1485(eBook PDF) Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition pdf download
100% (2)
1485(eBook PDF) Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition pdf download
54 pages
Full Download (eBook PDF) Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF DOCX
100% (1)
Full Download (eBook PDF) Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF DOCX
45 pages
(eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition download
100% (2)
(eBook PDF) Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition download
48 pages
Where can buy Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition Edition Gravetter - eBook PDF ebook with cheap price
100% (5)
Where can buy Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition Edition Gravetter - eBook PDF ebook with cheap price
41 pages
Full Download Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition Edition Gravetter PDF DOCX
100% (4)
Full Download Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition Edition Gravetter PDF DOCX
76 pages
Download Complete Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition Edition Gravetter PDF for All Chapters
100% (2)
Download Complete Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition Edition Gravetter PDF for All Chapters
41 pages
Download ebooks file Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J. Gravetter all chapters
100% (1)
Download ebooks file Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J. Gravetter all chapters
65 pages
Full download Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter pdf docx
No ratings yet
Full download Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter pdf docx
65 pages
Full download Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J. Gravetter pdf docx
100% (1)
Full download Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J. Gravetter pdf docx
65 pages
Instant ebooks textbook Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter download all chapters
100% (1)
Instant ebooks textbook Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter download all chapters
55 pages
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter - eBook PDFpdf download
100% (3)
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter - eBook PDFpdf download
44 pages
Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences - The latest ebook version is now available for instant access
100% (1)
Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences - The latest ebook version is now available for instant access
56 pages
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter - Instantly access the complete ebook with just one click
100% (1)
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter - Instantly access the complete ebook with just one click
56 pages
(eBook PDF) Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition instant download
100% (4)
(eBook PDF) Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition instant download
59 pages
Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences instant download
100% (1)
Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences instant download
36 pages
Essentials of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (Ebook PDF) 2024 Scribd Download
100% (2)
Essentials of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (Ebook PDF) 2024 Scribd Download
41 pages
[FREE PDF sample] Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter ebooks
100% (1)
[FREE PDF sample] Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter ebooks
62 pages
Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition, (Ebook PDF) instant download
100% (1)
Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition, (Ebook PDF) instant download
62 pages
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter pdf download
100% (1)
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter pdf download
49 pages
Download ebooks file Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter - eBook PDF all chapters
100% (5)
Download ebooks file Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition Frederick J. Gravetter - eBook PDF all chapters
51 pages
Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition, (Ebook PDF) pdf download
100% (36)
Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition, (Ebook PDF) pdf download
56 pages
Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter instant download
100% (1)
Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter instant download
58 pages
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (eBook PDF) pdf download
100% (2)
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (eBook PDF) pdf download
52 pages
Immediate download (eBook PDF) Statistics Unplugged 4th Edition by Sally Caldwell ebooks 2024
100% (2)
Immediate download (eBook PDF) Statistics Unplugged 4th Edition by Sally Caldwell ebooks 2024
40 pages
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (eBook PDF) - Download the ebook today and experience the full content
100% (2)
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (eBook PDF) - Download the ebook today and experience the full content
50 pages
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (eBook PDF) instant download
100% (1)
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition (eBook PDF) instant download
54 pages
Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter pdf download
100% (1)
Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter pdf download
60 pages
(FREE PDF Sample) (Ebook PDF) Essentials of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition Ebooks
100% (5)
(FREE PDF Sample) (Ebook PDF) Essentials of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition Ebooks
41 pages
Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences download pdf
100% (7)
Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences download pdf
55 pages
Instant ebooks textbook Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences download all chapters
100% (3)
Instant ebooks textbook Using Basic Statistics in the Behavioral and Social Sciences download all chapters
41 pages
Rizal
100% (2)
Rizal
19 pages
Mathematics & Statistic QAT Question Bank
No ratings yet
Mathematics & Statistic QAT Question Bank
30 pages
Usefull Calculation Hvac
No ratings yet
Usefull Calculation Hvac
7 pages
Adolescent
No ratings yet
Adolescent
12 pages
DSR g5 Aug25
No ratings yet
DSR g5 Aug25
144 pages
Analysis of Consumer Purchase Decisions Reviewed From Marketing Mix at PT Saudaratama Agra Perkasa Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia
No ratings yet
Analysis of Consumer Purchase Decisions Reviewed From Marketing Mix at PT Saudaratama Agra Perkasa Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia
9 pages
Discourse Notes
No ratings yet
Discourse Notes
56 pages
GenBio 2 Reviewer 4th MT
No ratings yet
GenBio 2 Reviewer 4th MT
7 pages
Civil Engineering 3 S: Emester
No ratings yet
Civil Engineering 3 S: Emester
79 pages
Architectural Digest Mexico - 02 2019
100% (4)
Architectural Digest Mexico - 02 2019
147 pages
Engstrom
No ratings yet
Engstrom
15 pages
Practice Problem Set 4
No ratings yet
Practice Problem Set 4
8 pages
table for chapter 4
No ratings yet
table for chapter 4
4 pages
Research On Employee Satisfaction
No ratings yet
Research On Employee Satisfaction
61 pages
Behavioral Lab - Assignment 2 - Group 2
No ratings yet
Behavioral Lab - Assignment 2 - Group 2
5 pages
Kelas 8 - When VS While
No ratings yet
Kelas 8 - When VS While
1 page
ways to generate backer list
No ratings yet
ways to generate backer list
2 pages
Syllabus General English For Adults (Elementary 2)
No ratings yet
Syllabus General English For Adults (Elementary 2)
10 pages
Jadwal Pit (Uroginekologi Room)
No ratings yet
Jadwal Pit (Uroginekologi Room)
3 pages
Ravan Krit Uddish Tantra
100% (2)
Ravan Krit Uddish Tantra
340 pages
France 3
No ratings yet
France 3
6 pages
1st Grade
No ratings yet
1st Grade
2 pages
Studio Kosmos BU Letter of Intent Proposal For Graduation Photos and Yearbook 2023 2024
No ratings yet
Studio Kosmos BU Letter of Intent Proposal For Graduation Photos and Yearbook 2023 2024
11 pages
Pest Analysis Safeguard
No ratings yet
Pest Analysis Safeguard
6 pages
Wipro's HR
No ratings yet
Wipro's HR
52 pages
The Niche Notebook 9.0
No ratings yet
The Niche Notebook 9.0
13 pages
Consti Case Digest Article 11, Section 3
No ratings yet
Consti Case Digest Article 11, Section 3
5 pages
Research Proposal
No ratings yet
Research Proposal
17 pages

Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF (Etextbook) All Chapter Instant Download

Uploaded by

Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF (Etextbook) All Chapter Instant Download

Uploaded by

Download More ebooks [PDF]. Format PDF ebook download PDF KINDLE.

Full download ebooks at ebookmass.com

Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences

For dowload this book click BUTTON or LINK below

Download More ebooks from https://ebookmass.com

Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences 10th Edition PDF

Statistics for the behavioral sciences 10th Edition

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 3rd Edition,

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences,

Fundamental statistics for the behavioral sciences, 9th

Research Integrity: Best Practices for the Social and

Statistics: A Tool for Social Research 10th Edition,

CHAPtER 3 Central Tendency 67

z-Scores: Location of Scores

5.4 Using z-Scores to Standardize a Distribution 141

CHAPtER 6 Probability 159

Probability and Samples: The Distribution

CHAPtER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 223

CHAPtER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 267

CHAPtER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 299

CHAPtER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 335

CHAPtER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 365

CHAPtER 13 Repeated-Measures Analysis of Variance 413

Two-Factor Analysis of Variance

CHAPtER 15 Correlation 485

CHAPtER 16 Introduction to Regression 529

The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

CHAPtER 18 The Binomial Test 603

Chapter 5 The section discussion relationships between z, X, μ, and σ has been

■■Matching the Text to Your Syllabus

Frederick J Gravetter is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the

Larry B. WaLLnau is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the State

1.1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

■■Populations and Samples

DEFInItIon A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to

■■Variables and Data

F I G U R E 1.1 THE SAMPLE

■■Parameters and Statistics

DEFInItIon A parameter is a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a population. A

■■Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

Sample Statistics Sample Statistics

■■Statistics in the Context of Research

Step 3 The sample data show a 4-point difference

1.2 Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics

■■Individual Variables: Descriptive Research

■■Relationships Between Variables

■■Statistics for the Correlational Method

(a) (b) 3.8

Student Time Performance

■■Limitations of the Correlational Method

F i g u r E 1. 5 One variable (type of video game)

■■Statistics for Comparing Two (or More) Groups of Scores

■■Experimental and Nonexperimental Methods

■■The Experimental Method

You might also like