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 SIXTEENTH EDITION

Environmental
SCIENCE
A Global Concern

William P. Cunningham
University of Minnesota

Mary Ann Cunningham

Vassar College

Catherine M. O’Reilly
Illinois State University

Katherine E. Winsett
Wake Technical Community College
 Final PDF to printer

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019. Copyright ©2024 by
McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may
be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without
the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic
storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 28 27 26 25 24 23

ISBN 978-1-266-19704-8
MHID 1-266-19704-4

Cover Image: Rich Carey/Shutterstock

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The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does
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 About the Authors

Source: Glow Images/SuperStock

Mary Ann ecology. She is inspired to create opportunities for students to

Cunningham experience science by doing it, through working in the field, the
laboratory, or looking at data to explore environmental concepts.
Mary Ann Cunningham is a Both her courses and her research highlight how human activities
professor of geography and interact with earth processes.
environmental studies at Vas- Her research focuses on impacts of human activities on lakes
sar College. A biogeographer and rivers, focusing on the effects of climate change and land-use
with interests in landscape patterns such as agriculture and urbanization. She was a mem-
ecology, geographic infor- ber of the 2007 IPCC, which shared the Nobel Peace Prize with
mation systems (GIS), and Al Gore.
climate impacts on biodiver-
sity and food production, she
teaches environmental sci-
Katherine E. Winsett
ence, natural resource con- Katherine Winsett is an assis-
servation, and GIS. Climate tant professor of biology at
© Tom Finkle change and climate solutions Wake Technical Community
are central aspects of her College in Raleigh, NC. She
teaching and research, and her courses focus on field methods, has taught courses in general
statistics, and data visualization. Every aspect of this book is biology, environmental science,
woven into, and informed by, her courses and her students’ work. and anatomy and physiology
As a scientist and educator, she has done research with students for non-science and science
on a wide variety of environmental topics. As a g­ eographer, she majors. She has worked in
likes to engage students with the ways their ­physical surroundings different institutional settings
and social context shape their world experience. including regional university,
In addition to environmental science, Professor Cunningham’s large research university, and
primary research activities focus on land-cover change, habitat community college and in dif- Sophia Sweeney
fragmentation, and distributions of bird populations. This work ferent classroom settings including large and extremely large (400+)
allows her to conduct field studies in the grasslands of the Great classes in face-to-face, blended, and online formats.
Plains, as well as in the woodlands of the Hudson Valley. Profes- Katherine contributes to projects that develop interactive
sor Cunningham holds a bachelor’s degree from Carleton College, materials for biology and environmental sciences and support
a master’s degree from the higher order thinking about concepts in these subjects. She has
University of Oregon, and a presented and published on effective teaching, student engage-
Ph.D. from the University of ment, and the biodiversity of myxomycetes, which was the basis
Minnesota. for her interest in teaching environmental sciences to undergradu-
ate students.
Catherine M. The thread that ties together Katherine’s diverse teaching
O’Reilly experience is a focus on developing active learning experiences
Catherine O’Reilly is a pro- that require students to think about ideas in different ways, pro-
fessor in the Department of viding opportunities for students to analyze data that describe
Geography, Geology and the our impact on the planet, and facilitating students’ understand-
Environment at Illinois State ing of the scientific foundations for environmental and biological
University. She has taught processes.
courses in natural disasters,
Courtesy William Perry environmental geology, and

iii
 Brief Contents

Source: imageBROKER/Alamy Stock Photo

Introduction 1
13 Restoration Ecology 274
1 Understanding Our Environment 8
14 Geology and Earth Resources 301
2 Principles of Science and Systems 33
15 Climate Systems and Climate
3 Matter, Energy, and Life 48 Change 323

4 Evolution, Biological Communities, 16 Air Pollution 351

   and Species Interactions 71
17 Water Use and Management 378
5 Biomes: Global Patterns of Life 97
18 Water Pollution 402
6 Population Biology 116
19 Conventional Energy 427
7 Human Populations 131
20 Sustainable Energy 450
8 Environmental Health
21 Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste 476
  and Toxicology 152

9 Food and Hunger 177

22 Urbanization and Sustainable Cities 497

10 Farming: Conventional and

23 Ecological Economics 516

  Sustainable Practices 197 24 Environmental Policy, Law,

11 Biodiversity: Preserving Species 226

  and Planning 541

12 Biodiversity: Preserving Landscapes 250

25 What Then Shall We Do? 562

iv
 Contents

Source: imageBROKER/Alamy Stock Photo

Preface  xiv 1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS, FAITH, AND JUSTICE 27

We can extend moral value to people and things 28
Many faiths promote conservation and justice 28
Environmental justice integrates civil rights and environmental
Introduction: Learning to Learn 1 protection 29
Data Analysis Working with Graphs 32
Case Study How Can I Do Well in ­Environmental Science? 2
L.1 HOW CAN I GET AN A IN THIS CLASS? 3
What are good study habits? 3
How can you use this textbook effectively? 4
Will this be on the test? 5
2 Principles of Science and Systems 33
Case Study Snapshot Serengeti 34
L.2 THINKING ABOUT THINKING 5
How do you tell the news from the noise? 5 2.1 WHAT IS SCIENCE? 35
Applying critical thinking 6 Science depends on skepticism and accuracy 35
Deductive and inductive reasoning are both useful 36
Testable hypotheses and theories are essential tools 36

1
Understanding probability helps reduce uncertainty 37
Understanding Our Environment 8 Exploring Science W
 hy Do Scientists Answer Questions with
Case Study Sustainable Development Goals for Kibera 9 a Number? 38
Statistics can indicate the probability that your
1.1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? 10 results were random 39
Environmental science is about understanding where we live 10 Experimental design can reduce bias 39
Major themes in environmental science 11 Models are an important experimental strategy 40
What Do You Think? C  alculating Your Ecological 2.2 SYSTEMS INVOLVE INTERACTIONS 41
Footprint 15 Systems can be described in terms of their
characteristics 41
1.2 WHERE DO OUR IDEAS ABOUT OUR ENVIRONMENT COME Systems may exhibit stability 43
FROM? 16
Current ideas have followed industrialization 16 2.3 SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS AND CONFLICT 43
Stage 1. Resource waste inspired pragmatic, utilitarian Detecting pseudoscience relies on independent, critical
conservation 16 thinking 44
Stage 2. Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired the preservation Uncertainty, proof, and group identity 45
movement 17 Data Analysis 47
Stage 3. Rising pollution levels led to the modern environmental
movement 18
Stage 4. Environmental quality is tied to social progress 18
Youth leadership and people of color are transforming
environmental ideas 19
1.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20
3 Matter, Energy, and Life 48
Case Study D eath by Fertilizer: Hypoxia in the Gulf of
Affluence is a goal and a liability 20
Is sustainable development possible? 22 Mexico 49
The UN has identified 17 Sustainable Development Goals 23 3.1 ELEMENTS OF LIFE 50
The Millennium Development Goals were largely successful 24 Atoms, elements, and compounds 50
Development depends on how wealthy countries Chemical bonds hold molecules together 51
allocate spending 24 Unique properties of water 52
1.4 CORE CONCEPTS IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 25 Ions react and bond to form compounds 52
How do we describe resource use? 25 Organic compounds have a carbon backbone 53
Planetary boundaries define broad limits 26 Cells are the fundamental units of life 54
Indigenous peoples often protect biodiversity 27 Exploring Science Gene Editing 55

v
3.2 ENERGY FOR LIFE 56
Energy varies in intensity 56
Thermodynamics regulates energy transfers 56
5 Biomes: Global Patterns of Life 97
Ecosystems run on energy 57 Case Study S  hifting Biomes, Shifting
Photosynthesis captures energy; respiration releases that energy 58 Ways of Life? 98
3.3 FROM SPECIES TO ECOSYSTEMS 60 5.1 TERRESTRIAL BIOMES 99
Ecosystems include living and nonliving parts 60 Tropical moist forests have rain year-round 100
Food webs link species of different trophic levels 60
Ecological pyramids describe trophic levels 62
Exploring Science H
 ow Do We Describe Climate
Regions? 101
3.4 MATERIAL CYCLES 64 Tropical seasonal forests have yearly dry seasons 102
The hydrologic cycle redistributes water 64 Tropical savannas and grasslands support few trees 102
Carbon cycles through earth, air, water, and life 65 Deserts can be hot or cold, but all are dry 102
Nitrogen occurs in many forms 66 Temperate grasslands have rich soils 103
Phosphorus follows a one-way path 67 Temperate shrublands have summer drought 104
Data Analysis Inspect the Chesapeake’s Report Card 70 Temperate forests can be evergreen or deciduous 104
Boreal forests occur at high latitudes 105
Tundra can freeze in any month 105

4  Evolution, Biological Communities, and Species

Interactions 71
5.2 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS 106
Depth controls light penetration and temperature 107
Coastal zones support rich, diverse communities 108
Case Study S eagrass Meadows, the Planet’s Hidden 5.3 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS 110
Productivity Powerhouse 72 Temperature and light vary with depth in lakes 111
Wetlands are shallow and productive 111
4.1 EVOLUTION PRODUCES SPECIES DIVERSITY 73
Evolution occurs through reproduction, variation, and natural 5.4 HUMAN DISTURBANCE 112
selection 74 Agriculture is responsible for most land conversion 112
All species live within limits 74 Small systems are most at risk 113
An ecological niche is a species’ environment and its ecological Data Analysis Reading Climate Graphs 115
role 75
Resource partitioning can reduce competition 77
Speciation, the process of creating new species, maintains

6
natural diversity 78
Evolutionary change is typically slow 79 Population Biology 116
Taxonomy describes relationships among species 79
4.2 SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS 80 Case Study Flying Fish 117
Predator-prey dynamics assert selective pressure 80 6.1 DYNAMICS OF POPULATION GROWTH 118
Competition occurs between and within species 82 We can describe growth symbolically 118
Symbiosis involves long-term interaction between species 83 Exponential growth involves continuous change 119
Exploring Science S
 ay Hello to Your 90 Trillion Little Doubling times and the rule of 70 119
Exponential growth leads to crashes 119
Friends 85
Logistic growth slows with population increase 119
Keystone species have disproportionate influence 86
These values help predict sustainable yield 120
4.3 COMMUNITY PROPERTIES AFFECT SPECIES, POPULATIONS, AND Species respond to limits differently:
PRODUCTIVITY 87 r- and K-selected species 121
Community dynamics involves diversity, abundance, and What Do You Think? Too Many Deer? 122
distribution of species 87
Complexity and connectedness are important ecological 6.2 FACTORS THAT REGULATE POPULATION GROWTH 123
indicators 88 Survivorship curves show life histories 123
Biological communities vary in productivity 89 Intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect births and deaths 123
Interspecific interactions are between species; intraspecific
What Can You Do? W  orking Locally for Ecological interactions are within a species 124
Diversity 90 Stress and crowding can affect reproduction 125
4.4 SYSTEM CHANGE AND RESILIENCE 90 Density-dependent effects can be dramatic 125
Ecological succession involves changes in community Exploring Science H  ow Do You Measure
composition 90 Populations? 126
Biological communities may be adapted to disturbance 91
The adaptive cycle explains a system’s response to 6.3 POPULATION SIZE AND CONSERVATION 126
disturbance 92 Small, isolated populations are vulnerable 126
Systems can shift abruptly 93 Genetic diversity may help a population survive 127
Resilience is the ability of a system to absorb disturbance and Population viability can depend on population size 128
maintain its historic identity 94 Data Analysis E
 xperimenting with Population
Data Analysis SeagrassSpotter 96 Growth 130

vi Contents
7 Human Populations 131
8.3 THE MOVEMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE OF TOXIC
SUBSTANCES 164
Compounds dissolve either in water or in fat 165
Case Study China Is Aging 132 Children have higher sensitivity 166
7.1 PERSPECTIVES ON POPULATION 133 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification
How many of us are there? 133 increase concentrations of chemicals 166
Human populations grew slowly until relatively Persistence makes some materials a greater threat 167
recently 134 POPs are an especially serious problem 167
Do large families cause poverty, or does poverty cause Synergistic interactions can increase toxicity 168
large families? 135 Our bodies degrade and excrete toxic substances 168
Different theories imply different solutions 136
8.4 ASSESSING TOXICITY AND RISK 169
Technology can change carrying capacity 136
We usually test toxic effects on lab animals 169
Environmental Impact (I) = PAT 136
Toxicity varies widely 170
Population growth can power innovation 137
Acute and chronic doses and effects differ 171
7.2 WAYS WE DESCRIBE GROWTH 137 Detectable levels aren’t always dangerous 171
We describe growth rates in several ways 137 Risk perception isn’t always rational 171
Fertility rate is the number of children per woman 138 How much risk is acceptable? 172
Fertility rates are falling globally 139 Circumstances influence our response to risk 172
7.3 WHAT FACTORS AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH? 140 Setting health policies is complex 173
Development promotes a demographic transition 140 Data Analysis Comparing Health Risks 176
Long life expectancy increases populations 141
Age distributions determine future growth 142
Pronatalist factors encourage fertility 142
Girls’ education and child health affect fertility rates 144
Major events influence birth rates 144
9 Food and Hunger 177
Family planning gives us choices 145 Case Study Food Security in the Sahel 178
Could we have a birth dearth? 145
9.1 WORLD FOOD AND NUTRITION 179
What Do You Think? China’s One-Child Policy 146 Millions of people are still chronically hungry 180
7.4 WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF GROWTH? 147 Famines usually have political and social causes 181
Development is seen as the main path to slower growth 147 Ending hunger requires nutritious foods 181
Migration is a growing concern 147 Macronutrients fuel the body 182
The demographic trap and lifeboat ethics describe Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals 183
challenges of poverty 148 Food insecurity is widespread and persistent 183
Social justice is an important consideration 148 Global factors can cause price spikes 183
Our choices now determine our future 149 9.2 KEY FOOD SOURCES 184
Data Analysis Population Change over Time 151 Rising meat production has costs and benefits 185
What Do You Think? Diet for a Small Planet? 186
Seafood is our only commercial wild-caught protein source 186
Most commercial fishing operates on an industrial scale 187

8  Environmental Health and Toxicology 152

Aquaculture produces over half our seafood 188
Antibiotics are overused in intensive production 189
Food systems are vulnerable to climate change 189
Case Study PFAS: Miracle or Menace? 153
9.3 THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND GENETIC ENGINEERING 190
8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 154 Green revolution crops are high responders 191
What is health? 154 Genetic engineering moves DNA among species 191
The global disease burden is changing 154 Most GMOs have been engineered for pest resistance or
Chronic conditions now outweigh infectious diseases 155 herbicide tolerance 192
Major causes of death have also changed 155 Safety of GMOs is widely debated 193
Infectious diseases still kill millions of people 156
Emergent diseases often come from wildlife contact 156 9.4 FOOD PRODUCTION POLICIES 193
Novel diseases also threaten wild species 158 Is genetic engineering about food production? 194
Amphibians are especially vulnerable 158 Farm policies can also protect the land 195
Multiple stressors aid novel parasites 158 Data Analysis Exploring Global Food Data 196
What Do You Think? High temperatures and heat stress:

10 
How does global warming affect our health? 159
Overuse of antibiotics breeds super bugs 160 Farming: Conventional and Sustainable
What would better health cost? 160
Practices 197
8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 161
How do toxic substances affect us? 162 Case Study Farming the Cerrado 198
What Can You Do? Tips for Staying Healthy 163 10.1 WHAT IS SOIL? 199
How does diet influence health? 164 Soils are complex ecosystems 199

Contents vii
 Healthy soil fauna can determine soil fertility 200 Overharvesting is often illegal and involves endangered species 240
Your food comes mostly from the A horizon 201 Island ecosystems are especially vulnerable to invasive species 240
10.2 HOW DO WE USE, ABUSE, AND CONSERVE SOILS? 202 11.3 ENDANGERED S PECIES PROTECTION 241
Arable land is unevenly distributed 203 Hunting and fishing laws were the first biodiversity protections 241
Soil losses threaten farm productivity 203 The Endangered Species Act is a powerful tool for biodiversity
Wind and water cause widespread erosion 204 protection 241
Desertification affects arid-land soils 206 Recovery plans rebuild populations of endangered species 242
Irrigation is needed but can be inefficient 206 Private land is vital for species protection 243
Plants need nutrients, but not too much 206 Endangered species protection is controversial 244
Conventional farming uses abundant fossil fuels 207
11.4 REBUILDING BIODIVERSITY 245
Contours and ground cover reduce runoff 207
We can protect biodiversity locally 245
Erosion control measures protect, or even build, soils 208
What Can You Do? You Can Help Preserve Biodiversity 246
Exploring Science Ancient Terra Preta Shows How to Gap analysis promotes regional planning 246
Build Soils 209 International treaties try to control trade in species 246
Carbon farming could be a key climate action 209 Zoos can help preserve wildlife 247
10.3 PESTS AND PESTICIDES 210 Data Analysis Exploring Local Biodiversity 249
Modern pesticides provide benefits but also
create health risks 211
Organophosphates and chlorinated hydrocarbons are
dominant pesticides 212
What Do You Think? Shade-Grown Coffee and Cocoa 212
Pesticides have profound environmental effects 215
12 Biodiversity: Preserving Landscapes 250
Case Study Ecosystems in Transition 251
POPs accumulate in remote places 216
Pesticides often impair human health 217 12.1 WORLD FORESTS 252
Boreal and tropical forests are most abundant 252
10.4 ORGANIC AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 217 Forests provide valuable products 254
Can sustainable practices feed the world’s growing Tropical forests are especially threatened 255
population? 218 Local and global demand drive deforestation 256
What does “organic” mean? 218 Indigenous groups often lead forest protection efforts 257
Strategic management can reduce pests 219
Exploring Science Palm Oil and Endangered Species 258
What Can You Do? Controlling Pests 219 Debt-for-nature swaps and REDD use finance for protection 259
Useful organisms can help us control pests 220 Logging threatens temperate forests 259
IPM uses a combination of techniques 221 Global warming and fire are growing threats 260
Low-input agriculture aids farmers and their land 221
Consumers’ choices play an important role 222 What Can You Do? Lowering Your Forest Impacts 260
What Do You Think? Community Farming 223 12.2 GRASSLANDS 261
Grazing can be sustainable or damaging 262
Data Analysis Graphing Changes in Pesticide Use 225 Overgrazing threatens U.S. rangelands 262
Ranchers are experimenting with new methods 263

11
12.3 PARKS AND PRESERVES 264
Biodiversity: Preserving Species 226 Some of the most important natural areas may be in your
neighborhood 264
Case Study How Wolves Can Change Rivers 227 Levels of protection vary in world preserves 264
“Paper parks” are not really protected 266
11.1 BIODIVERSITY AND THE SPECIES CONCEPT 228 Marine ecosystems need greater protection 267
What is biodiversity? 228 Conservation and economic development can work
Species are defined in different ways 228 together 268
Molecular techniques are rewriting taxonomy 229 Many preserves support traditional resource uses 268
How many species are there? 229
Hot spots have exceptional biodiversity but are threatened 230 What Can You Do? Being a Responsible Ecotourist 269
We benefit from biodiversity in many ways 231 What Do You Think? Monuments Under Attack 270
Biodiversity provides ecological services and aesthetic Species survival can depend on preserve size 271
and cultural benefits 232
Data Analysis Global Forest Watch 273
11.2 WHAT THREATENS BIODIVERSITY? 233
Mass extinctions appear in the fossil record 233
Are we entering a sixth extinction? 234

13
Habitat destruction is the principal HIPPO factor 234
Invasive species displace resident species 235 Restoration Ecology 274
Pollution and population are direct human impacts 236
Climate change transforms ecosystems 237 Case Study Restoring Coral Reefs 275
Overharvesting results when there is a market for wild species 238
13.1 HELPING NATURE HEAL 276
Exploring Science Where Are All the Insects? 239 Restoration projects range from modest to ambitious 277

viii Contents
 Restore to what? 277 Landslides and mass wasting can bury villages 319
All restoration projects involve some Floods are the greatest geological hazard 319
common components 278 Beaches erode easily, especially in storms 320
Origins of restoration 279
Data Analysis Mapping Geological Hazards 322
Sometimes we can simply let nature heal itself 280
Native species often need help to become reestablished 281

15
13.2 RESTORATION IS GOOD FOR HUMAN ECONOMIES AND
CULTURES 282 Climate Systems and Climate Change 323
Tree planting can improve our quality of life 283
Fire is often an important restoration tool 283 Case Study C  limate Action in California: No Longer Just
Talking About the Weather 324
What Can You Do? E  cological Restoration in Your Own
Neighborhood 284 15.1 WHAT IS THE ATMOSPHERE? 325
The land surface absorbs solar energy to warm our world 327
13.3 RESTORING PRAIRIES 286 Greenhouse gases capture energy selectively 328
Fire is also crucial for prairie restoration 286 Atmospheric circulation redistributes energy 328
Huge areas of shortgrass prairie are being preserved 287
15.2 REGIONAL PATTERNS OF WEATHER 329
Exploring Science The Monarch Highway 288 The Coriolis effect explains why winds seem to curve on
Bison help maintain prairies 290 a weather map 329
13.4 RESTORING WETLANDS AND STREAMS 291 Jet streams deflect weather systems 330
Restoring flow helps rivers heal 291 Ocean currents redistribute heat 331
Replumbing the Everglades is one of the costliest restoration Seasonal rain supports billions of people 332
efforts ever 292 Frontal systems occur where warm and cold air meet 332
Wetland mitigation is challenging 294 Cyclonic storms can cause extensive damage 333
Wetland and stream restoration provide multiple benefits 294 15.3 NATURAL CLIMATE VARIABILITY 334
13.5 HOW EFFECTIVE IS RESTORATION? 297 Ice cores tell us about climate history 334
Severely degraded or polluted sites can be repaired or El Niño is an ocean–atmosphere cycle 335
reconstructed 297 15.4 A NTHROPOGENIC C LIMATE C HANGE 337
Restoring function is more challenging 298 The IPCC assesses climate data for policymakers 337
Data Analysis Concept Maps 300 Major greenhouse gases include CO2, CH4, and N2O 338
Exploring Science Black Carbon 339
Melting ice accelerates change 340

14
How do we know that recent change is caused by humans? 341
Geology and Earth Resources 301 15.5 WHAT EFFECTS ARE WE SEEING? 341
Warming affects crops, health, and ecosystems 342
Case Study Salmon or Copper? 302 Climate change costs far more than prevention 343
14.1 EARTH PROCESSES AND MINERALS 303 Rising sea levels will flood many cities 344
Earth is a dynamic planet 303 Why do we still debate climate evidence? 344
Tectonic processes move continents 304 15.6 CLIMATE ACTION 345
Rocks are composed of minerals 305 The Paris Climate Agreement establishes new goals 345
Rocks and minerals are recycled constantly 306 Drawdown strategies abound 345
Weathering breaks down rocks 307
What Do You Think? Unburnable Carbon 346
14.2 EARTH RESOURCES 307 Carbon capture is needed 347
Metals are especially valuable resources 308 Economic solutions make progress possible 347
Fossil fuels originated as peat and plankton 308 Wind, water, and solar could meet all our needs 348
Exploring Science Rare Earth Minerals 309 What Can You Do? Climate Action 348
Conserving resources saves energy and materials 310 Adaptation is necessary 348
Resource substitution reduces demand 311
Data Analysis The U.S. National Climate Assessment 350
14.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF RESOURCE EXTRACTION 311
Different mining techniques pose different risks to
water and air 312
Ore processing emits acids and metals 312
High-value minerals can support corruption 313
16 Air Pollution 351
Case Study Beijing Looks for Answers to Air Pollution 352
14.4 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 314
16.1 MAJOR POLLUTANTS IN OUR AIR 353
What Do You Think? Should We Revise Mining Laws? 315 The Clean Air Act designates standard limits 354
Earthquakes usually occur on plate margins 316 Conventional pollutants are most abundant 354
Human-induced earthquakes are becoming more common 317 Mercury, from coal, is particularly dangerous 359
Tsunamis can be more damaging than the earthquakes
that trigger them 317 What Do You Think? P
 olitics, Public Health, and the
Volcanoes eject gas and ash, as well as lava 318 Minamata Convention 360

Contents ix
 Carbon dioxide, methane, and halogens are key greenhouse What Can You Do? S
 aving Water and Preventing
gases 361 Pollution 398
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) can cause cancer and nerve Recycling can reduce consumption 398
damage 362 Prices and policies have often discouraged conservation 399
Indoor air can be worse than outdoor air 362
Data Analysis Graphing Global Water Stress and Scarcity 401
16.2 ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES 363
Temperature inversions trap pollutants 363

18
Wind currents carry pollutants worldwide 364
Exploring Science T
 he Great London Smog and Pollution
Water Pollution 402
Monitoring 365 Case Study India’s Holy River 403
Chlorine destroys ozone in the stratosphere 366
The Montreal Protocol was a resounding success 367 18.1 WATER POLLUTION 404
Water pollution is anything that degrades water quality 404
16.3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 368 Infectious agents, or pathogens, cause diseases 405
How does pollution make us sick? 369 Low oxygen levels indicate nutrient contamination 406
Sulfur and nitrogen emissions produce acid rain 369 Nutrient enrichment leads to cultural eutrophication 407
Acid deposition damages ecosystems and infrastructure 370 Eutrophication can cause toxic tides and “dead zones” 408
16.4 POLLUTION CONTROL 371 Heavy metals cause nerve damage 408
Pollutants can be captured after combustion 371 Acidic runoff can destroy aquatic ecosystems 409
Organic pollutants include drugs, pesticides, and industrial
What Can You Do? R
 educing Pollution and products 409
Saving Energy 371 Oil spills are common and often intentional 410
Clean air legislation is controversial but effective 372 Sediment also degrades water quality 410
Clean air protections help the economy and public health 373 Thermal pollution threatens sensitive organisms 411
In developing areas, rapid growth can outpace pollution
controls 374 18.2 WATER QUALITY TODAY 412
Air quality improves where controls are implemented 375 The Clean Water Act protects our water 412
Nonpoint sources are difficult to control 412
Data Analysis How Is the Air Quality in Your Town? 377 Water pollution is especially serious in developing countries 413
Water treatment improves safety 414
Is bottled water safer? 415

17
Groundwater is hard to monitor and clean 415
Water Use and Management 378 There are few controls on ocean pollution 416
18.3 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 417
Case Study When Will Lake Mead Go Dry? 379 Controlling nonpoint sources requires land management 417
17.1 WATER RESOURCES 380 Combined sewer overflows pollute surface waters 418
The hydrologic cycle constantly redistributes water 380 Human waste disposal occurs naturally when
Water supplies are unevenly distributed 380 concentrations are low 418
Oceans hold 97 percent of all water on earth 382 Septic systems work in low densities 418
Glaciers, ice, and snow contain most surface fresh water 382 Municipal treatment plants remove pathogens 419
Groundwater stores large resources 383 Low-cost systems use natural processes 420
Rivers, lakes, and wetlands cycle quickly 384
Exploring Science Inexpensive Water Purification 421
17.2 WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE 385 Water remediation may involve containment, extraction, or
Many countries suffer water scarcity or water stress 385 phytoremediation 421
The West has always had droughts 386 “Living machines” use plants to capture contaminants 422
Water use is increasing 386
What Can You Do? S  teps You Can Take to Improve
Agriculture dominates water use 387
Industry and households withdraw less but often contaminate Water Quality 423
water 387 18.4 WATER LEGISLATION 423
17.3 FRESHWATER SHORTAGES 388 The Clean Water Act was ambitious, bipartisan, and
Groundwater is an essential but declining resource 389 largely successful 423
Groundwater overdrafts have long-term impacts 390 Clean water reauthorization remains contentious 424
Diversion projects redistribute water 391 A variety of rules protect water quality 425

Exploring Science Measuring Invisible Water 392 Data Analysis Examining Pollution Sources 426
Dams have diverse environmental and social impacts 393
Dams have a limited lifespan 394
Climate change threatens water supplies 395
Water is a growing cause of conflict 395
17.4 WATER CONSERVATION 396
19 Conventional Energy 427
Case Study Oil and Politics 428
Desalination is expensive but needed 396
19.1 ENERGY RESOURCES AND USES 429
Exploring Science How Does Desalination Work? 397 The future of energy is not the past 429
Domestic conservation has important impacts 397 How do we describe energy? 429

x Contents
 Fossil fuels still supply most of the world’s energy 430 20.5 WHAT DOES AN ENERGY TRANSITION LOOK LIKE? 468
How much energy do we use? 430 The grid will need improvement 468
Storage options are changing rapidly 469
19.2 COAL 431
Fuel cells release electricity from chemical bonds 470
Coal resources are greater than we can use 432
Heat pumps provide efficient, electric-powered cooling and
Coal use is declining in the United States and Europe 432
heating 470
Is clean coal technology an option? 434
Wind, water, and solar are good answers 471
19.3 OIL 434 Data Analysis Energy Units 474
Extreme oil has extended our supplies 435
Refineries produce useful products and hazardous pollutants 436

21
Oil is a boom and bust industry 437
Indigenous groups have challenged pipelines 437 Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste 476
What Do You Think? Water Protectors at Standing Rock 438
Case Study Plastic Seas 477
19.4 NATURAL GAS 439
Most of the world’s currently known natural gas is in a few 21.1 WHAT DO WE DO WITH WASTE? 478
countries 439 The waste stream is everything we throw away 479
Fracking has expanded gas supplies 440 Open dumping releases trash into the air and water 479
Getting gas to market is a challenge 441 Landfills receive most U.S. waste 480
We often export waste to countries ill-equipped to handle it 481
What Do You Think? The Fracking Debate 442
Methane hydrates occur in deep ocean sediment 442 What Do You Think? Who Will Take Our Waste? 482
Incineration produces energy from trash 483
19.5 NUCLEAR POWER 443
How do nuclear reactors work? 443
21.2 SHRINKING THE WASTE STREAM 484
Recycling saves raw materials 484
Reactor designs vary in safety 445
Separating recyclables keeps them usable 485
Breeder reactors could extend the life of our nuclear fuel 446
Less than 9 percent of plastics are recycled 485
We lack safe storage for radioactive wastes 446
Plastics bans are increasing 485
Decommissioning nuclear plants is costly 447
Compost and biogas are useful products 486
Opinions about nuclear futures vary 447
Appliances and e-waste must be demanufactured 486
Data Analysis C
 omparing Energy Use and Standards of Reuse is more efficient than recycling 487
Living 449 What Can You Do? Reducing Waste 487
Reducing waste is the best option 488

20
21.3 HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTES 488
Sustainable Energy 450 Hazardous waste laws try to protect the public 489
Superfund sites are listed for federal cleanup 490
Case Study A Renewable Energy Transition 451 Brownfields present both liability and opportunity 491
20.1 ENERGY EFFICIENCY 452 What Can You Do? A
 lternatives to Hazardous
Energy conservation is the first step 452 Household Chemicals 492
Green buildings cut energy costs 453 Hazardous waste can be recycled or contained 492
Transportation could be far more efficient 454 Substances can be converted to safer forms 492
Permanent storage is often needed 493
Exploring Science G
 reening Gotham: Can New York Reach
Its 80 by 50 Goal? 455 Exploring Science P
 hytoremediation: Cleaning Up Toxic
Waste with Plants 494
What Can You Do? Steps You Can Take to Save Energy 457
Data Analysis H
 ow Much Do You Know about
20.2 SOLAR ENERGY 457
Solar thermal systems collect heat 457 Recycling? 496
Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly 459
Solar works at household or community scales 460
20.3 WIND 461
Capacity and efficiency are important questions in power
production 461
22 Urbanization and Sustainable Cities 497
Case Study Cities Show the Way in ­Climate Policy 498
Wind could meet all our energy needs 462
Wind is a source of rural income 462 22.1 URBANIZATION 499
Do turbines kill birds? 463 Cities have specialized functions 499
Large cities are expanding rapidly 500
20.4 HYDROPOWER, BIOMASS, AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 464 Developing areas have urbanized rapidly 501
Most hydroelectricity comes from large dams 464 Push and pull factors motivate people to move to cities 502
Tides and waves contain significant energy 465
Biomass is an ancient and modern energy source 466
22.2 URBAN CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD 503
Pollution and water shortages affect developing cities 503
Methane from biomass can be clean and efficient 466
U.S. policy prioritizes ethanol and biodiesel 467 Exploring Science Sinking Cities Amid Rising Seas 504
High-temperature geothermal produces electricity 468 Many cities lack adequate housing 505

Contents xi
22.3 URBAN CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPED WORLD 506
Urban sprawl consumes land and resources 506
Sprawl gains hidden subsidies from cities 507
24  Environmental Policy, Law, and
Planning 541
Transportation is crucial in city development 508
Public transit can make cities more livable 509 Case Study Turtles Return to Archie Carr 542
22.4 SUSTAINABLE URBANISM AND SMART GROWTH 510 24.1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN POLICY 543
Garden cities and new towns were early examples of smart Basic principles guide environmental policy 543
growth 510 Money influences policy 544
Mixed uses make cities more livable 510 Public awareness and action shape policy 544
Open-space design preserves landscapes 512 Broad participation can defend diverse interests 545
What Do You Think? V  auban: A Car-Free Is top-down or bottom-up policy more effective? 545
Neighborhood 513 24.2 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS 547
NEPA (1969) establishes public oversight 547
Data Analysis Plotting Urban and Economic Indicators 515
The Clean Air Act (1970) regulates air emissions 548
The Clean Water Act (1972) protects surface water 548
The Endangered Species Act (1973) protects both plants

23 Ecological Economics 516

and animals 549
The Superfund Act (1980) lists hazardous sites 550
24.3 HOW ARE POLICIES MADE? 550
Case Study Using Economics to Fight ­Climate Change 517
Congress and legislatures vote on statutes (laws) 551
23.1 PERSPECTIVES ON THE ECONOMY 518 Legislative riders sidestep public debate 551
Can economic development be sustainable? 518 Lobbying influences government 551
Resources can be renewable or nonrenewable 518 Judges decide case law 552
Classical economics examines supply and demand 520 Landmark cases have vast impacts 553
Neoclassical economics emphasizes growth 521 Law suits require legal standing 553
23.2 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS 522 Criminal law prosecutes lawbreakers 554
Ecological economics accounts for the value of Executive agencies make rules and enforce laws 554
ecosystems 522 Regulatory agencies oversee policies 555
Ecosystem services include provisioning, regulating, and Regulatory capture undermines agency work 555
aesthetic values 523 How much government do we want? 556
Exploring Science What’s the Value of Nature? 524 24.4 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 556
Countries are often motivated to participate 557
23.3 POPULATION, SCARCITY, AND TECHNOLOGY 525 The UNFCCC seeks climate progress 558
Are we about to run out of fossil fuels? 525 The Paris Agreement set a 2°C goal 558
Common property resources are a classic problem in Global policies seek to protect biodiversity, air, and water 559
ecological economics 526 Enforcement often depends on national pride 559
Scarcity can lead to innovation 527
Carrying capacity is not necessarily fixed 527 Data Analysis Examine Your Environmental Laws 561
Prior assumptions shape our models of growth 528
23.4 MEASURING GROWTH 529
GNP is our dominant growth measure 529
Alternate measures account for well-being 529
Cost–benefit analysis aims to optimize benefits 530
25 What Then Shall We Do? 562
Case Study The Dawn of a New Era 563
23.5 CAN MARKETS REDUCE POLLUTION? 531
Sulfur dioxide trading offers a good model 532 25.1 MAKING A DIFFERENCE 564
Emissions trading rewards efficiency 532 Environmental literacy has lasting importance 564
Citizen science lets everyone participate 565
Exploring Science Green Jobs Versus Fossil Fuels 533
Are carbon taxes a better answer? 534 Exploring Science Doing Citizen Science with eBird 566
Environmental careers range from engineering to
23.6 GREEN DEVELOPMENT AND BUSINESS 534 education to arts 566
International trade brings benefits but also intensifies Green business and technology are growing fast 567
inequities 535
Microlending helps the poorest of the poor 535 25.2 WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO? 567
Green business involves efficiency and creative solutions 536 All choices are environmental choices 568
Efficiency starts with product design 536 What Can You Do? Reducing Your Impact 568
Green consumerism gives the public a voice 537 Green consumerism encourages corporations to have an
What Can You Do? Personally Responsible Economy 537 environmental conscience 569
Environmental protection creates jobs 537 You are a citizen, as well as a consumer 569
You can learn leadership 570
What Do You Think? C  ould We Have a Green New You can own this class 570
Deal? 538 25.3 HOW CAN WE WORK TOGETHER? 570
Data Analysis Evaluating the Limits to Growth 540 National organizations influence policy 571

xii Contents
 New players bring energy to policy making 572 CHAPTER 4 Seagrass Meadows, the Planet’s Hidden
International NGOs mobilize many people 572 Productivity Powerhouse 72
25.4 CAMPUS GREENING 573 CHAPTER 5 Shifting Biomes, Shifting Ways of Life? 98
Schools provide environmental leadership 573 CHAPTER 6 Flying Fish 117
CHAPTER 7 China Is Aging 132
What Do You Think? Fossil Fuel Divestment 575 CHAPTER 8 PFAS: Miracle or Menace? 153
A green campus is an educational opportunity 575
CHAPTER 9 Food Security in the Sahel 178
25.5 SUSTAINABILITY IS A GLOBAL CHALLENGE 576 CHAPTER 10 Farming the Cerrado 198
Sustainable development means social, environmental, and CHAPTER 11 How Wolves Can Change Rivers 227
economic goals 576 CHAPTER 12 Ecosystems in Transition 251
Data Analysis Campus Environmental Audit 579 CHAPTER 13 Restoring Coral Reefs 275
CHAPTER 14 Salmon or Copper? 302
Glossary  580 CHAPTER 15 Climate Action in California: No Longer Just
Periodic Table of the Elements  590 Talking About the Weather 324
CHAPTER 16 Beijing Looks for Answers to Air
Index  591 Pollution 352
CHAPTER 17 When Will Lake Mead Go Dry? 379
CHAPTER 18 India’s Holy River 403
CHAPTER 19 Oil and Politics 428
List of Case Studies
CHAPTER 20 A Renewable Energy Transition 451
I N T R O D U C T I O N How Can I Do Well in ­Environmental CHAPTER 21 Plastic Seas 477
Science? 2 CHAPTER 22 Cities Show the Way in ­Climate Policy 498
CHAPTER 1 Sustainable Development Goals for Kibera 9 CHAPTER 23 Using Economics to Fight ­Climate
CHAPTER 2 Snapshot Serengeti 34 Change 517
CHAPTER 3 Death by Fertilizer: Hypoxia in the Gulf of CHAPTER 24 Turtles Return to Archie Carr 542
Mexico 49 CHAPTER 25 The Dawn of a New Era 563

About the Cover

A filter-feeding whale shark foraging among plastic debris reminds us that human influences reach to the remotest parts of the globe.
Environmental science provides a deeper understanding of these concerns, from plastic pollution and climate change to declining
­biodiversity. Environmental science helps us perceive the processes involved in these changes and the ways complex environmental
systems, from waste production to ecosystem diversity, interact. These insights are necessary for envisioning strategies to address envi-
ronmental issues.
The good news is that many strategies exist. We have emerging policies to protect marine reserves, to monitor fisheries, and to curb
greenhouse gas emissions. Awareness of ocean plastic pollution and threats to ocean ecosystems is leading to global efforts to reduce pol-
lution and protect biodiversity. Understanding interconnected environmental systems is critical to maintaining the ecosystem services on
which we depend, and to protecting the extraordinary diversity of life that surrounds us.

Contents xiii
 Preface

© Claudiad/Vetta/Getty Images

Environmental Science: economist, a political scientist, a writer, or an artist or poet who

can capture our imagination, you can find fruitful and interest-
A Search for Solutions ing ways to connect with the topics in this book.
Environmental science focuses on understanding challenges that affect
our lives, and on finding solutions to those challenges. Your decision Sustainable development is a central theme
to study environmental science is an important step. This field can Several main themes run through this book. As you will read in
help you find answers to some of the most important problems fac- chapter 1, these include sustainable development (including pop-
ing us today. Environmental ulation growth, food production, environmental quality, energy,
science is an integrative field. and resources), climate change and its impacts, and fundamentals
It draws on diverse knowledge of how scientific methods help us ask and answer questions about
bases and skills to address the world around us.
issues: For example, preserv- These and other themes show both continuing challenges and
ing healthy ecosystems depends evidence of progress. Human population growth continues, for
on strategies such as reduc- example, but it is slowing almost everywhere as women’s edu-
ing greenhouse gas emissions, cation and economic opportunity allow for small, well-­cared-for
developing renewable energy families. We remain addicted to fossil fuels, but new energy
systems, reducing pollution, technologies now provide reliable alternatives in many coun-
improving social and environ- tries. Solar, wind, biomass, geothermal energy, and conservation
mental justice, improving sus- could supply all the energy we need, if we chose to invest in them.
tainable farming systems, and Water quality and air pollution remain dire problems in many
reducing resource consumption. areas, but we have shown that we can dramatically improve water
quality, air quality, and environmental health, when we put our
Finding your place in environmental science minds to it.
Governments around the world are acknowledging the costs
Although the challenges are daunting, this book points out count- of environmental degradation and are taking steps to reduce their
less ways that you can use your interests and ideas to engage with environmental impacts. From China to Europe to North America
environmental science. In the Learning to Learn chapter, we focus and developing countries, policymakers have plans to restore for-
on finding your strengths in studying; in chapter 1, we consider the ests, conserve water, reduce air and water pollution, and develop
diverse array of approaches that contribute to understanding envi- sustainable energy supplies. Public support for environmental pro-
ronmental challenges. Our Restoration Ecology chapter (13) high- tection has been overwhelmingly enthusiastic.
lights some of the many strategies to restore environmental quality. Businesses everywhere increasingly recognize the opportuni-
For major issues such as climate change (chapter 15) or air ties in conservation, recycling, producing non-toxic products, and
and water pollution (chapters 17 and 19), we examine diverse strat- reducing their ecological footprints. New jobs are being created in
egies, from personal to global, to combat environmental degrada- environmental fields. Public opinion supports environmental pro-
tion. Our chapters on conventional and renewable energy (chapters tection because voters see the importance of environmental health
19 and 20)—perhaps the main key to both climate solutions and for the economy, society, and quality of life.
pollution—are the most up-to-date in the field. The policy chapter
(24) includes a focus on campus engagement.
As you will find in the “What Can You Do?” boxes in What Sets This Book Apart?
every chapter, there are countless practical opportunities to pro-
tect and sustain natural resources. As you read this book, look As practicing scientists and educators, we bring to this book
for ways to connect the issues and ideas to your other inter- decades of experience in the classroom, in the practice of science,
ests. Whether you are a biologist, a geologist, a chemist, an and in civic engagement. This experience helps give students a

xiv
clear sense of what environmental science is and why it matters. abundant up-to-date data are some of the resources available to
Throughout the book, we also provide recent data that underly and help students practice their skills with data interpretation.
inform emerging ideas in the field. Exploring Science readings show how science is done, to
As teachers, we have worked with students in large uni- demystify the process of answering questions with scientific and
versities, community colleges, and liberal arts colleges. All the quantitative methods. Throughout the text, we emphasize prin-
material in the chapters has been developed in connection with ciples and methods of science through discussions of scientific
courses the authors have taught, and this experience shapes the methods, uncertainty and probability, and detailed examination
material. We give special attention to questions students have and of how scientists observe the world, gather data, and use data to
to student motivation to find their role in environmental science. answer relevant questions.
Because we have observed that students vary in their aca-
demic backgrounds, we also provide an introductory “Learning to A positive focus on opportunities
Learn” chapter. This chapter focuses on aspects of critical thinking
Our intent is to empower students to make a difference in their
and ways to be purposeful in learning and goals.
communities by becoming informed, critical thinkers with an
awareness of environmental issues and the scientific basis of
Engaged and active learning these issues. Many environmental problems remain severe, but
We’ve given particular attention to learning styles and active there have been many improvements in recent decades, includ-
learning features in this edition, both in the text and in online Con- ing cleaner water and cleaner air for most Americans, declining
nect study materials and supplements. Throughout, the text pro- rates of hunger and fertility, and increasing access to education.
motes active, engaged learning practices. In each section heading,­ An entire chapter (chapter 13) focuses on ecological restoration,
­key concepts identify ideas for students to focus on as they read. one of the most important aspects of ecology today. Case studies
Section reviews encourage students to check their learning at show examples of real progress, and What Can You Do? sections
the end of each main section. These practices of active reading give students ideas for contributing to solutions. Throughout this
have been shown to improve retention of class topics, as well text we balance evidence of serious environmental challenges with
as higher-order thinking about concepts. Key terms at the end ideas about what we can do to overcome them.
of each chapter encourage students to test their understanding.
Critical thinking and discussion questions and Data Analysis A balanced presentation for critical thinking
exercises push students to explore further the concepts in the text. Among the most important practices a student can learn are to
A rich collection of online study resources is available on the think analytically about evidence, to consider uncertainty, and to
Connect website. LearnSmart study resources, practice quizzes, skeptically evaluate the sources of information. This book offers
animations, videos, and other resources improve understanding abundant opportunities to practice the essential skills of critically
and retention of course material. analyzing evidence, of evaluating contradictory interpretation, and
The book also engages course material with students’ own identifying conflicting interests. We ask students to practice criti-
lives: What Can You Do? sections help students identify ways to cal and reflective thinking in What Do You Think? readings, in
apply what they are learning to their own lives and communities. end-of-chapter discussion questions, and throughout the text. We
What Do You Think? readings ask students to critically evaluate present balanced evidence, and we provide the tools for students to
their own assessments of a complex problem. We devote a special discuss and form their own opinions.
introduction (Learning to Learn) to the ways students can build
study habits, take ownership of this course, and practice critical, An integrated, global perspective
analytical, and reflective thinking.
Many of these resources are designed as starting points for lec- Globalization spotlights the interconnectedness of environmen-
tures, discussions in class, essays, lab activities, or projects. Some tal resources and services, as well as our common interest in how
data analysis exercises involve simple polls of classes, which can be to safeguard them. To remain competitive in a global economy,
used for graphing and interpretation. Data analysis exercises vary in it is critical that we understand conditions in other countries and
the kinds of learning and skills involved, and all aim to give students cultures. This book provides case studies and topics from regions
an opportunity to explore data or ideas discussed in the text. around the world, with maps and data illustrating global issues.
These examples show the integration between environmental con-
ditions at home and abroad.
Quantitative reasoning and methods of science
Quantitative reasoning is increasingly recognized as essential in
many aspects of education, and this book has greater coverage What’s New in This Edition?
of this topic, and provides more up-to-date data and graphs, than
other books on the market. Quantitative reasoning questions in This edition has updated discussions of major topics as well as cur-
the text push students to evaluate data and graphs they have read rent data, figures, and tables. We have given special attention to visual
about. Attention to statistics, graphing, graph interpretation, and accessibility and inclusive presentation throughout. The previous

Preface xv
edition had over 28 new opening case studies and “Exploring Sci- Chapter 8 new discussion of climate change-related heat
ence” or “What Do You Think?” readings, and the current builds on stress, an issue of growing concern, as well as public health con-
these new readings with recent developments and recent data. We siderations in a time of COVID-19. We have fully updated data on
have further enhanced our focus on climate action and environmental health and mortality risks, as well as new discussion of disability
engagement, topics that are especially important for students in our life-years (DALYs), an increasingly important measure as global
classes. We have updated “benchmark data” tables, which provide populations live with chronic health conditions. We provide an
reference values reflecting key ideas in chapters. These tables pro- updated discussion of the connection of emergent diseases, such
vide good content for discussion, as well as ideas for review. as COVID-19 to wildlife contact; this includes critical risks to wild-
life, such as amphibians and bats. Discussions of toxicity levels and
impacts are updated, and a new section focuses on risk tolerance, as
Specific chapter updates
well as EPA assessments of environmental health risk factors.
Chapter 1 presents climate change and sustainable development Chapter 9 opens with a case study on low-cost food security
as two themes that run through the book. We have updated the dis- initiatives in Burkina Faso, one of the world’s poorest countries.
cussion of ecological footprints to consider their ambiguous mes- Farmers there are fighting land degradation and hunger using
sages about corporate versus individual responsibility for climate simple, traditional water conservation and farming techniques to
action. Our discussion of environmental ideas, which has always improve food production. We also consider dietary diversity. We
given attention to diverse viewpoints, has added discussion of con- focus on climate impacts on food production and on Diet for a
tributions from youth and people of color. Small Planet, and eating low on the food chain. Updated discus-
Chapter 2 retains a focus on scientific processes, including a sions focus on food insecurity, nutrition, and hunger, with a new
case study on citizen science in wildlife monitoring and a discus- table showing global rates of food insecurity.
sion of statistical evidence. This example illustrates study design, Chapter 10 has an updated opening case study on farming in
as well as questions of significance in data. We have updated the Brazil’s Cerrado, where expanding soy production and reduced
discussion of critical thinking in science to reflect public debates protections for Amazonian rainforest have global climate and bio-
around trust of science, as well as ways students can decide whom diversity impacts. A new section discusses carbon farming, which
to trust, in public policy questions. could contribute to slowing climate change. We also have updated
Chapter 3 opens with a case study on the growing hypoxic the “What do you Think?” box on the environmental benefits of
“dead zone” in the Gulf of Mexico. This case illustrates inter- shade-grown coffee and cocoa. A new “What do you Think?” box
connections in a vast ecological system and shows how chemical examines community building through urban gardening.
elements and energy transfers underlie pollution, wastewater treat- Chapter 11 leads with an updated case study on how the reintro-
ment, and eutrophication. A new periodic table in the appendices, duction of wolves, a top predator, has enhanced biodiversity in Yel-
annotated to emphasize environmental science topics, supports lowstone National Park, with cascading effects through both the food
this chapter. An “Exploring Science” reading reviews the CRISPR chain and the physical environment. We have emphasized the “cli-
gene editing system, including ethics of human embryo editing. mate” component of HIPPO factors in threats to species survival. We
Chapter 4 uses a case study on “blue carbon” to introduce have enhanced discussion of the “sixth extinction” and added a boxed
concepts of ecosystem function and biodiversity. These key ideas reading on the startling crisis of disappearing insects. We have
are foundational for later topics. updated data on species vulnerability and added a discussion of the
Chapter 5 opens with a case study on climate-driven shifts “30 by 30” targets introduced to promote habitat conservation world-
in species ranges and biomes. These ecosystem changes directly wide. A new section on rebuilding biodiversity includes attention to
affect lives and livelihoods. Recognizing the adaptations that the importance of local action for backyard biodiversity. A new Data
allow species to adapt helps us understand survival factors for both Analysis exercises use the Seek app to explore local diversity.
humans and other species. Chapter 12 has a new case study on ecosystems in transition.
Chapter 6 uses a case study on invasive carp in the Mississippi Longer fire seasons and more extreme outbreaks of bark beetles
watershed to illustrate population dynamics. Millions of dollars in threaten to alter western forests, as climate warming has produced
sport fishing, recreation, and ecosystem services are at risk, as well the largest, most intense, and most damaging forest fires in U.S.
as native species. We discuss growth patterns, life history strate- history. We have updated discussions of old-growth forests, wood
gies, and intrinsic and extrinsic factors that regulate growth. A new consumption, Indigenous fire management, and local park conser-
“Exploring Science” box describes methods for estimating popula- vation. Continuing our survey of landscapes in transition, we have
tion sizes for species, such as carp, that are difficult to count. updated the “Exploring Science” box on the effects of palm oil
Chapter 7 has updated population data, including a focus on plantations on endangered orangutan populations in Borneo. An
China’s aging population, to discuss population momentum and updated “What Do You Think?” box examines political debates on
factors that influence birth rates. China now has the largest number mining in U.S. national monuments.
of senior citizens in the world, and it raises questions of global con- Chapter 13 introduces restoration ecology with a case study on
cern. We also discuss the changing dynamics of population growth, the science and practice of restoring coral reefs. Globally, coral reefs
as birth rates decline almost everywhere. Ecologists have long called have been damaged by pollution, overharvesting, ocean acidifica-
for this shift, but now economists are fighting back in policy arenas. tion, and climate change. A box on the “monarch highway” project

xvi Preface
describes both the threats to these charismatic insects and efforts to other energy options. A new section on battery storage, includ-
restore their populations. Updated discussions address stream resto- ing a discussion of global lithium resources, highlights this critical
ration and the challenges of restoring ecosystem functions. part of sustainable energy systems. We examine analysis showing
Chapter 14 begins an environmental geology discussion with how sustainable energy systems could meet all our needs, often
a case study on the proposed Pebble Mine in headwater salmon saving money as well as reducing pollution.
streams of Alaska’s Bristol Bay. This controversial project pits the Chapter 21 includes an updated case study on the phenomenal
fate of pristine wilderness and the world’s largest sockeye salmon amounts of plastic pollution in the world’s oceans. A new section
run against the estimated profits and likely environmental damage reviews the options for waste disposal and updates both the amounts
from a mammoth copper-nickel mine. Updated content discusses and types of materials in our waste stream. We examine the chal-
earthquakes resulting from oil and gas extraction. lenge of recycling and waste management, which long depended on
Chapter 15 demonstrates leadership in climate action with a case China accepting the world’s waste materials. A new table outlines
study on groundbreaking climate policies in California. Challenges the evolution of policies for managing hazardous waste.
are daunting, but solutions are diverse, creative, and exciting. We also Chapter 22 opens with a case study on the leadership of cities
examine options for carbon capture and other efforts to combat cli- in efforts for environmental, social, and economic sustainability.
mate change. A new section examines the necessity of climate adap- Updated data describe changes in urban growth, especially in
tation, which countries are only slowly beginning to acknowledge. African states. We also examine the plight of sinking coastal cities
Chapter 16 provides updated data on air pollution, especially amid rising seas. A final section discusses ways cities can be liv-
in developing regions, as well as updated discussion of mercury able and sustainable.
pollution, greenhouse gases, and regulation of greenhouse gases Chapter 23 has an updated case study about British Colum-
as pollutants. Among these are halogen gases, which are addressed bia’s carbon tax, a strategy vigorously opposed by fossil fuel
in the Kigali amendment to the Montreal Protocol on ozone- interests in U.S. states. An “Exploring Science” box notes that
destroying substances. This step alone could prevent 0.5 degrees estimates of the value of global ecosystem services have increased
of global warming by 2100. from $33 trillion a few decades ago to $173 trillion today. Updated
Chapter 17 updates the opening case study on demands for sections explore the power of green economies to increase jobs
Colorado River water, which exceed the river’s flow. We provide and the ideals of a green new deal.
recent data on looming water shortages, especially in regions Chapter 24 focuses on environmental policy, with a case study
dependent on glacial rivers, as in South Asia. Water is likely to on the Endangered Species Act and its success in restoring green
be the most contentious natural resource in the future, but smarter sea turtles in Florida. We review the provisions and successes of this
water conservation policies, including pricing, irrigation and and other major environmental policies. A new section discusses
farming practices, and low-flow household appliances could problems of regulatory capture in government agencies, as well as
reduce these risks. We also discuss China’s expanding dam-building debates about how much regulation we want. A new section focuses
projects, especially on the Mekong River. on international agreements on environmental policy, including
Chapter 18 examines water pollution with an opening focus on major treaties and strategies for enforcing agreements.
the Ganges River, which supports nearly a billion people in South Chapter 25 opens with a case study on the history of Earth
Asia. We know how to prevent water pollution, but finding ways to Day. It is critical that students understand how we got to where
implement policies and pay for treatment is difficult, in both wealthy we are, and how public involvement with environmental issues
and developing countries. Updated data and discussions address has emerged. We have updated data on the fossil fuel divestment
acidic mine drainage, water shortages, and water treatment. movement, on environmental literacy, and on options for environ-
Chapter 19 uses a new case study to focus on the importance mental action.
of oil and gas in geopolitical conflict, with a focus on the Rus-
sian invasion of Ukraine. We emphasize that while fossil fuels still
provide most energy, the future of energy is not the past. We have Acknowledgments
updated data on production and consumption and discuss the shift-
ing landscape of conventional energy, including growth in China. We owe a great debt to the hardworking, professional team that has
An “Exploring Science” box discusses the growing importance of made this the best environmental science text possible. We express
indigenous resistance to fossil fuel development. special thanks for editorial support to Beth Baugh, Lora Neyens, and
Chapter 20 explores the fast-changing landscape of renew- Michelle Vogler. We are grateful to Gina Oberbroeckling for her guid-
able energy with an updated case study on Germany’s Ener- ance through the permission process, Maria McGreal for her work in
giewende, or energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable putting the book together, Rachael Hillebrand for her expertise with
energy. Updated data reflect new developments in solar, wind, and the digital assets, and Erin Martin for her marketing leadership.

Preface xvii
Instructors
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A complete course platform
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cohesive digital content and tools, creating engaging learning experiences.
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Introduction
Learning to Learn

Learning to learn is a lifelong skill.

Learning Outcomes William P. Cunningham

After studying this introduction, you should be able to:

L.1 Form a plan to organize your efforts and become a more
effective and efficient student.
L.2 Apply critical and reflective thinking in environmental
science.
“What kind of world do you want to live in?
L.3 Identify logical errors, persuasive tricks, and biases used in Demand that your teachers teach you what
popular media. you need to know to build it.”
L.4 Describe issues that motivate you and consider ways they
connect to environmental science. – Peter Kropotkin

1
 C A S E S T U D Y

How can I do well in These qualities and abilities can help you in
many aspects of life. Throughout this book
­environmental science? you will find “What Do You Think?” boxes that
invite you to practice your critical and reflective
Case studies in environmental science examine a particular place thinking skills.
or theme that draws together many of the themes in a chapter. Thinking about how we think is a practice that applies in
For this chapter on learning to learn, a good case study to start ordinary conversation, as well as in media you encounter, and
with is you. You come to this course with particular backgrounds even in textbooks. Finding these patterns in arguments can
and ideas. You have expertise and skills. As you start reading this be fun; it’s also important. Paying attention to these sorts of
book, consider these two questions: How do you want to draw on argument strategies is also a good practice in any class you take.
your abilities and background and connect them to themes in this These are a few of the logical errors you can watch for:
book? And how do you want to develop your knowledge and skills
to answer questions that are important to you? ∙ Red herring: Introducing extraneous information to divert
Responses to these question will vary, but the questions are attention from the important point.
relevant for everyone because environmental science is a field that ∙ Ad hominem attacks: Criticizing the opponent rather than the
involves a diversity of topics, with connections to basic ecology, logic of the argument.
natural resources, and policy questions that influence those systems. ∙ Hasty generalization: Drawing conclusions about all members
Topics in this course primarily involve our natural environment, of a group based on evidence that
but we also examine our human pertains only to a selected sample.
environment, including the built ∙ False cause: Drawing a link
world of technology and cities, as between premises and conclu-
well as human social or cultural sions that depends on some
institutions. All of these interrelated imagined causal connection that
aspects of our life affect us, and, in does not, in fact, exist.
turn, are affected by what we do.
Another way this chapter ∙ A ppeal to ignorance: Because
relates to you is that it gives sugges- some facts are in doubt, a conclu-
tions for how you can organize your sion is impossible.
learning process as you study. This ∙ Appeal to authority: It’s true
means being aware and intentional because someone says so.
about your study habits. Take time ∙ Equivocation: Using words with
as you read this chapter to consider double meanings to mislead the
what you do well as you study, and FIGURE L.1 Knowing what you care about and why is a good start to listener.
what you need to do better to be connecting your interests to the study of our environment and how it ∙ Slippery slope: A claim that
works.
effective with study time. This is Hero Images/Image Source some event or action will cause
another skill set that will serve you some subsequent action.
well in other contexts.
∙  False dichotomy: Giving either/or alternatives as if they are the
Part of doing well in this course is to develop your habits of crit-
only choices.
ical thinking, that is, assessing how and why we think about things as
we do. Critical thinking is one of the most useful skills you can learn These skills are important to doing well in this class, and they
in any of your classes, and so it is a focus of this chapter. Many cen- are part of becoming a responsible and productive environmental
tral topics in environmental science are highly contested: What kinds citizen. Each of us needs a basis for learning and evaluating scien-
of energy are most important? Where should they come from? What tific principles, as well as some insights into the social, political,
is a resource? How should we manage and conserve water resources? and economic systems that impact our global environment. We
Who should pay the cost of controlling air pollution? Answering hope this book and the class you’re taking will give you the infor-
these questions requires analysis of evidence. But evidence can mation you need to reach those goals. As the noted Senegalese
depend on when and by whom it was gathered and evaluated. For conservationist and educator Baba Dioum once said, “In the end,
every opinion there is an equal and opposite opinion. How can you we will conserve only what we love, we will love only what we
make sense out of this welter of ever-changing information? understand, and we will understand only what we are taught.” The
As you consider these sometimes contradictory views, pay more you can connect ideas in this course to topics you care about,
attention to developing your capacity to think independently, sys- the better you can make use of them—and the more likely you will
tematically, and skillfully to form your own opinions (fig. L.1). be to do well in the class.

2 Environmental Science
L.1 How Can I Get an A in This Class? What are good study habits?
What are your current study skills and habits? Making a frank and
∙ Making a frank and honest assessment of your strengths and honest assessment of your strengths and weaknesses will help you set
weaknesses will help you do well in this class. goals and make plans for achieving them during this class. A good
∙ Reading in a purposeful, deliberate manner is an important way to start is to examine your study habits. Rate yourself on each of
part of productive learning. the following study skills and habits on a scale of 1 (excellent) to 5
What do you need to know to succeed in a class on environmental (needs improvement). If you rate yourself below 3 on any item, think
science? This chapter provides an overview of some skills to keep about an action plan to improve that competence or behavior.
in mind as you begin. As Henry Ford once said, “If you think you ∙ How well do you manage your time (do you tend to run late, or
can do a thing, or think you can’t do a thing, you’re right.” do you complete assignments on time)?
One of the first things that will help you do well in this class—
∙ Do you have a regular study environment where you can focus?
and enjoy it—is to understand that science is useful and acces-
sible, if you just take your time with it. To do well in this class, ∙ How effective are you at reading and note-taking (do you
start by identifying the ways that science connects with your inter- remember what you’ve read; do you take notes regularly)?
ests and passions. Most environmental scientists are motivated by ∙ Do you attend class regularly, listen for instructions, and par-
a love for something: a fishery biologist might love fishing; a plant ticipate actively in class discussions? Do you bring questions to
pathologist might love gardening; an environmental chemist might class about the material?
be motivated by wanting to improve children’s health in the city in ∙ Do you generally read assigned chapters in the textbook before
which she lives. All these people use the tools of science to help attending class, or do you wait until the night before the exam?
them understand something they get excited about. Finding that ∙ How do you handle test anxiety (do you usually feel prepared
angle can help you do better in this class, and it can help you be a for exams and quizzes or are you terrified of them? Do you have
better and happier member of your community (fig. L.2). techniques to reduce anxiety or turn it into positive energy?)
Another key to success is understanding what “science” is.
∙ Do you actively evaluate how you are doing in a course based
Basically, science is about making observations to figure out
on feedback from your instructor and then make corrections to
how things work. This means examining a question carefully and
improve your effectiveness?
methodically. It means questioning your own assumptions, as
well as the statements you hear from others. Understanding some ∙ Do you seek out advice and assistance outside of class from
basic ideas in science can be very empowering: Learning to look your instructors or teaching assistants?
for evidence and to question your assumptions is a life skill, and Procrastination is something almost everyone does, but a few
building comfort with thinking about numbers can help you budget small steps can help you build better habits. If you routinely leave
your groceries, prioritize your schedule, or plan your vacation. Ideas your studying until the last minute, then consider making a study
in this book can help you understand the food you eat, the weather schedule, and keep a written record of how much time you spend
you encounter, the policies you hear about in the news—from studying. Schedule time for sleep, meals, exercise, and recreation so
energy policy to urban development to economics. that you will be rested and efficient when you do study. Divide your
work into reasonable sized segments that you can accomplish on a
daily basis. Carry a calendar to keep track of assignments. And find
a regular study space in which you can be effective and productive.
How you behave in class and interact with your instructor also
can have a big impact on how much you learn and what grade
you get. Make an effort to get to know your instructor. Sit near
the front of the room where you can see and be seen. Learn to ask
questions: This can keep you awake and engaged in class. Practice
the skills of good note-taking (table L.1). Attend every class and
arrive on time. Don’t fold up your papers and prepare to leave until
after the class period is over. Arriving late and leaving early says
to your instructor that you don’t care much about either the class
or your grade.
Practice active, purposeful learning. It isn’t enough to pas-
sively absorb knowledge provided by your instructor and this text-
book. You need to actively engage the material in order to really
FIGURE L.2 Finding the connections between your studies and the understand it. The more you invest yourself in the material, the
community, places, and ideas you care about can make this class more easier it will be to comprehend and remember. It is very helpful to
rewarding and fun. have a study buddy with whom you can compare notes and try out
Source: Gwen Bausmith, U.S. EPA ideas (fig. L.3).

INTRODUCTION Learning to Learn 3

 Table L.1 Learning Skills—Taking Notes How can you use this textbook effectively?
1. Identify the important points in a lecture and organize your notes in An important part of productive learning is to read assigned
an outline form to show main topics and secondary or supporting material in a purposeful, deliberate manner. Ask yourself ques-
points. This will help you follow the sense of the lecture. tions as you read. What is the main point being made here? How
2. Write down all you can. If you miss something, having part of the does the evidence presented support the assertions being made?
notes will help your instructor identify what you’ve missed. What personal experience have you had or what prior knowledge
3. Leave a wide margin in your notes in which you can generate can you bring to bear on this question? Can you suggest alterna-
questions to which your notes are the answers. If you can’t tive explanations for the phenomena being discussed? A study
write a question about the material, you probably don’t technique developed by Frances Robinson and called the SQ3R
understand it. method can improve your reading comprehension. It’s also helpful
4. Study for your test under test conditions by answering your own
to have a study group (fig. L.4). After class and before exams, you
questions without looking at your notes. Cover your notes with a can compare notes, identify priorities, and sort out points that are
sheet of paper on which you write your answers, then slide it to unclear. Try these steps as you read the first few chapters of this
the side to check your accuracy. book, and see if they improve your recall of the material:
5. Go all the way through your notes once in this test mode, then 1. Survey the entire chapter or section you are about to read, so
go back to review those questions you missed. you can see how it fits together. What are the major headings
6. Compare your notes and the questions you generated with those of and subdivisions?
a study buddy. Did you get the same main points from the lecture? 2. Question what the main points are likely to be in each of the
Can you answer the questions someone else has written? sections. Which parts look most important or interesting?
7. Review your notes again just before test time, paying special Where should you invest the most time and effort?
attention to major topics and questions you missed during 3. Read the material, taking brief notes as you go. Read in
study time.
small segments and stop frequently for reflection and to
Source: Dr. Melvin Northrup, Grand Valley State University make notes.
4. Recite: Stop periodically to recite to yourself what you have
just read. Check your comprehension at the end of each major
It’s well known that the best way to learn something is to section. Ask yourself: Did I understand what I just read? What
teach it to someone else. Take turns with your study buddy are the main points being made here? Summarize the infor-
explaining the material you’re studying. You may think you’ve mation in your own words to be sure that you really under-
mastered a topic by quickly skimming the text, but you’re likely stand and are not just depending on rote memory.
to find that you have to struggle to give a clear description in
5. Review: Once you have completed a section, review the main
your own words. Anticipating possible exam questions and tak-
points to make sure you remember them clearly. Did you miss
ing turns quizzing each other can be a very good way to prepare
any important points? Do you understand things differently
for tests.

FIGURE L.3 Cooperative learning, in which you take turns explaining FIGURE L.4 Talking through ideas with your peers is an excellent way
ideas and approaches with a friend, can be one of the best ways to com- to test your knowledge. If you can explain it, then you probably under-
prehend material. stand the material.
Prostock-studio/Shutterstock Tara Moore/Getty Images

4 Environmental Science
 the second time through? This is a chance to think critically asks, “How might I approach this problem in new and inventive
about the material. Do you agree with the conclusions sug- ways?” Logical thinking asks, “How can orderly, deductive
gested by the authors? reasoning help me think clearly?” Critical thinking asks, “What
am I trying to accomplish here and how will I know when I’ve
succeeded?” Reflective thinking asks, “What does it all mean?”
Will this be on the test?
As fig. L.5 suggests, critical thinking is central in the constellation
You should develop different study strategies depending on of thinking skills. Thinking critically can help us discover hidden
whether you are expected to remember and choose between a mul- ideas and means, develop strategies for evaluating reasons and
titude of facts and details, or whether you will be asked to write conclusions in arguments, recognize the differences between facts
a paragraph summarizing some broad topic. Organize the ideas and values, and avoid jumping to conclusions.
you’re reading and hearing in lecture. This course will probably
include a great deal of information, so try to organize for yourself How do you tell the news from the noise?
what ideas are most important. What’s the big picture? As you
read and review, ask yourself what might be some possible test With the explosion of cable channels, blogs, social networks, and
questions in each section. Memorize some benchmark figures: Just e-mail access, most of us are interconnected constantly to a degree
a few will help a lot. Pay special attention to ideas, relationships, unique in history. There are well over 150 million blogs on the
facts, and figures about which your instructor seemed especially Web, and new ones are added every day. Most of us, even in low-
interested. Usually those points are emphasized in class because income countries and regions, are linked in social networks. Every
your teacher thinks they are most important to remember. There is day several billion e-mails, tweets, text messages, online videos, and
a good chance you’ll see those topics again on a test. social media postings connect us to one another. As you participate
Pay special attention to tables, graphs, and diagrams. They in these networks, you probably already think about the sources of
were chosen because they illustrate important points, and they are information you are exposed to on a daily basis.
often easy to put on a test. Also pay attention to units. You prob- One of the issues that has emerged with this proliferation of
ably won’t be expected to remember all the specific numbers in media is partisan journalism—reports that serve one viewpoint,
this book, but you probably should know orders of magnitude. The rather than trying to weigh diverse evidence and perspectives. Par-
world population is about 7.3 billion people (not thousands, mil- tisan journalism has become much more prevalent since the dereg-
lions, or trillions). It often helps to remember facts and figures if ulation of public media in 1988. From the birth of the broadcasting
you can relate them to some other familiar example. The United industry, the airwaves were regulated as a public trust. Broadcast-
States, for instance, has about 330 million residents. The popula- ers, as a condition of their licenses, were required to operate in the
tions of the European Union is slightly larger; India and China are “public interest” by covering important policy issues and providing
each more than four times as large. Those general relationships equal time to both sides of contested issues. In 1988, however, the
are usually easier to remember and compare than detailed figures.

Section Review Analytical Creative

1. What is your strongest learning style? thinking thinking
2. What are the five techniques of the SQ3R method for studying? How will I solve How could I do
this problem? this differently?

L.2 THINKING ABOUT THINKING

∙ Critical thinking is a valuable tool in learning and in life. Critical
thinking
∙ Certain attitudes, skills, and approaches are essential for well-
What do I want
reasoned analysis. to accomplish?
Perhaps the most valuable skill you can learn in any of your
classes is the ability to think clearly, creatively, and purposefully.
Developing the ability to learn new skills, examine new facts,
evaluate new theories, and formulate your own interpretations is
essential to keep up in a changing world. In other words, you need Logical Reflective
to learn how to learn on your own. thinking thinking
Thinking about thinking means pausing to examine you are Can orderly What does it
forming ideas, or how you interpret what you hear and read. A reasoning help? all mean?
number of approaches can help us evaluate information and FIGURE L.5 Different approaches to thinking are used to
make decisions. Analytical thinking asks, “How can I break solve different kinds of problems or to study alternate aspects of
this problem down into its constituent parts?” Creative thinking a single issue.

INTRODUCTION Learning to Learn 5

Federal Communications Commission ruled that the proliferation Applying critical thinking
of mass media gives the public adequate access to diverse sources
of information. Media outlets are no longer obliged to provide fair In logic, an argument is made up of one or more introductory
and balanced coverage of issues. Presenting a single perspective statements (called premises), and a conclusion that supposedly
or even a deceptive version of events is no longer regarded as a follows logically from the premises. Often in ordinary conversation,
betrayal of public trust. different kinds of statements are mixed together, so it is difficult to
An important aspect of partisan reporting is attack jour- distinguish between them or to decipher hidden or implied meanings.
nalism. Commentators often ridicule and demean their oppo- We all use critical or reflective thinking at times. Suppose a
nents rather than weighing ideas or reporting objective facts and television commercial tells you that a new breakfast cereal is tasty
sources, because shouting matches are entertaining and sell adver- and good for you. You may be suspicious and ask yourself a few
tising. Most newspapers have laid off almost all their investigative questions. What do they mean by good? Good for whom or what?
reporters and most television stations have abandoned the tradi- Does “tasty” simply mean more sugar and salt? Might the sources
tional written and edited news story. According to the Center for of this information have other motives in mind besides your health
Journalistic Excellence, more than two-thirds of all TV news seg- and happiness? Although you may not have been aware of it, you
ments now consist of on-site “stand-up” reports or live interviews already have been using some of the techniques of critical analy-
in which a single viewpoint is presented as news without any back- sis. Working to expand these skills helps you recognize the ways
ground or perspective. information and analysis can be distorted, misleading, prejudiced,
Part of the reason for the growth of sensationalist media is superficial, unfair, or otherwise defective. Here are some steps in
that real news—topics that affect your community and your critical thinking:
­environment—often don’t make exciting visuals. So they don’t Identify and evaluate premises and conclusions in an argu-
make it into TV coverage. Instead, crime, accidents, disasters, life- ment. What is the basis for the claims made here? What evidence
style stories, sports, and weather make up more than 90 percent of is presented to support these claims and what conclusions are
the coverage on a typical television news program. An entire day drawn from this evidence? If the premises and evidence are cor-
of cable TV news would show, on average, only 1 minute each rect, does it follow that the conclusions are necessarily true?
about the environment and health care, 2 minutes each on science Acknowledge and clarify uncertainties, vagueness, equivoca-
and education, and 4 minutes on art and culture. More than 70 tion, and contradictions. Do the terms used have more than one
percent of the segments are less than 1 minute long, which allows meaning? If so, are all participants in the argument using the same
them to convey lots of emotion but little substance. People who meanings? Are ambiguity or equivocation deliberate? Can all the
get their news primarily from TV are significantly more fearful claims be true simultaneously?
and pessimistic than those who get news from print media. And Distinguish between facts and values. Are claims made that
it becomes hard to separate rumor from truth. Evidence and cor- can be tested? (If so, these are statements of fact and should be
roboration take a backseat to dogma and passion. able to be verified by gathering evidence.) Are claims made about
How can you detect bias in blogs, social media, or news the worth or lack of worth of something? (If so, these are value
reporting? Ask the questions below as you look at media. Also ask statements or opinions and probably cannot be verified objec-
these questions as you examine your own work, to avoid falling tively.) For example, claims of what we ought to do to be moral or
into these traps. righteous or to respect nature are generally value statements.
Recognize and assess assumptions. Given the backgrounds and
1. Are speakers discussing facts and rational ideas, or are they views of the protagonists in this argument, what underlying rea-
resorting to innuendo, name-calling, character assassination, sons might there be for the premises, evidence, or conclusions pre-
and ad hominem (personal) attacks? When people start call- sented? Does anyone have an “axe to grind” or a personal agenda
ing each other Nazi or communist (or both), civil discourse in this issue? What do they think you know, need, want, or believe?
has probably come to an end. Is there a subtext based on race, gender, ethnicity, economics, or
2. What special interests might be involved? Who stands to some belief system that distorts this discussion? (fig. L.6).
gain presenting a particular viewpoint? Who is paying for the Distinguish the reliability or unreliability of a source. What
message? makes the experts qualified in this issue? What special knowledge
3. What sources are used as evidence in this communication? or information do they have? What evidence do they present? How
How credible are they? can we determine whether the information offered is accurate,
true, or even plausible?
4. Are facts or statistics cited in the presentation? Are they cred-
Recognize and understand conceptual frameworks. What are
ible? Are citations provided so you can check the sources?
the basic beliefs, attitudes, and values that this person, group, or
5. If the presentation claims to be fair and balanced, are both society holds? What dominating philosophy or ethics control their
sides represented by credible spokespersons, or is one simply outlook and actions? How do these beliefs and values affect the
a foil set up to make the other side look good? way people view themselves and the world around them? If there
6. Are the arguments presented based on evidence, or are they are conflicting or contradictory beliefs and values, how can these
purely emotional appeals? differences be resolved?

6 Environmental Science
 As you read this book, you will have many opportunities to
practice critical thinking. Every chapter includes facts, figures,
opinions, and theories. Are all of them true? Probably not. They
were the best information available when this text was written, but
scientific knowledge is always growing. Data change constantly as
does our interpretation of them. Environmental conditions change,
evidence improves, and different perspectives and explanations
evolve over time.
As you read this book or any book, try to distinguish between
statements of fact and opinion. Ask yourself if the premises sup-
port the conclusions drawn from them. Although we have tried to
present the best available scientific data and to represent the main
consensus among environmental scientists, it is always important
for you, as a reader, to think for yourself and utilize your critical
and reflective thinking skills to find the truth.
FIGURE L.6 Often the conditions that lead to environmental problems like
hazardous waste, and the explanations that surround them, are based on Section Review
unspoken assumptions. Identifying underlying assumptions is a key step to
finding solutions. 1. Describe seven attitudes needed for critical thinking.
Source: Eric Vanceonse, U.S. EPA 2. List six steps in critical thinking.

Connecting the Dots

In each chapter, we try to help connect issues in the topic back taking the initiative to look for interesting topics, finding an
to the case study. Sometimes the connections will be obvious, appropriate study space, and working with a study partner. We all
sometimes less so. You can try to make those connections for have our own learning styles. You may understand and remember
yourself, too, as you read and study. things best if you see them in writing, hear them spoken by
There are many ways to do well in a course like this. Finding someone else, reason them out for yourself, or learn by doing. By
the ways topics are meaningful and useful for you will help make determining your preferred style, you can study in the way that is
the work worthwhile. Doing well also involves paying attention to most comfortable and effective for you.
things like good study habits, setting realistic goals for yourself,

INTRODUCTION Learning to Learn 7

1 Understanding
Our Environment

Ensuring a safe environment and hopeful future for people everywhere, including
Learning Outcomes these children in Kibera, is the goal of sustainable development.
Tatsiana Hendzel/Shutterstock

After studying this chapter, you should be able to: “Working together, we have proven that sustain-
1.1 Explain what environmental science is, and how it draws on able development is possible; that reforestation
different kinds of knowledge.
1.2 Identify some early thinkers on environment and resources,
of degraded land is possible; and that exemplary
and contrast some of their ideas. governance is possible when ordinary citizens are
1.3 Describe sustainable development and its goals.
informed, sensitized, mobilized and involved in
1.4 Explain core concepts in sustainable development.
1.5 Identify ways in which ethics and faith might promote direct action for their environment.”
sustainability and conservation.
– Wangari Maathai (1940–2011)
Winner of 2004 Nobel Peace Prize

8
 C A S E S T U D Y

businesses. But substandard housing

Sustainable Development is an embarrassment for city govern-
Goals for Kibera ments. Impoverished and unemployed
populations turn to crime, even while they
Is it possible to improve well-being for low-income populations, includ- are the main victims of criminal activity. The
ing reducing severe poverty, while maintaining or improving the envi- city regularly tries to remove informal settlements, replacing them
ronment on which we depend? These goals might seem contradictory, with modern housing, but the new flats are usually too expensive,
but increasing evidence shows that they can go together. In fact, as and insufficient in supply, for the displaced residents.
our resource consumption and population grow, it is increasingly Similar settlements exist in many of the world’s f­ ast-growing
necessary that they go together. To encourage the search for sustain- urban areas—Rio de Janeiro, Manila, Lagos, Cairo, Mumbai,
able solutions, the United Nations has identified a set of 17 Sus- Delhi, and many others. Numerous factors drive people into these
tainable Development Goals, including access to ­education, health cities. Climate change and soil degradation undermine rural live-
care, a safe natural environment, clean water, and other ­priorities, lihoods, driving farmers off the land. Competition for declining
as well as conserving biodiversity and slowing climate change water resources further threatens food production. Forest destruc-
(fig. 1.1). Are all these tion makes traditional
goals possible? lifestyles difficult to
Perhaps the great- maintain. Large land-
est test case of this ques- holders expand, displac-
tion is in fast-growing ing rural communities.
urban settlements of the In wealthier countries,
developing world. One of state support often sta-
the largest of these settle- bilize rural incomes, but
ments is the district of in developing regions,
Kibera in Nairobi, Kenya. people may have few
Every week, some 2,500 options.
people arrive in Nairobi, In striving to enter
drawn by hopes for better the middle class, resi-
jobs and education. The dents of Kibera also
city cannot build housing increase their environ-
fast enough for this influx. mental impacts. As they
Nor can it provide sani- succeed, they consume
tary sewage, safe water more material goods,
FIGURE 1.1 Sustainable development goals include access to education and electricity to study
systems, electric power, by at night. more energy, more cars
or other services. New Mark Boulton/Alamy Stock Photo and fuel, and electron-
arrivals build informal ics. All of these expand
neighborhoods on the margins, using whatever materials are available the environmental footprint of residents. On the other hand, the per
to construct simple shelters of mud, brick, and tin roofing. Kibera is capita energy and resource consumption of most Kibera residents is
the largest of about 200 such settlements in N ­ airobi. These are home vanishingly small compared to consumption of their wealthy neigh-
to over 2.5 million people, around 60 percent of the city’s population, bors, who may have multiple cars and large houses, many appli-
although reliable numbers are hard to come by. ances, and rich diets.
Kibera occupies the lowlands along the Nairobi River, in The global challenge of sustainable development is to improve
an area prone to flooding that periodically inundates houses and both the lives and the environment of people in low-income areas.
muddy informal streets. Because there is no system for managing Sustainable development also tries to draw on the ideas and energy
waste, both sewage and garbage end up in the river, often entering of people like those in Kibera, who want to a safe and healthy life
homes with flood waters. Much of the time, an odor of decompos- for their children, just like people everywhere.
ing waste fills the air, and plastic shopping bags and other debris Environmental science is a discipline that seeks to understand
fill the corners of roadways and buildings. Occupying degraded both the natural systems we depend on and the ways we exploit
outskirts of large cities, neighborhoods like Kibera suffer from or steward those resources. Sustainable development is central to
the pollution produced by wealthy neighborhoods, and also create environmental science, as we work to protect resources and also
their own pollution and health hazards. support human well-being. As you read this book, you’ll consider
The city government has a c­omplicated relationship with many issues of environmental systems, stewardship, and resource
Kibera. The settlement provides much-needed housing, and use. Ideally, a better understanding of these issues can help us find
residents contribute labor and c­onsumer markets for growing ways to address them, both locally and globally.

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 9

1.1 What Is Environmental Challenge:
Sustainable development
Economics:
What incentives help
Science? protect resources?

∙ This subject draws on many disciplines, skills, and interests. Ecology: Anthropology,
How do ecosystems Religion:
∙ We face persistent challenges, as well as progress, in themes function? How or why do
such as population growth, climate change, pollution, and bio- we value nature?
diversity losses.
Earth science:
∙ Ecological footprints are a way to estimate our impacts. How do we Arts, humanities:
influence climate, What narratives
Humans have always inhabited two worlds. One is the natural water, or soil shape ideas
world of plants, animals, soils, air, and water that preceded us by systems? about other
billions of years and of which we are a part. The other is the world species?
of social institutions and artifacts that we create for ourselves Chemistry:
using science, technology, and political organization. Both worlds How do pollutants move Policy:
How can policies protect people,
are essential to our lives, but their intersections often cause endur- through ecosystem?
other species, and our environment?
ing tensions: More than ever before, we have power to extract and
consume resources, produce waste, and modify our world in ways FIGURE 1.2 Many kinds of knowledge contribute to solutions in
that threaten both our continued existence and that of many organ- ­environmental science.
isms with which we share the planet. We also have better access Roger Brown Photography/Shutterstock

than ever before to new ideas, efficient technologies, and oppor-

tunities to cooperate in finding sustainable strategies. To ensure a
sustainable future for ourselves and future generations, we need to
understand more about how our world works, what we are doing to
it, and what we can do to protect and improve it.
Environment (from the French environner: to encircle or sur- For an increasing number of environmental issues, the diffi-
round) can be defined as (1) the circumstances or conditions that culty is not to identify remedies. Remedies are now well under-
surround an organism or a group of organisms, or (2) the complex stood. The problem is to make them socially, economically, and
social or cultural conditions that affect an individual or a com- politically acceptable. Foresters know how to plant trees, but not
munity. Because humans inhabit the natural world, as well as the how to establish conditions under which we can agree to let for-
“built” or technological, social, and cultural world, all constitute ests grow to maturity. Engineers know how to control pollution,
important parts of our environment (fig. 1.2). but not how to persuade factories to install the necessary equip-
Environmental science is the systematic study of our environ- ment. We even know how to address climate change and sustain-
ment and the ways in which we both depend on it and influence able development, although we have not agreed to do so. These
it. Environmental science is interdisciplinary, integrating natural are complex problems, then, that require input from multiple
sciences, social sciences, and humanities in a broad, holistic study perspectives.
of the world around us. Much of environmental science focuses on As you study environmental science, you should aim to do the
understanding and resolving problems in our natural environment, following:
such as pollution or lost biodiversity. But solutions have to do with
how we consume resources and dispose of waste. This is why envi- ∙ understand how natural systems function;
ronmental science also includes discussion of policy, population, ∙ understand ecological concepts that explain biological diversity;
economics, and urbanization. ∙ understand current environmental challenges, such as pollution
and climate change; and
∙ use critical thinking to envision solutions to these challenges.
Benchmark Data
Environmental science is about understanding
Among the ideas and values in this chapter, the following are where we live
a few worth remembering.
In this course, you will examine processes in our physical environ-
8 billion Global human population, 2025 ment, including factors affecting biological diversity, biological
2.1 Replacement fertility rate (children/woman) productivity, sources of earth resources and energy, and circulation
0.3 tons CO2 per person in least developed countries of climate and of water resources. You will also consider the ways
11 tons In most developed countries (table 1.1) resource use, policy, and practices influence those environmen-
tal systems. But as you read, also remember that the systems we
1.7 Number of planet Earths to satisfy our global footprint
discuss are amazing and beautiful. Imagine you are an astronaut

10 Environmental Science
 Major themes in environmental science
Environmental science covers several major themes. One of these
is sustainable development, a question that runs through many
chapters of this book. How do we foster healthy, rewarding liveli-
hoods under conditions of population growth, shifting food sys-
tems, precarious water resources and water quality, air pollution,
and growing demands for energy? Why is it important to protect
resources and biodiversity, and how can they be protected, as
human needs expand?
A second major theme is climate change and climate action.
Climate change is the single most urgent issue of our time. It will
affect human health, economies, poverty, and conflict, as well as
dramatically changing environmental systems, including water
resources, weather, food production, and biodiversity, on which
we depend. Over the past 200 years, atmospheric CO2 concentra-
tions have increased about 50 percent. Climatologists warn that if
FIGURE 1.3 Perhaps the most amazing feature of our planet is its rich current trends continue, by 2100 mean global temperatures are on
diversity of life. track to increase by 2° to 6°C (3.6° to 12.8°F) compared to tem-
Fuse/Getty Images
peratures in 1900 (fig. 1.5a). This warming explains the increasing
severity and frequency of droughts, storms, and wildfires observed
in recent years.
returning to Earth after a trip to the moon or Mars. What a relief Fortunately, we know many ways to reduce climate change,
it would be to come back to this beautiful, bountiful planet after from protecting forests to developing renewable energy and trans-
experiencing the hostile, desolate environment of outer space. We forming food and farming systems. Global agreement on the
live in a remarkably prolific and hospitable world. Compared to importance of acting is nearly universal. At the 2015 Paris Climate
the conditions on other planets in our solar system, temperatures Conference, and at multiple conferences since then, the world’s
on the earth are mild and relatively constant. Plentiful supplies of nations have gradually strengthened efforts to take action. We are
clean air, fresh water, and fertile soil are regenerated endlessly and not acting fast enough, but we know many of the strategies that
spontaneously by geological and biological cycles (discussed in we need to pursue. As you read this book, one of your tasks is
chapters 3 and 4). to understand solutions to this and other major challenges. You
Perhaps the most amazing feature of our planet is the should also try to understand some of the many co-benefits to cli-
rich diversity of life that exists here. Millions of beautiful and mate action and other environmental progress, including reduc-
intriguing species populate the earth and help sustain a habitable tions in poverty, pollution, and illness.
environment (fig. 1.3). This vast multitude of life creates complex, In most topics we discuss, there are major challenges and also
interrelated communities where towering trees and huge animals key areas of progress. It is important to recognize that both dire
live together with, and depend upon, tiny life-forms such as threats and exciting opportunities exist simultaneously. We tend
viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Together, all these organisms make to forget that in many cases, conditions were much worse in the
up delightfully diverse, self-sustaining communities, including past—air and water pollution in most U.S. cities, for example,
dense, moist forests, vast sunny savannas, and richly colorful were far more unhealthy in past decades, and global population
coral reefs. From time to time, we should pause to remember growth has slowed dramatically from previous decades. Recogniz-
that, in spite of the challenges and complications of life on earth, ing where conditions have improved over time also reminds us that
we are incredibly lucky to be here. We should ask ourselves: the hard work of generations before us has been fruitful.
What is our proper place in nature? What ought we do and what Here are a few examples of major topics in environmental sci-
can we do to protect the irreplaceable habitat that produced and ence, with both challenges and encouraging progress.
supports us?
To really understand our environment, we also need to get Population and resource consumption
outdoors and experience nature, in our backyard, a local park, or One of the most widely debated challenges is population growth.
somewhere new. As author Ed Abbey said, “It is not enough to With some 8 billion humans on earth, we’re adding about 80 mil-
fight for the land; it is even more important to enjoy it . . . Run lion more every year. Family sizes have declined almost everywhere,
the rivers, breathe deep of that yet sweet and lucid air, sit qui- from about five children per family 60 years ago to about two today,
etly for a while and contemplate the precious stillness, that lovely, but still demographers project a population between 9 and 10 bil-
­mysterious and awesome space. Enjoy yourselves, keep your brain lion by 2050 (fig. 1.4a). The impacts of that many people on our
in your head and your head firmly attached to your body, the body natural resources and ecological systems is a serious concern. All
active and alive.” high–birth rate countries are low-income, often war-affected areas.

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 11

 12 the world, people emerging from poverty desire the same high lev-
els of consumption. Thus, both population and consumption rates
Constant
10
are persistent questions in environmental science.
High
Hunger
8
Population (billions)

Low Despite dramatic population growth in the past century, the prevalence
of chronic hunger has declined. The percentage of hungry people has
6 lity
ferti fallen dramatically because food production has increased faster than
d ium human population growth. Still, hunger is a major challenge in many
Me
4 areas. The United Nations estimates that 800 million people suffer
from chronic hunger. Leading causes include violent conflict, unequal
2 access to resources, and increasingly, climate change, all of which dis-
place people from farms and homes (fig. 1.5b). Climate refugees are
0
growing in number, as drought, storms, and floods destroy farmlands.
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Rising food production doesn’t always benefit the poorest
Year populations. Much of the recent increase in agricultural production
(a) Possible population trends: Where will we be in 2050? involves biotechnology and agricultural chemicals that low-income
farmers cannot afford. On the other hand, small-scale farms still
8.0
produce 80 percent of food consumed worldwide, according to the
7.0 Least-develop United Nations Development Programme. Can we ensure the sustain-
e d co
Total fertility (children per woman)

Less-deve unt ability of these farms without further environmental degradation?

l rie
6.0 s
op

Biodiversity loss and conservation efforts

ed

W orld
5.0 gi
re

on
s Biologists report that habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution,
4.0 and the introduction of exotic organisms are eliminating species at a rate
comparable to the great extinction that marked the end of the age of dino-
3.0 More-d
eve saurs. The UN Environment Programme reports that, over the past cen-
lope
d r egion tury, more than 800 species have disappeared and at least 10,000 species
2.0 s
are now considered threatened. Loss of habitat explains most of these
1.0 declines, although increased hunting is also important in many cases
(fig. 1.5c). Top predators, including nearly all the big cats in the world,
0.0 are particularly rare and endangered. At least half of the forests exist-
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Year
ing before the introduction of agriculture have been cleared, and much
(b) Fertility rates of the diverse “old growth” on which many species depend for habitat
is rapidly being cut and replaced by ecologically impoverished forest
FIGURE 1.4 Bad news and good news: Globally, populations continue plantations.
to rise, but our rate of growth has plummeted. Nearly half of countries are Despite ongoing losses, we are also finding ways to conserve
below the replacement rate of about two children per woman. resources and use them more sustainably. Restoration ecology
(chapter 13) has contributed to species monitoring and recovery.
Of the 40 countries with the highest birth rates, all are in Africa These efforts have helped protect rare species and their ecosystems
except Afghanistan. (fig. 1.5d). Habitat conservation is critical to protecting biodiversity,
On the other hand, population growth has stabilized in nearly and in 2021, more than 100 countries signed a pledge to end deforesta-
all industrialized countries and even in most poor countries where tion by 2030, though exact methods are unclear. Nature preserves and
social security and democracy have been established. Over the protected areas have increased sharply, from about 7 million km2 in
last 25 years, the average number of children born per woman 1990 to nearly 25 million km2 in 2018, or around 12 percent of global
worldwide has decreased from 6.1 to 2.3 (fig. 1.4b). The UN land area. Marine preserves add another 33 million km2 of designated
Population Division predicts that by 2050 all developed countries reserves. Many of these areas are weakly protected, however, and rap-
and 75 percent of the developing world will experience a below- idly expanding agriculture, forestry, mining, and urbanization make
replacement fertility rate of 2.1 children per woman. This predic- improved protection more critical than ever (see chapter 12).
tion suggests that the world population could stabilize sooner and
lower than previously estimated. Energy
Rising resource consumption per person is also an urgent How we obtain and use energy will determine our environmental
concern. Poor populations consume very little energy, food, and future. Fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) presently provide
other resources, compared to wealthy populations, which consume around 80 percent of the energy used in industrialized countries.
energy and goods from around the globe. As wealth rises around These resources have transformed our society and economies, giving

12 Environmental Science
 2 2.8 3.6 5 7 9 11 13 15 20°F
Projected winter temperature increase (b) Hunger

(a) Climate change

(c) Habitat loss (d) Conservation efforts

FIGURE 1.5 Major environmental themes: (a) Climate change is projected to raise temperatures, especially in northern winter months. (b) Chronic ­hunger
remains a persistent problem, especially in regions of political conflict. (c) Habitat loss is a dominant environmental threat. (d) Conservation efforts are improving
protection for some rare species, such as these hornbills in Indonesia.
Source: (a) NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory; (b) Shutterstock Images; (c) kakteen/Shutterstock; (d) feathercollector/Shutterstock

us unprecedented access to new opportunities and goods. But our nearly doubled that goal, with 38 percent renewable in that year.
dependence on these resources is unsustainable. Acquiring and using Improved permitting, financing, and installation strategies have been
these fuels causes air and water pollution, mining damage, shipping almost as important as improved technology. The United Kingdom
accidents, and political conflict. Fossil fuels are also nonrenewable aims to cut carbon dioxide emissions by 60 percent through energy
resources, with finite supplies, at least on a human time scale. conservation and a switch to renewables. Denmark and Sweden
Cleaner energy resources, including solar power, wind, geothermal, aim to eliminate most fossil fuel uses by 2050.
and biomass, are renewable (naturally replenished). These, together
with conservation, could give us cleaner, less destructive options if Pollution and environmental health
we invest appropriately. Cities and regions everywhere are investing In developing areas, especially China and India, air quality has
in renewable energy sources in order to protect energy security, worsened dramatically in recent years. Over southern Asia, a
employment, and the climate (fig. 1.6a). “brown cloud” of air pollution now blankets the Indian subcontinent
Rapidly developing countries have the capacity to make real much of the year. Composed of acidic aerosols, dust, and photo-
progress. China leads the world in solar energy, wind turbines, and chemical smog from industry, vehicle exhaust, and agriculture,
biogas generation (from agricultural waste), and developing coun- this cloud is often 3 km (2 mi) thick. Globally, at least 3 million
tries are increasingly investing in renewable energy sources. Prog- people die each year from diseases triggered by air pollution. The
ress in photovoltaic production has helped prices for solar panels in United Nations estimates that, worldwide, more than 2 billion
the United States drop by from $20 per watt in the 1980s to around metric tons of air pollutants (not including carbon dioxide or
20 cents today. The price of solar and wind is now lower than fos- windblown soil) are emitted each year, and many of these pollut-
sil fuels in most markets. The European Union, which had pledged ants travel worldwide. Mercury, pesticides, perfluorocarbons, and
to produce 20 percent of its electricity from renewables by 2020, other long-lasting pollutants accumulate in arctic ecosystems and

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 13

native people after being transported by air currents from industrial population lives in countries where water demands now exceed sup-
regions thousands of kilometers to the south. And on some days, plies, and the UN projects that by 2025 as many as three-fourths of
75 percent of the smog and particulate pollution recorded in Cali- us could live under similar conditions. Water shortages and drought
fornia can be traced to Asia. are frequently blamed for displacement of climate refugees, who lack
The good news is that we know how to control air pollution. water for farming or basic subsistence.
Metals, dust, even greenhouse gases can be captured before they Health and quality of life have improved in many regions,
leave the smoke stack. Most cities in Europe and North America are however, as safer water supplies have lowered incidence of water-
cleaner and healthier now than they were a half century ago. Clean borne illnesses. These and other infectious diseases have declined,
technology benefits the economy and saves lives. The question is while life expectancy has nearly doubled, on average (fig. 1.6c).
how to ensure that pollution controls are used where they are needed. Since 1990, more than 800 million people have gained access to
improved water supplies and modern sanitation.
Water resources
Water may well be the most critical resource in the coming decades. Information and education
Climate change is reducing irrigation supplies in many farming Education, especially for girls, is now recognized to be the most
regions. Over 600 million people (9 percent of us) lack safe drink- powerful strategy for slowing population growth and reducing
ing water, and 2.4 billion (32 percent) don’t have safe sanitation child mortality. While women have often had limited opportuni-
(fig. 1.6b). These figures are considerably better than 25 years ago, ties to study or earn income, they often have responsibility for
but polluted water and inadequate sanitation are estimated to contrib- ensuring that children are healthy and well fed. Educated women
ute to illness in more than a billion people annually, and to the death often are empowered to decide if they want very large families, or
of over 5 million children per year. About 40 percent of the world not. In this and many other cases, increasing access to education

(a) Renewable energy (b) Water resources

(c) Health care (d) Education

FIGURE 1.6 Renewable energy (a) is a central theme. Reliance on unsafe water resources (b) continues to cause illness around the world, but there
has been substantial progress in (c) health care, and (d) education.
Source: (a) Dennis Schroeder/NREL/U.S. Dept. of Energy; (b) Bartosz Hadyniak/iStockphoto/Getty Images; (c) Dimas Ardian/Getty Images News/Getty Images; (d) Anjo Kan/Shutterstock

14 Environmental Science
and information are transforming lives around the world. Rates of
illiteracy are falling in many areas, including very poor regions Quantitative Reasoning
(fig. 1.6d). Because so many environmental issues can be fixed In the Ecological Footprint discussion, examine figure 1.7. Which
by new ideas, technologies, and strategies, expanding access to factor shown has the largest effect? The second largest? Which
knowledge is essential to progress. The increased speed at which has the smallest? Can you explain the idea of a “global hectare”?
information now moves around the world offers unprecedented Finally, which factor has increased the most since 1963?
opportunities for sharing ideas. Developing countries may be able Think of a parent or grandparent who was an adult in 1963. In what
to avoid the mistakes made by industrialized countries and grow ways was his or her energy use different from yours? Why?
with new, efficient, and environmentally sustainable technologies.

What Do You Think?

Calculating Your Ecological Footprint can do. Can you ride a bicycle to school or work, instead of driving? That
depends on whether your city or town was designed around bicycles or
Our environment provides countless resources and services: we continu- cars. Can you buy electricity that is free of fossil fuels? That depends on
ally consume food, water, energy, and oxygen; we rely on our environ- the energy policies in your area. Sometimes, calculating your personal
ment to absorb, dilute, or recycle waste, or to absorb our carbon dioxide ecological footprint is frustrating. It makes you feel responsible for prob-
emissions. In the long term, if we use these goods and services faster than lems far too large for you to fix. In fact, many online footprint model-
nature can provide them, we will degrade or destroy the environmental ing platforms have been sponsored by fossil fuel companies, as a way to
systems that support us. How can we understand our consumption rates, redirect responsibility away from society or industry and onto individu-
and consider which parts are most important to address? als. Framing impacts as an individual problem has helped to slow policy
One approach is the ecological footprint, a measure that quantifies changes that could reduce fossil fuel consumption.
the demands we place on nature, either individually or collectively. You The footprint concept may be most useful in showing where we need
can calculate your individual footprint using online calculators, which give to work together—as in energy production or transportation planning. It
a questionnaire to assess consumption, such as electricity use, shopping, can also show where the need for action is most urgent. Environmental
and driving habits. This exercise can provide surprising insights into what progress usually occurs when whole societies agree to prioritize clean
kinds of consumption have the largest impacts. water, clean air, healthy food, or other improvements.
Footprints are often calculated in terms of global hectares (gha) What do you think? Are there aspects of your environmental impacts
of productive capacity. A hectare (ha) is an area 100 m × 100 m, and that you could easily change? That you could change with a little more
a global hectare acknowledges that we consume resources and services effort? What are some impacts that require societal action? How might
from around the world. A standard unit like the gha allows us to com- those affect our collective footprint?
pare consumption patterns. In many low-income regions, people consume
an average of around 2 gha per person. In wealthier countries, where we
drive cars, have a rich diet, and consume abundant material goods, the
per-person footprint can be 8 gha or more.
The average world footprint, according to the group Redefining 1.8
Progress, is about 2.7 gha, much more than the available, biologically Grazing land Crop land
1.6
productive area of around 1.8 gha per person. Our global footprints have Forest land Carbon
risen steadily over time, especially with growing carbon emissions and 1.4 Fishing grounds Built up
Number of planet Earths

croplands (fig. 1.7). The average U.S. resident requires 7.2 gha of biologi- 1.2
cally productive area. If everyone in the world adopted a North Ameri- World biocapacity
can lifestyle, we would need about four more planets to support us all 1.0

sustainably. 0.8

How does this approach influence action? 0.6

0.4
A strength of the ecological footprint idea is that it helps us feel agency:
0.2
it helps us think about ways that we can take action to make a difference.
Most of us want to feel good about our environmental impacts, and we 0
want to believe that we have power to make a change. And cumulatively, 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
modifying our consumption practices matters dramatically.
On the other hand, the ecological footprint framework can also FIGURE 1.7 Humanity’s ecological footprint has nearly tripled since 1961,
reveal the limits of our agency. Often, we have little power to change our when we began to ­collect global environmental data.
consumption practices, because society as a whole constrains what we Source: WWF, Global Footprint Network, 2018.

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 15

Section Review local climate change, so they recognized that environmental stew-
1. Why is population an important question in environmental science? ardship was an economic necessity. The pioneering British plant
In what ways is population less of a problem than in earlier years? physiologist Stephen Hales, for instance, suggested that conserv-
2. In what ways is pollution still a problem? Has it improved? Why? ing green plants preserved rainfall. His ideas were put into practice
3. What is an “ecological footprint”?
in 1764 on the Caribbean island of Tobago, where about 20 per-
cent of the land was designated as “reserved in wood for rains.”
Similarly, Pierre Poivre, an early French governor of Mauritius,

1.2
an island in the Indian Ocean, was appalled at the environmental and
Where Do Our Ideas About social devastation caused by destruction of wildlife (such as the flight-
Our Environment Come From? less dodo) and the felling of ebony forests on the island by early Euro-
pean settlers. In 1769, Poivre declared that one-quarter of the island
∙ Utilitarian conservation seeks to protect useful resources. was to be preserved in forests, particularly on steep mountain slopes
∙ Wilderness preservation aims to preserve wilderness for aes- and along waterways. Mauritius remains a model for balancing nature
thetic, intellectual, or philosophical value. and human needs. Its forest reserves shelter a larger percentage of its
original flora and fauna than most other human-occupied islands.
∙ Modern environmental movements have formed to fight pollu-
tion, injustice, and poverty.
Current ideas have followed industrialization
Debates about human misuse of nature have a long history. Plato
complained in the fourth century B.C.E. that Greece once had Many of our current ideas about our environment and its resources
been blessed with fertile soil and clothed with abundant forests were articulated by writers and thinkers in the past 150 years.
of fine trees. After the trees were cut to build houses and ships, Although many earlier societies had negative impacts on their
however, heavy rains washed the soil into the sea, leaving only a environments, recent technological innovations have greatly accel-
rocky “skeleton of a body wasted by disease.” Springs and rivers erated our impacts. As a consequence of these changes, different
dried up and farming became all but impossible (fig. 1.8). Many approaches have developed for understanding and protecting our
classical authors regarded Earth as a living being, vulnerable to environment.
aging, illness, and even mortality following the devastation of for- We can divide conservation history and environmental activ-
est clearing, soil degradation, and other activities. ism into at least four distinct stages: (1) pragmatic resource conser-
Some of the earliest scientific studies of environmental deg- vation, (2) moral and aesthetic nature preservation, (3) a growing
radation were carried out in the eighteenth century by French and concern about health and ecological damage caused by pollution,
British colonial administrators. These administrators, some of and (4) global environmental citizenship. Each era focused on dif-
whom were trained scientists, observed rapid soil loss and dry- ferent problems and each suggested a distinctive set of solutions.
ing wells that resulted from intensive colonial production of sugar These stages are not necessarily mutually exclusive, however.
and other commodities. These early conservationists observed and Ideas from all these stages persist today, shaping our ideas and
understood the connection between deforestation, soil erosion, and priorities about environmental resources and conservation. But it
is useful to associate these ideas with particular periods in history
that inspired their widespread adoption.

Stage 1. Resource waste inspired pragmatic,

utilitarian conservation
Many historians consider the publication of Man and Nature in
1864 by geographer George Perkins Marsh as the wellspring of
environmental protection in North America. Marsh, who also
was a lawyer, politician, and diplomat, traveled widely around
the Mediterranean as part of his diplomatic duties in Turkey and
Italy. He read widely in the classics (including Plato) and person-
ally observed the damage caused by the excessive grazing by goats
and sheep and by the deforestation of steep hillsides. Alarmed
by the wanton destruction and profligate waste of resources still
occurring on the American frontier in his lifetime, he warned of its
ecological consequences. Largely as a result of his book, national
FIGURE 1.8 Nearly 2,500 years ago, Plato lamented land forest reserves were established in the United States in 1873 to
degradation that denuded the hills of Greece. Have we learned from protect dwindling timber supplies and endangered watersheds.
history’s lessons? Among those influenced by Marsh’s warnings were President
Ken Walsh/Alamy Stock Photo Theodore Roosevelt (fig. 1.9a) and his chief conservation advisor,

16 Environmental Science
 This pragmatic approach still can be seen today in the multiple use
policies of the Forest Service.

Stage 2. Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired

the preservation movement
John Muir (fig. 1.9c) was a geologist, author, and first president
of the Sierra Club. He strenuously opposed Pinchot’s utilitarian
approach. Muir struggled to protect California’s wild lands, includ-
ing rapidly dwindling giant sequoia forests, from loggers and from
dam-builders. Logging and dams had clear utilitarian value, but
(a) President Teddy Roosevelt (b) Gifford Pinchot
Muir argued that forests and wild rivers also had value, even if they
weren’t “useful” for making money and building houses. He argued
that nature deserves to exist for its own sake, regardless of its use-
fulness to us. Aesthetic and spiritual values formed the core of his
philosophy of nature protection. This outlook has been called bio-
centric preservation because it emphasizes the fundamental right
of other organisms to exist and to pursue their own interests. Muir
wrote: “The world, we are told, was made for man. A presumption
that is totally unsupported by the facts. . . . Nature’s object in making
animals and plants might possibly be first of all the happiness of each
one of them. . . . Why ought man to value himself as more than an
infinitely small unit of the one great unit of creation?”
(c) John Muir (d) Aldo Leopold Muir, who was an early explorer and interpreter of the Sierra
FIGURE 1.9 Some early pioneers of the American conservation move- Nevada Mountains in California, fought long and hard for the
ment. President Teddy Roosevelt (a) and his main advisor Gifford Pinchot establishment of Yosemite and Kings Canyon National Parks.
(b) emphasized pragmatic resource conservation, while John Muir (c) and The National Park Service, established in 1916, was first headed
Aldo Leopold (d) focused on ethical and aesthetic relationships. by Muir’s disciple Stephen Mather and has always been oriented
(a) Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-77199]; toward preservation of nature in its purest state. It has often been
(b) Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division [LC-USZ62-103915];
(c) Bettmann/Getty Images; (d) AP Images at odds with Pinchot’s utilitarian Forest Service.
In 1935, pioneering wildlife ecologist Aldo Leopold
(fig. 1.9d) bought a small, worn-out farm in central Wisconsin.
A dilapidated chicken shack, the only remaining building, was
Gifford Pinchot (fig. 1.9b). In 1905, Roosevelt, who was the leader remodeled into a rustic cabin (fig. 1.10). Working together with
of the populist, progressive movement, moved the Forest Service his children, Leopold planted thousands of trees in a practical
out of the corruption-filled Interior Department into the Depart- experiment in restoring the health and beauty of the land. Leo-
ment of Agriculture. Pinchot became the founding head of this pold argued for stewardship of the land. He wrote of “the land
new agency. He put resource management on an honest, rational, ethic,” by which we should care for the land because it’s the right
and scientific basis for the first time in our history. Together with thing to do—as well as the smart thing. Leopold’s close study of
naturalists and activists such as John Muir, William Brewster, his depleted, but biologically diverse farm became the main focus
and George Bird Grinnell, Roosevelt and Pinchot established the of A Sand County Almanac, a much beloved collection of essays
framework of our national forest, park, and wildlife refuge sys- about our relation with nature. In it, Leopold wrote, “We abuse
tems, passed game protection laws, and tried to stop some of the land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When
most flagrant abuses of the public domain. we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to
The basis of Roosevelt’s and Pinchot’s policies was pragmatic use it with love and respect.”
utilitarian conservation. They argued that the forests should be
saved “not because they are beautiful or because they shelter wild
Quantitative Reasoning
creatures of the wilderness, but only to provide homes and jobs
for people.” Resources should be used “for the greatest good, for Most successful pollution control and conservation efforts have
succeeded only when it became possible to gather reliable data,
the greatest number for the longest time.” “There has been a fun-
such as the number of illnesses and economic losses resulting
damental misconception,” Pinchot said, “that conservation means from air pollution. Discuss with other students: Are you more con-
nothing but husbanding of resources for future generations. Noth- vinced of a problem when you see data? Why or why not? Do you,
ing could be further from the truth. The first principle of conserva- or those around you, feel that environmental data is easy to under-
tion is development and use of the natural resources now existing stand when you see it?
on this continent for the benefit of the people who live here now.

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 17

 (a) Rachel Carson (b) Bill McKibben

FIGURE 1.10 Aldo Leopold’s Wisconsin shack, the main location for his
Sand County Almanac, in which he wrote, “A thing is right when it tends to
preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is
wrong when it tends otherwise.” How might you apply this to your life?
William P. Cunningham

Stage 3. Rising pollution levels led to the

modern environmental movement
The undesirable effects of pollution probably have been recog-
(c) Van Jones (d) Wangari Maathai
nized at least as long as those of forest destruction. In 1273, King
Edward I of England threatened to hang anyone burning coal in FIGURE 1.11 Among many distinguished environmental leaders in
London, because of the acrid smoke it produced. In 1661, the ­ odern times, (a) Rachel Carson, (b) Bill McKibben, (c) Van Jones, and
m
English diarist John Evelyn complained about the noxious air pol- (d) Wangari Maathai stand out for their dedication, innovation, and bravery.
(a) Alfred Eisenstaedt/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images; (b) ZUMA Press,Inc./
lution caused by coal fires and factories and suggested that sweet- Alamy StockPhoto; (c) Ryan Rodrick Beiler/Shutterstock; (d) s_bukley/Shutterstock
smelling trees be planted to purify city air. Increasingly dangerous
smog attacks in Britain led in 1880 to the formation of a national Alberta’s tar sands to export terminals in Texas. Many pipeline
Fog and Smoke Committee to combat this problem. protests since then have helped push for alternatives to oil and gas.
The tremendous industrial expansion during and after the Sec-
ond World War added a new set of concerns to the environmental Stage 4. Environmental quality is tied to social
agenda. Silent Spring, written by Rachel Carson (fig. 1.11a) and
published in 1962, awakened the public to the threats of pollution
progress
and toxic chemicals to humans as well as other species. The move- Some have claimed that the roots of the environmental movement
ment she engendered has been called modern environmentalism, are elitist—promoting the interests of a wealthy minority who
with concerns that include both environmental resources and pol- can afford to vacation in wilderness. In fact, most environmen-
lution. Like many environmentalists, Carson was concerned with tal leaders have seen social justice and environmental equity as
the ways pollution simultaneously endangered human health and closely linked. Gifford Pinchot, Teddy Roosevelt, and John Muir
the survival of other species. all strove to keep land and resources accessible to the public, at
As environmental concerns have expanded to climate action, a time when public lands, forests, and waterways were increas-
one of the new leaders has been Bill McKibben (fig. 1.11b), an ingly controlled by industrial interests, especially railroad, min-
author, educator, and environmentalist who has written extensively ing, and logging companies.
about climate change and has led campaigns to demand political Early environmentalists were not free of racism: they often
action on this existential threat. As scholar in residence at Middle- showed little respect for Indigenous, Black, or Hispanic communi-
bury College, he worked with a group of undergraduate students ties and their rights to the land. But they did help to protect lands,
to create 350.org, an organization that has sponsored thousands of waters, and biodiversity from wanton destruction by industry. Aldo
demonstrations around the world to raise public awareness about Leopold, a founder of the Wilderness Society, promoted ideas of
climate change. The group, which sparked actions for fossil fuel land stewardship among farmers, fishers, and hunters. Robert
divestment in many campuses and communities, has been widely Marshall, also a founder of the Wilderness Society, campaigned
praised for its creative use of social media and public organization. all his life for social and economic justice for low-income groups.
McKibben and 350.org led the opposition to the Keystone XL Many environmental leaders grew up in working-class families, so
pipeline project, which was designed to transport crude oil from their sympathy with social causes is not surprising.

18 Environmental Science
 Issues of social justice are increasingly central to discussions
of sustainability and environmental policy. Anthony Kapel “Van”
Jones (fig. 1.11c) is one who has spoken powerfully for social and
environmental progress, helping to bring visibility to the power
that people of color can have in environmental action. As both a
social justice and environmental activist, Jones has fought poverty
and racial injustice by creating hundreds of thousands of “green-
collar” jobs installing solar systems and upgrading the energy
efficiency of millions of American homes. He served as President
Barack Obama’s Special Advisor for Green Jobs and has worked
to build a “green economy for everyone.” He has also brought art-
ists, athletes, and local leaders into national dialogues and engage-
ment around social and environmental issues.
Many of today’s leading environmental thinkers come
from developing nations, where poverty and environmental
degradation plague hundreds of millions of people. Dr. Wan-
gari Maathai of Kenya (1940–2011) was a notable example. FIGURE 1.12 Youth leadership and international engagement are
In 1977, Dr. Maathai (see fig. 1.11d) founded the Green Belt central to global environmentalism. Greta Thunberg’s school strike for the
Movement in her native Kenya as a way of both organizing climate, which she began at just 15 years old, drew the world’s attention
poor rural women and restoring their environment. Beginning to the climate crisis and showed that, as she has said, “no one is too
at a small, local scale, this organization has grown to more than small to make a difference.”
JasperChamber/AlamyStock Photo
600 grassroots networks across Kenya. They have planted more
than 30 million trees, while mobilizing communities for self-
determination, justice, equity, poverty reduction, and environ-
mental conservation. Dr. Maathai was elected to the Kenyan before it was finally dismissed in 2020, but it opened a pathway for
Parliament and served as assistant minister for environment similar suits, as well as raising awareness.
and natural resources. Her leadership helped bring democracy Young people of color and indigenous people, on the front
and good government to her country. In 2004, she received the lines of many environmental disasters, have focused global
Nobel Peace Prize for her work, the first time a Nobel has been attention on environmental harms and climate impacts. Their
awarded for environmental action. In her acceptance speech, protests over oil pipelines, land losses to rising seas, air pollution,
she said, “Working together, we have proven that sustainable water pollution, and other issues have provided leadership and
development is possible; that reforestation of degraded land is awareness around the world. The 2016 protests over the Dakota
possible; and that exemplary governance is possible when ordi- Access pipeline at the Standing Rock Sioux reservation in North
nary citizens are informed, sensitized, mobilized and involved Dakota, united indigenous youth activists and riveted global
in direct action for their environment.” attention on the impacts of oil pipelines on water quality, climate
Recent years have seen a growing awareness of the intercon- change, and environmental justice. To be clear, people of color
nectedness of global environmental issues. Concerns about cli- and indigenous groups have been protesting these issues for
mate change, particularly, have helped focus attention on global many generations. But broader appreciation and support for their
environmentalism. We all share a common environment at this messages have emerged relatively recently.
global scale. Often, we find that protecting local landscapes and Social media help youth activists and people of color build
environments requires that we consider the life-support systems of community and share ideas, news, and opportunities. Influential
the whole planet. writers use podcasts, Instagram, and other media to connect.
Podcasts written and hosted by Black environmental writers and
Youth leadership and people of color are thinkers are increasingly common, such as “How to Save a Planet,”
“BrownGirlGreen,” and “Wild in the City.” Also important are
transforming environmental ideas organizations that support diversity in environmentalism, such as
In recent decades, youth leaders have advanced environmental per- such as Green 2.0, to ensure that their voices and insights remain
spectives and action. Climate change, especially, has rallied young present.
people, who have much more to lose as the climate warms than
older people do (fig. 1.12). A landmark lawsuit, Juliana v. United Section Review
States, helped bring this engagement into public view. In this case, 1. Differentiate “conservation” and “preservation.” Identify one per-
submitted in 2015, a group of 21 young people sued the U.S. gov- son associated with each.
ernment for failing to protect them from known hazards of ris- 2. What was Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring about? Why?
ing greenhouse gas emissions. The case won numerous challenges 3. In what ways is environmental quality tied to social progress?

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Our Environment 19

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
sellaisille kuin Nikki Purolakin, jonka pellot kasvoivat vahvaa
pajukkoa.

Maanomistusoloissa oli kyllä nurinkurista ja pikaisesti korjattavaa,

mutta oli merkillepantavaa, että toiset odottivat sitä täyttäen
velvollisuutensa työssä ja kansalaiskunnossa, toiset taas laiskotellen
ja suunnitellen mielettömiä tuulentupia.

Oli jo rauhoituttu, ja muutamat miehistä jo kuorsailivat heinissä,

joita oli vuoteeksi kannettu ladon kupeelle. Ville kujeili tapansa
mukaan tyttöjen kanssa, ja Penttikin aikoi oikaista tuoksuville heinille
lepäämään. Mutta Nikki Purola ei hellittänyt. Virkkoi kuin härnäten:

— Kyllä venäläinen on sopuisa mies ja muutenkin mukava.

Naurusuulla tämäkin vänrikki aina minut vastaan ottaa, kun
puheillaan käyn. Viime sunnuntaina kävi meillä ja piti lapsiakin
sylissään.

— Taisi taputella eukkoasikin, sinkosi Pentti.

Nikki hätkähti, mutta pian hän oli ennallaan.

Suu kureessa virkkoi:

— Mitäpä se siitä, onhan sillä nuorempiakin. Kuuluu hyväilevän

tätäkin
Mikkolan Vilmaa.

Pentti aikoi kirota, mutta hillitsi itsensä. Huomasipas kanalja, millä

pistää. Koko kylä tiesi, että hän oli katsellut Mikkolan tytärtä kuin
omanaan ja antanut tytönkin siitä jo tietää. Olisiko nyt ryssäroisto
käynyt hänenkin kimppuunsa, vai muutenko Nikki tahtoi vain
kiusoitella häntä? Kuka sen tiesi?
 Tuntui pahalta ajatellessakin, että Koljakoff lähenteleisi Vilmaa,
joka oli jo kuin hänen omansa. Eihän tyttö tietysti antanut itseään
liiaksi lähennellä, mutta sittenkin. Sanovat, että Koljakoff saa tytön
mistä vain tahtoo heti kynsiinsä, on semmoinen liehakoitsija. Sillä
pirulla onkin silmät kuin hiilet ja muutenkin… mietti Pentti synkistyen.
Illalla, kun työ loppuu, on hänen mentävä Mikkolaan ja saatava selvä
tästä.

Hän oli kuullut kerrottavan monista ryssien tekemistä

raiskauksista. Miten naiset saattoivatkin olla niin häpeämättömiä? Ja
vielä maaseutujen naiset, jotka tähän asti siveydessä olivat käyneet
kaupunkisisartensa edellä. Nyt ryssien hutsuiksi. Kylläpä oltiin
matalalla!

Pentti nousi ja herätteli heinäväen töihin, itse liehuen tulisesti

kiusaavia ajatuksiaan karkoitlaakseen.

Mutta ladon kupeelle jäi Ville vielä loikomaan. Viihtyisässä

varjossa hän mietti kevyttä elämäänsä. Työ ei ollut koskaan häntä
huvittanut, eikä hän voinut käsittää, miksi jotkut sitä niin rakastivat.
Siitähän sai sellaisen väsymyksen ja pahanolontunteen, että mistään
ei voinut nauttia. Herrojen olo lienee verratonta, kun ei tarvitse edes
ajatella työtä, sellaisten, jotka elivät ilman virkaa ja mitään huolia
taloudesta.

Hänelle kävi Jaakon ja Pentin yhtämittainen hoputus kiusalliseksi.

Ei ollut muuta pelastusta siitä kuin naiminen. Rikas eukko pelastaisi
työnteon vaivasta. Rahanaimisestakin voisi tosin koitua harmia
vastaisuudessa, mutta muutakaan sopivaa keinoa ei keksinyt.

Tuli mieleen rikas naapuri, Kinkomaa, ja talon komea tytär Helena.

Siinä olisi kohtalon langat, kun uskaltaisi tarttua kiinni. Eihän mikään
estänyt koettamasta. Kinkomaassa ei ollut muuta talon perhettä kuin
tyttö kahden pienen veljensä kanssa. Vanhukset olivat kuolleet, ja
taloa hoiti pehtori. Komeasti elettiin, kaipa heillä varoja oli.

Ville oli saanut uuden tuuman. Kinkomaa oli komea talo ja Helena
rehevä ja kaunis tyttö. Mikä esti koettamasta onneaan!
IV.

Maaseutu oli voimakkaassa käymistilassa. Sydänmaitten väestö

huomasi lapsipuolen asemansa, jossa se tähän asti oli ollut, ja
heräsi nyt ripeään edistystyöhön. Kokouksia pidettiin tuon tuostakin,
ja puhujat vetosivat maaseutusivistyksen merkitykseen ja
yhteenliittymiseen valtiollisesti ja yhteiskunnallisesti.

Maattomat eivät voineet tulla mukaan tähän uudistustyöhön.

Sosiaalidemokratia oli saanut heidät sieluineen ja ruumiineen
omakseen. Torpparit ja mäkitupalaiset uneksivat omasta maasta ja
mukaan vedettyinä kannattivat puoluetta, joka oli heitä vastaan. Ei
mitään itsenäisiä isäntiä lisäämään hyvinvoipia porvareja, kituvia
vuokralaisia vain ja heidän äänensä vahvistamaan teollisuustyöväen
pyrkimyksiä.

Jaakko oli mukana maaseudun herätystyössä koko sielullaan eikä

voinut olla karvain mielin ajattelemalta, että torppariväestö ei
kuulunut siihen, vaan harhaan johdettuna joutui sosialistikiihottajien
narriksi. Hän oli tästä koettanut puhua torppareilleen, mutta turhaan.
Yksi ainoa uskoi hänen sanojaan, liittyi maalaisseuraan ja otti osaa
muihinkin edistysrientoihin.
 Maaton väestö oli saanut vielä vallityön kestäessä omituisen
hermosysäyksen. Vanhatkin ja vakaiset mökinmiehet menettivät
selkärankansa ja menivät tuulen mukana omituiseen
ryssäläisveljestymiseen, jossa oli pohjana sosialismin suuresti
huudettu vapaus-veljeys-tasa-arvo.

Miten se koskikaan terveeseen suomalaiseen mieleen tämä

veljeily. Nähdessään sitä omalla pihallaan tunsi Jaakko usein
tulevansa kuin sairaaksi. Työkuntoisuus tässäkin veti rajaviivan
itsenäisen ja selkärangattoman aineksen välille. Ja siksipä veltoista
veljeilijöistä oli uuttera torpanmies, joka taloudellisesti edistyi, porvari
ja demokratian vastustaja. Sosialistinen sanomalehdistö veti rajat
selviksi.

Hautamäessä oli jo saatu heinänkorjuu melkein loppuun

suoritetuksi, kun tuli sateisia päiviä. Jaakko oli kutsunut muutamana
sadepäivänä talon torpparit koolle neuvotellakseen heidän kanssaan
metsän käytöstä heidän alueillaan. Torpparit tulivatkin ja istuivat
juroina talon penkeillä.

Jaakko esitti suunnitelmansa. Jokaisen oli koottava maassa

olevaa puuta keittopuiksi, ja halot, mitä aiottiin talvella käyttää, oli
edellisenä vuotena tehtävä ja katolliset puuvajat rakenneltava joka
torppaan, jossa sellaista ei vielä ollut.

— Mutta siitähän tulee meille kustannuksia, arvelivat miehet.

— Talo saa maksaa vajantekokustannukset, ja onhan teidän

parempi polttaa kuivia puita kuin kituutella tuoreita, äsken metsästä
vedettyjä.
 Toiset suostuivat arvelematta, toiset sanoivat ensin miettivänsä
asiaa. Jaakko sanoi olevan peruuttamattoman vaatimuksensa, että
niin oli tehtävä kuin hän oli esittänyt.

— Vai niin, sanoivat vastustajat, ja heidän silmänsä välähtivät.

Mitä se oli? kysyi Jaakko itseltään. Vihaako ja närkästystä siitä,

että hän vaati miehiä säästämään metsää, kansallisomaisuutta. Jos
heillä olisi oma maa ja metsäosuutensa, kaataisivat he puita
varmasti harkiten ja järkevästi.

Tämäkin sai Jaakon ajattelemaan tulevaisuutta, jolloin päästäisiin

siihen, että torpat muodostettaisiin itsenäisiksi tiloiksi.

Myöhemmällä oli Hautamäessä alkava maalaisseuran kokous, ja

Jaakko oli torpparejaan pyytänyt jäämään kokoukseen. Vain yksi,
Suojärven vanha Eenokki, oli jäänyt. Hän oli jo aikaisemminkin
ottanut poikineen osaa näihin harrastuksiin.

Sade rapisi ikkunaruutuihin. Talon oma työväki korjaili vajoissa

työkaluja, ja toiset vetelivät makeita unia. Kun ei ollut mitään kiirettä,
ei Jaakko heitä häirinnyt.

Vähin erin saapui miehiä ja naisia kokoukseen. Sade esti etempää

saapumasta, ja osanoton niukkuus vaikutti hieman masentavasti.
Ville, ainainen virnistelijä, vielä pilaili. Hän oli päässyt hyvään alkuun
Kinkomaan tyttären kanssa, ja tämä ylpeä tyttö halveksi kaikkea
maalaista ja maalaisten harrastuksia. Villen täytyi soutaa samoja
vesiä. Kun Jaakko pääsi tästä selville, halveksi hän veljeään eikä
ryhtynyt hänen kanssaan puheisiin. Ville oli pöyhkeillyt veljilleen,
sanoen naivansa Kinkomaan tyttären, ja siihen oli Jaakko arvellut:
 — Parasta on. Pääsetkin tästä sitten laiskottelemasta.

Pentti kulki askareissaan äänetönnä. Hän oli käynyt kerran

Mikkolassa ja tavannut Vilman tavanmukaisella iloisella, puheliaalla
tuulellaan. Mutta kun Pentti otti puheeksi vänrikin, punastui tyttö ja
tuli hämilleen. Se oli huono merkki Pentin mielestä ja lisäsi hänen
epäluuloaan. Mualtakin, kuin Nikin suusta heinäniityllä, hän oli
kuullut vihjauksia vänrikin liehittelystä ja Mikkolassa käynneistä.

Pentin tovereita oli muutama kuukausi sitten lähtenyt Saksaan, ja

värvääjä oli kehottanut häntäkin lähtemään. Asia jäi hänen
mieleensä ja kyti siellä hiljalleen. Ryssien väkivalta ja sotkeminen
suututti ja vaati lähtemään, toisaalta taas rauhallinen kotiahertelu ja
iloinen, rehevä Vilma piteli kiinni kotikamarassa.

Miten nyt, jos oli totta, että Vilma oli sellainen ja alentui ryssän
heilaksi hänestä välittämättä? Silloin ei häntä enää pidättäisi mikään.
Ja muutenkin. Poikien povessa, jotka lähtivät vieraalle maalle, kyti
maan vapautusunelma. Sekin osaltaan vaati ajattelemaan lähtöä.

Kun olisi ensin saanut jonkun selvyyden Vilmasta. Olisihan

sittenkin voinut lähteä, jos tiesi, että tyttö oli uskollinen ja lupaisi
odottaa. Vielä suuremmallakin syyllä.

Nyt oli kaikki sekavaa ja epämääräisiä.

V.

Jaakko käveli Nevalaan, jonka isännälle hänellä oli asiaa. Kapea

metsätie kiemurteli ahojen poikki, joita ennen oli kaskettu ja jotka nyt
kasvoivat kaunista koivikkoa, painui väliin pienen metsäniityn poikki
oikaisten Nevalan alueelle, jossa oli lukuisasti torppia ja mäkitupia.

Nevalainen oli aina huonoissa väleissä alustalaistensa kanssa.

Joskus tuli riitaa käräjänkäyntiin asti. Nytkin oli puhuttu kylällä, että
Nevalainen aikoo panna täytäntöön häätötuomion, jonka viime
käräjissä oli saanut eräälle mökkiläiselleen. Vaikka tämä ei
kuulunutkaan mitään Jaakolle, tuntui se hänestä pahalta, ja nyt, kun
sattui muutakin asiaa Nevalaan, hän aikoi pyytää naapuriansa
jättämään häätötoimenpiteensä.

Joskus oli ollut heillä ennenkin puhetta torppariasioista, ja Jaakko

oli kehoitellut häntä sovintoon alustalaistensa kanssa. Nevalainen oli
siihen vain hymähtänyt ja sanonut ajavansa pois kaikki torpparit,
joilla ei ollut vuokrasopimusta.

— Mutta kuka sinun töitäsi sitten tekee? oli Jaakko kysynyt.

— Tietysti minä sitten saan heidät pitää kokonaan töissäni, oli

Nevalainen arvellut.
 — Entäpä jos menevätkin tehtaaseen.

— Samantekevä. Elän minä ilman heitäkin.

Suuret viljelykset oli Nevalaisella ja työväkeäkin lukuisasti. Talossa

elettiin komeasti, ja pojat eivät viitsineet töissä liikkua. Tyttäret olivat
ylpeitä, ja heistä kerrottiin kylillä yhtä ja toista vähemmän edullista.
Vanhempi tytär oli muutamana kesänä pitemmän aikaa poissa kotoa.
Kerrottiin hänen poissaollessaan synnyttäneen ja lasta hoidettavan
kaupungissa. Nuorempi tytär oli tullut äskettäin pääkaupungin
tanssiopistosta ja nyt häh sekoitti päät kylän nuorilta miehiltä
keimailullaan.

Jaakko oli ehtinyt jo peltojen laitaan. Siinä oli mökki, jonka asukas
oli tuomittu jättämään kotinsa.

Jaakkoa kohtasi outo näky. Häätöä pantiin toimeen parhaillaan.

Nimismies, apulaisenaan poliisi, repi irti tuvasta ovia ja akkunoita.
Yksi mies hajoitti katolla savupiippua.

Nevalainen seisoi vieressä ja katseli naureksien. Vähän

syrjemmässä seisoi mökin asukas alakuloisena katsellen
hävitystyötä. Talouskaluja oli heitelty hajalleen pihamaalle.

Jaakon mieltä kirveli ja etoi ilkeä näky. Kuinkahan paljon

Nevalainen hyötyi rumasta teostaan? Peltoa ei ollut kuin muutaman
kapan ala, ja tupa oli melkein viheliäinen. Konna! ajatteli Jaakko.
Tämä on samaa kuin ajamalla ajaisi irtolaisia, maattomia maassa
vehkeilevien ryssien syliin.

Jaakko meni ensin syrjässä seisovan mökinmiehen, Pellonpään

Heikin, pakinoille.
 — Näinkös ne Heikin kodin hävittävät, virkkoi hän koettaen
lähestyä miestä lämpimästi.

Mies katseli arastellen. Hän näytti kuin typertyneeltä näkemänsä

kodin hävityksen johdosta.

— Niinhän ne… Hautamäen isäntä ei taidakaan tällä tavoin

mökkiläisiään häätää?

Nevalainen oli huomannut vieraan ja tuli puheille. Jaakko tervehti

kylmästi.

— Tämä Heikki kun ei muuten tästä lähtenyt, niin piti tällaiseen…

mitä naapurille kuuluu?

— Vaikeatapa se lienee jokaiselle lähtö omasta kodista. Huonoon

tehtävään on naapuri ryhtynyt, sanoi Jaakko vain.

Nevalainen katseli neuvottomana, keksimättä mitä virkkaisi. Eikö

tämä hautamäkeläinen ollutkaan yhtä mieltä…?

— Oli tässä vähän niinkuin tiellä, eihän sitä muuten… Palaa paljon
puitakin näissä tönöissä.

— Vai ei ollut Nevalaisella liikkuma-alaa, naurahti Jaakko, mutta

Nevalainen kiivastui huomatessaan, että naapuri asettui kokonaan
häädettävän puolelle.

— Oliko sulla asiaa? En jouda tässä tyhjää tarinoimaan.

Jaakko hymähti. Ihmepä olisi ollutkin, ellei Nevalainen olisi

nokkaansa nostanut.
 — Tulin vain sanomaan, että raja-aita Hautamäen ja Nevalan
maitten välillä on rikki ja sopimuksen mukaan on se nyt naapurin
korjautettava.

Vai niin. Tehdään sitten rautalangasta, että kestää.

Se oli olevinaan komeutta, ja Nevala ilostui nauramaan, että oli

keksinyt jotain naapuria loukkaavaa.

— Saapahan sen laittaa vaikka piikkilangasta, ryssiltähän sitä saa.

Ukko lähti menemään. Jaakon sana oli sattunut. Vallitöitä johtava

upseeri majaili Nevalassa, ja isäntä oli liehakoinut häntä siksi
notkeaselkäisenä, ettei Nevalan maalta otettu yhtään turvetta
juoksuhautoihin, ja muutenkin näyttiin säästettävän Nevalan metsää.

Ukko oli mennyt vähän matkaa, mutta kääntyi takaisin. Kasvot

hehkuivat punaisina.

— Kyllä minä aidoistani huolen pidän, mutta kuinka on sen sinun

velkasi laita? Korkoineen se tekee vähän yli viisituhatta markkaa. Et
ole sitä kai muistanutkaan.

Kovinpa kipeästi olikin koskenut Nevalaiseen hänen äskeinen

huomautuksensa ryssän liehakoimisesta, koskapa velasta piti
muistuttaa.

— Kyllä minä sen muistan. Onko naapurilla siis tarkoitus sanoa

laina maksettavaksi?

— Vaikkapa maksaisitkin. Se on jo isäukon aikuista asiaa, ja

onhan
Hautamäki nyt hyvissä varoissa.
 Nevala sanoi tämän hieman pisteliäästi. Vaikka Hautamäki oli
paikkakunnan elinvoimaisin ja mailtaan ja metsiltään paras talo, oli
ukko jättänyt poikiensa huollettavaksi hieman velkojakin. Näistä oli jo
osa makseltu Jaakon toimesta. Nevalainen ja pari muuta
saamamiestä oli vielä suorittamatta.

— Ainahan sitä sen verran löytyy, virkkoi Jaakko huolettomasti ja

kääntyi menemään.

Tuntui masentavalta ajatellessa Nevalaisen röyhkeää käytöstä.

Mies oli sangen alhaalla. Ajoi maantielle mökkiläisiään ja kantoi
vallityöstä ryssän avulla maksua kahdesta hevosesta, vaikka niitä ei
työhön käytettykään.

Vaati velkaansa, mutta vaatikoon. Tosin olis kaikki talon tulot

tarvittu suonkuivaukseen, mutta ei sopinut jättää enää odottamaan
lautamiestä. Pentti saa mennä huomenna maksamaan.

Miten käy yhteiskunnan tulevaisuudessa, kun siinä on tällaisia

miehiä? mietti Jaakko alakuloisena. Hän ei voinut ummistaa silmiään
koko kansan kohtaloilta. Terve yhteiskunta piti yllä tervettä valtiota,
mutta terve yhteiskunta muodostui vain terveistä yksilöistä.
Nevalaisen tapaiset miehet olivat mätäpaiseita. Ne eivät
ennustaneet rauhallista tulevaisuutta.

Jaakko oli joutunut omien viljelysten alueelle ja tapasi Pentin, joka

taluttaen pyöräänsä palasi kylästä.

— Missä olet ollut? kysyi Jaakko kävellen veljensä rinnalla.

— Kirkonkylässä.
 Kumpainenkin käveli tämän jälkeen äänettömänä. Jaakko koetti
arvailla, millä asioilla Pentti oli siellä liikkunut. Pentti taas mietti,
sanoako veljelle Saksaan-lähdön aikeistaan.

Pentin oli ensiksi puhuttava. Jaakko ei tahtonut olla utelias.

— Olin kuulemassa keitä on Saksaan lähtenyt, sanoi Pentti.

Jaakon mielenkiinto heräsi. Hän arvasi heti veljensä myöskin

suunnittelevan lähtöä. Eihän se ihmekään ollut. Kaikki
jaloluonteisimmat nuorukaiset sitä suunnittelivat. Toiset pääsivät
lähtemään, mutta useimmilla oli esteensä, mikä milläkin.

— Ja aiotko sitten sinäkin lähteä? kysyi Jaakko.

— Olenhan sitä joskus ajatellut, vastasi Pentti hetken kuluttua. —

Ryssien isännöimisestä pitäisi tässä maassa tehdä kerrankin loppu.
Mutta kansa, joka kerran vielä nousee, tarvitsee kokeneita johtajia.

— Onhan se niinkin, ja minä en sinua tahdo kieltää enkä käskeä.

Sinun on noudatettava vakaumustasi.

Siitä ei puhuttu enää sen enempää. Veljekset olivat harvasanaisia,

ja varsinkin tällä kertaa tuntuivat monet mietteet vaativan vaitioloa.
Pellonveräjällä vain virkkoi Jaakko veljelleen.

— Pitäisi käydä Nevalaiselle velka maksamassa. Minä en joutaisi

huomenna.

— Vaatiko ukko saatavataan? kysyi Pentti vilkkaasti.

— Siltä tuntui. Siihen menee tosin kaikki käteisvarat.

— Heittiö… mistä sinä otat rahat suonkuivaukseen?

 — Jostain kai sitä on saatava.

Lupaava viljapelto lainehti siinä tien kahden puolen. Se olisi kohta

leikattavana. Maa oli mainio lainan takaisin-maksaja. Jaakko oli
käyttänyt isänsä kuoleman jälkeen suuria summia viljelyksiin. Nyt ne
olivat jo melkein maksetut. Huomispäivänä lyhenisi taas velka, ja kun
vilja saataisiin puiduksi, ei olisi enää mitään huolta veloista.

Ville palaili myöskin kylästä. Oli ollut katsomassa Kinkomaan

maita ja metsiä ja viettänyt lopun iltapäivän Helenan seurassa.

Hänen asiansa oli nyt jo selvä. Hän ottaa tytön ja talon.

Joku viikko sitten oli Helena, hänen ollessaan käymässä

Kinkomaassa, uhannut myydä talon. »Myyn koko roskan ja muutan
poikien kanssa kaupunkiin. Mitä naisihminen talolla tekee», oli
sanonut. Ville oli lupautunut ostajaksi ja puolittain leikillä oli hän
luvannut tulla taloa katsomaan ja kauppoja hieromaan. Helena oli
naureksien kehoitellut julkeasti:

— Sopii vain tulla hieroksimaan!

Ja tämän jälkeen vielä merkitsevästi hymyillyt.

Ville oli ollut vain hyvillään tytön julkeudesta ja luvannut varmasti

tulla.

Ja nyt hän oli viettänyt poutaisen kauniin päivän Kinkomaassa.

Aamiaisen jälkeen oli hän kävellyt Kinkomaahan. Helena istui

piharakennuksen kuistilla näperrellen jotain käsityötä. Ville istui
häntä vastapäätä ja nauratteli tyttöä. Häntä miellytti erinomaisesti
tytön rehevä vartalo, joka näytti olevan kuin pehmeästä pumpulista,
iloiset, harmaat silmät ja tuore, punainen suu. Hiukset olivat vaaleat
ja huolellisesti kammatut.

Ville aivan sykähteli siinä häntä katsellessaan.

Tyttö näytti olevan tietoinen rehevyydestään ja koetti sitä vielä

hyvin näytellä pojalle. Hän tiesi sen vaikuttavan, ja siksipä hän ei
liioin peitellyt lyhyen hameen alta polveen asti paljastuvia
pohkeitaan.

— Tulin nyt sitä talonkauppaa tekemään, sanoi Ville.

— Se sopii, mennäänkö maita katsomaan?

— Mennään vaan.

— Mutta ensin meidän on kahvia saatava.

Ja tyttö pyörähti tuvan puolelle sitä laittamaan. Sillä aikaa oli

Villellä tilaisuus katsella ympärilleen. Hän oli kyllä käynyt satoja
kertoja talossa ja nähnyt kaikki tallin ylisiä myöten, mutta nyt hän
tarkasteli kaikkea kuin omaansa. Pellot levisivät sileinä talon
ympärillä. Muuan kumpare, jossa tuulimylly sijaitsi, oli vain kivikkoa,
mutta nytkin näytti siinä olevan hyvä ruis. Tuparakennus, jossa oli
vanhaan malliin kaksi pirttiä, oli jo lahonnutta paikoitellen, mutta
karjakartano ja piharakennus olivat melkein uudet. Helenan isä oli ne
ennen kuolemaansa rakennuttanut ja koettanut saada erilaisiksi kuin
muissa taloissa ja varallisuutta näyttäviksi. Niinpä karjakartanon
katossa oli pitkä rivi ikkunoita, ja piharakennus oli osaksi
kaksikerroksinen.

Ville käveli puutarhassa ja vihelteli tyytyväisenä. Paras talo

paikkakunnalla joutuisi pian hänelle, ja hänen ei tarvitseisi maksaa
siitä penniäkään. Saisi tytön vielä talon mukana. Helenan veljille
tosin oli kerran suoritettava osansa, mutta Hautamäestä tulisi kyllä
riittävästi siihen hänen osastaan.

Pehtori näkyi kävelevän kauempana pelloilla. Siellä korjattiin vielä

heiniä haasioilta. Myöhäänpä olivat pitäneet.

Helena oli tullut kahvikojeitten kera puutarhaan, ja nurmikolla

istuen nautittiin kahvia valkoisen leivän kanssa, jota ei ollut enää
kaikissa taloissa.

Kun Ville tästä huomautti, naureksi tyttö loikoen nurmella.

— Meillä kasattiinkin vehnäjauhosäkkejä viiluille, ja muutakin

makeata.

— Päästäppä isännäksi tähän taloon! ihasteli Ville.

— Miks'ei pääse, sanoithan ostavasi talon.

— Mitäpä siitä sitten, kun ei ole emäntää.

— Niinkuin et sitä saisi! Joutaisin tästä minäkin…

Taas oli tytön silmissä veitikkaa hänen sätkytellessään nurmikolla

sääriään.

— Taidat vain pilailla.

— Kuka kieltää koettamasta, onko se pilaa.

Ville kyllä tiesi talon maat ja metsät, mutta kuin leikiten mentiin
katsomaan. Helena kulki Villen rinnalla kapealla metsätiellä ja puhua
räpätteli mitä sattui. Tie oli paikoitellen kivikkoa, ja he tulivat siinä
tyrkkineeksi tahtomattaan toisiaan. Ville, vaikka olikin kylän
naissankari, ei ollut vielä koskenut Helenaa muuten kuin kädestä, ja
nyt hän tunsi kuin huumausta Helenan läheisyydestä. Tytön
täyteläinen vartalo, nauravat silmät ja punainen suu vetivät ja
viehättivät, ja ennenkuin huomasikaan, oli hän kietaissut tytön
syliinsä.

— No? sanoi tyttö ja kostein silmin jäi katselemaan poikaa. Tämä

sulki hänen suunsa loppumattomilla suudelmilla. Viimein painuivat
he sammalmättäälle istumaan.

— Tähänkö se talon katsominen jäikin? ilvehti tyttö voitostaan.

— Minä otankin sinut, läähätti Ville.

— Silloin sinun on otettava talo myöskin, sanoi tyttö huolettomasti.

Ville palasi kuin unessa kotiinsa. Peltoveräjällä vasta huomasi

olevansa kotona. Istuen veräjäpuulle viritti hän remuavan iloisen
laulun. Piti jotenkuten ilmaista onnellista mieltään. Nyt hänen ei
tarvitseisi tehdä työtä milloinkaan. Pehtori johtaisi taloutta, ja hän
nukkuisi aamuisin pitkään piharakennuksessa ja Helena kantaisi
hänelle aina sänkyyn vehnäskahvit.

Jaakolta oli pyydettävä jo tänään rahaa. Oli sovittu Helenan

kanssa, että heti mennään kaupunkiin kihlautumaan, ja kun
kumpaisellakin oli varoja, päätettiin ulottaa matka pääkaupunkiin
asti.

Jaakko oli kamarissaan kaapilla laskemassa rahoja huomista

velan suoritusta varten, kun Ville astui sisään.

— Hei, hei! Ihanhan sinä hukut setelipinoihin.

 Jaakko kääntyi katsomaan tulijaa, jonka remuavaa tervehdystä
hän kummasteli. Kun hän sitten jatkoi laskuaan äänetönnä, näytti
Ville käyvän neuvottomaksi. Mitähän Jaakko rahoilla? Oli vielä niin
vakavan näköinen. Hänenkin pitäisi joku tuhat saada. Nouseekohan
tästä rajuilma?

— Pitäisi saada minunkin rahaa, virkkoi hän kuin maaperää

tunnustellen.

— Mitä sinä rahalla? Ei taida riittää edes Nevalaisen velkaan, ja

työmiehillekin tarvittaisiin.

Ville ei piitannut Nevalaisen velasta eikä muustakaan. Kuultuaan

vastustusta hän sanoi vaatien:

— Minä tarvitsen huomenna tuhatviisisataa, ja sinä annat sen

tinkimättä.

Jaakko laski setelipinkat laatikkoon ja sulki kaapin.

— Parhaiksi riittää Nevalaisen velkaan… rahat tarvitaan talouteen.

— Osastani olen kai minäkin saapa. Kun muutan Kinkomaahan,

niin joutavat sitten rahasi puolestani.

— Kinkomaahan? Aiotko sinä sitten…

— naida tytön ja ottaa talon, se on selvää, jatkoi Ville, — … minä

tässä rupea aina sinun kynittävänäsi olemaan. Ja siksi minä
tarvitsen rahaa huomenna.

Jaakko istui pöydän päähän ja jäi odottamaan.

 — Niin, niin, huomenna minä lähden Helenan kanssa
kihlautumaan, ja ymmärtänet, että tarvitsen rahaa.

—- Oletko sinä sitä koskaan hankkinut?

— Kai minullakin osani on.

Veljesten sanat kalskahtelivat kylminä.

— Ja pitäisikö sinun naima-intosi vuoksi antaa Nevalaisen odottaa

velkaansa ja… hävittää taloa.

— Se ei kuulu sinuun. Minulla on oikeus. Koetappas kieltää! Minä

eroan heti Hautamäestä, saat maksaa kokonaan osani.

— Samantekevää. Se ei tapahdu kumminkaan vielä huomenna.

Jaakko poistui huoneesta. Ville jäi katselemaan ikkunasta ulos.

Mistään muualta ei hän saisi huomiseksi rahaa, ja lähtöä ei missään
tapauksessa voisi siirtää.

Villen muulloin niin pehmeä luonne kuohahteli Jaakon

välinpitämättömyydestä.

Mistä hän saisi rahaa huomiseksi?

Tuntui niinkuin Helena olisi ollut siinä ja ivaten naureksinut

hänelle.
— Tyhjä mies, vaikka on talosta olevinaan!

Ville puraisi hammasta ja meni ulos, mutta huomattuaan Jaakon

tarkastelevan ulompana ruispeltoa astui jälleen sisään. Ottaen
kynäveitsen taskustaan hän avasi kaapin, luki seteleitä itselleen
pyytämänsä määrän ja sovitti sitten taas kaikki paikoilleen.
 Mutta nyt oli parasta myöskin lähteä heti talosta. Mihin? Tietysti
Kinkomaahan. Samantekevää tänäänkö vai aamulla. Ja parasta oli
pitää tyttöä yhtämittaa kuumana.

Ville meni illallista odottamatta aittaan ja pukeutui kiireesti.

Annikki ilmestyi aitan kynnykselle.

— Kas poikaa… mihin nyt?

— Tulehan tänne.

Ville veti sisarensa aittaan ja sulki oven.

— Minä lähden nyt akan ottoon, mutta elä puhu kenellekään.

Tyttö nauroi ja sitoi veljensä kaulaliinaa.

— Kenet sinä sitten otat?

— Arvaappas.

— Kyllä minä tiedän, Kinkomaan Helenan. Ihanko sinä otat hänet

heti?

— Niin tietysti. Mitäs minä Hautamäessäkään teen.

— Sinä menet Kinkomaahan?

— Tietysti. Pientä nypykkätä vain tulee ikävä.

— Minä käyn sinua katsomassa.

Ville teki lähtöä.