GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

(A) GROWTH
Is an irreversible/ permanent increase in size and dry weight of an organism. Involves
multiplication of cells by the process of cell division mainly by mitosis. Growth is occurs in
three phases i.e.
i. Cell division
Results into increase in number of cells; by osmosis;
ii. Cell expansion/elongation/enlargement
Irreversible increase in size of cells as a result of uptake of water by osmosis or
synthesis of new protoplasm;
For synthesis, heterotrophs e.g. animals use organic compounds from the existing
organisms which green plants synthesize such compounds by themselves.
iii. Cell differentiation
Unspecialized cells change their shape and form to perform specific
functions.
(i) Negative growth;
Occurs when breakdown of organic material exceeds synthesis of organic
materials E.g. Rate of respiration outweighs rate of photosynthesis;
(ii) Positive growth;
Occurs when synthesis of organic materials exceeds breakdown of organic
material E.g., Rate of photosynthesis outweighs rate of respiration;

B) DEVELOPMENT
Is the increase in complexity of an organism through tissue differentiation, change of
form and structure
Factors affecting growth
• External/ environmental factors
• Availability of nutrients;
• Temperature; optimum temperature favor enzyme controlled reactions of
organisms metabolism; e.g. photosynthesis; more substances are synthesized thus
increasing growth.
• Light intensity; light is necessary for photosynthesis; and formation of vitamin D
that increases calcium ion uptake from the gut; for bone formation;
• pH/ acidity; changes in PH of the soil denature plant enzymes and availability of
minerals in the soil is reduced because their absorption is by active transport;
• Water availability; water is used in the synthesis of new cell components; medium
in which raw materials for growth are transported in plants; provides support to
the herbaceous plant/non-woody plants;
• Oxygen; aerobic respiration producing sufficient energy for cell division during
growth;
• Accumulation of wastes; retards growth.
• Carbon dioxide concentration; raw material for photosynthesis;
(b) Internal factors
• Genetic factors: Affects size, shape and rate of growth in both animals and plants.
• Hormones; Growth hormones like thyroxine in higher animals e.g. mammals,
moulting hormones in insects control growth.
Auxins and other plant growth substances control growth through cell expansion.

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 MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH
Parameter Description Advantages Disadvantages
Fresh Weight of an organism • Easier and cheaper to use because • Limited to use to small
weight/live under normal of less preparation of the sample; organisms;
weight conditions i.e. when • Doesn’t damage the organism being • Inconsistent results due to
alive. studied. fluctuations in the water content
An organism is • Same organism can be studied
weighed on a scale at continuously to provide continued
given time intervals. indication of growth;
Dry weight Weight of an organism • More accurate weight is obtained • Permanently destroys the
taken after all the organism involved
water has been • Difficult to carry out because it
evaporated from its requires preparation of the
tissue. sample;
An organism is heated • Unethical to use for some
in an oven at 1000C to organisms e.g. human beings
drive off all the water • In some organisms there is some
cooled in a desiccator loss of salts due to decomposition
weighing scale; of some protoplasmic components
which are therefore not catered
for in the weight taken

Examples of measurements taken

• Length of stems, roots and internodes in plants; and height in humans
• Area/surface area of plant leaves
• Diameter/girth of tree branches;
GROWTH PATTERNS
Whatever the parameter used to measure growth, the growth curve is S – Shaped
(sigmoid)

Description of the above Graph

A. Lag/latent phase: Little growth occurs; seed absorbs water, breaks dormancy, enzymes
activated to prepare for growth
B. Log/exponential phase: Growth increases rapidly
Rate of growth accelerates and at any point is proportional to the amount of material present.
Seedling emerges, rapid growth, roots and shoots develop rapidly, exponential increase in size
and biomass.
C. Decelerating phase: Characterized by slow growth; Exponential increase eventually
declines, rate of growth begins to decrease (characterized by a gradual increase in the growth
parameter); seedling groth slows down, resources like water and nutrients become limiting
and preparation for stationary phase
Growth becomes limited as a result of some internal or external factors or
interaction of both e.g. lack of space, depletion of food reserves etc.
D. Stationary/plateau phase(curve flattens)
Marks the period when overall growth has stopped and parameter under
consideration remains constant. Growth stabilizes; maintenance phase;
photosynthesis and nutrient uptake balances.
E. Decline phase(Not always present): Nutrient depletion, environmental stress; aging
and eventual death of the seedling

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 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN FLOWERING PLANTS SEED STRUCTURE
Consists of an embryonic plant; differentiated into an embryo shoot (plumule) and embryo
root (radicle) and is attached on either one cotyledon/seed leaf in monocotyledonous
plants or two cotyledons/seed leaves in dicotyledonous plants.
Food is stored either in the swollen cotyledons in non-endospermic seeds such as
sunflower and bean seeds or endosperms in endospermic seeds such as maize, millet
Whole structure is enclosed in a tough seed coat/ testa.

Diagrams showing external and internal parts of a Bean seed and Maize seed

External Internal External Internal

BEAN SEED MAIZE SEED

SEED GERMINATION
Germination is the Development of a seed into a seedling; capable of existing as a new and
independent plant under favourable conditions.
Types of Germination
Epigeal germination
Cotyledon appears above the ground; caused
by rapid elongation of the hypocotyl;
These seeds have small cotyledons and on
exposure to sunlight develop chlorophyll and
photosynthesise e.g. French beans, peas,
groundnuts, sunflowers seeds and castor oil
seeds, garden bean etc.

Hypogeal germination
Cotyledons remain under the ground; due to
the epicotyls growing faster than the
hypocotyls;
These seeds have much stored food in their
large cotyledons which provides the growing
embryo nourishment until the first green leaves
develop e.g. in maize, sorghum, millet, broad
bean etc.

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 Advantages of Epigeal germination over hypogeal germination
Cotyledons protect the plumule as they break the soil surface;✓ and after they have
been brought above the soil surface they acquire chlorophyll;✓ carrying out
photosynthesis;✓before formation of first foliage leaves;✓ to supplement on food
supply for embryo growth during germination;✓
The hypocotyl arch breaks the soil surface easing the emergence of the cotyledon;✓
Guiding question (UNEB 2014 (P1) 32: Modified into Scenario
Students of Tapara Community College School carried out a scientific investigation to determine
the rate of growth in certain plant seeds. They planted two kinds of seeds in a plastic backet
containing suitable soil with favorable germinable conditions and labeled each seed as A and B.
However, a few days later, the S1 students found that one of the seedling from seed labled A,
emerged with its testa out of the soil and the other one labeled B did not have the testa instead it
remained below the soil.

The figure representing germination in seeds A and B

Task:
As a student of Biology who has learnt about Growth and development in plants help the s1
students to
(a) Identify the type of germination in each seed and give a reason in each case
A: Epigeal germination;✓cotyledon is brought above surface after germination;✓
B: Hypogeal germination;✓cotyledon remains below the soil surface after germination;✓
(b) Explain to the s1 students how germination in seed A is brought about?
Faster elongation of hypocotyl than the epicotyls;✓which pushes the cotyledon upwards
out of the soil surface;✓
(c) Explain the advantage of the type of germination in seed A to the growing seedling.
The exposed cotyledons to the light above the ground can photosynthesize;✓producing
food for respiration to provide energy required for faster growth of the seedling;✓
Being above the soil, the seedling is exposed to warmer temperatures, air/oxygen and
water supply; ✓ thereby promoting faster growth;✓
The exposed cotyledon above the soil reduces chances of fungal infection and root rot;✓
d) Suggest the soil type and favorable germinable conditions which the student of s3 provided in
the backet?
The soil type is Loam soil;✓the favorable conditions are warms/suitable temperature,
water, oxygen, light and fertilizers in the soil; ✓

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 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SEED GERMINATION
Qn: Explain the role of each of the conditions necessary for germination UNEB 2017 (34)
Condition Required for
Oxygen Aerobic respiration; producing energy for embryo growth
• Dissolves food materials; Activation of hydrolytic enzymes;
Water • Hydrolysis of stored food substances
• Transportation of hydrolysed food substances to the growing
points of the embryo;
• Its uptake causes swelling of the seed; generating pressure which
bursts the testa; permitting the emergence of the plumule and
radicle;
• Softens testa; easing uptake of oxygen;
• Medium in which all chemical and enzyme activities precede
• Formation of vacuoles of growing cells

Suitable Temperature Favours enzyme catalysed reaction

Very low temperature inactivate enzymes; and very high
temperature denature
Enzymes; thus, inhibiting germination;
Light Light in some seeds such as lettuce and tobacco

1. Experiment to demonstrate conditions necessary for germination

Aim: To demonstrate conditions necessary for germination
Requirements;
Pea seeds; Cotton wool; 4 test tubes; Water; 4Corks; Refrigerator; Oil;
Procedure
a) Arrange four test tubes labelled A-D;
b) To test tube A, add moist/wet cotton wool and few dry pea seeds;
c) To test tube B, add dry cotton wool and few; dry pea seeds;
d) To test tube C, add few dry pea seeds, boiled water and a layer of oil;
e) To test tube D, add few dry pea seeds, moist/wet cotton wool and keep in a refrigerator
under non-freeze cold temperatures(4℃)
f) Cork all the test tubes and leave them four one week
g) Test tubes A, B, and C are kept in a warm place at room temperature.

Set up apparatus

Observations: Pea seeds in test tube A germinated while those in test tubes B, C and D did not germinate.
Conclusion: Optimum temperature/warmth, water and oxygen are necessary for germination.

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 2. Experiment to show that oxygen is necessary for germination.
Aim: To show that oxygen is necessary for germination;
Requirements: 2 conical flasks; 2 corks; water; cotton wool; seeds and alkaline Pyrogallic
acid, threads..
Procedure
• Label two conical flasks A and B;
• Spread wet cotton wool in each flask and place same number of soaked seeds in each flask;
• Tie two test tubes A and B with a thread;
• In test tube A, fill plain water;
• In test tube B, fill alkaline Pyrogallic acid;
• Hang the two test tubes in conical flasks A and B respectively; Fix the threads using corks
• Place the set ups at room temperature for three days;
Set up

Observation: Seeds in flask A germinated while seeds in flask B did not germinate;
Conclusion: Oxygen is necessary for germination.

Process of germination
Seeds absorb water initially by imbibition through the micropyle and later by osmosis, water
softens the seed coat; seed contents swell and eventually the testa of the seed bursts allowing
the growing plumule and radical to emerge;
Absorbed water by imbibition and osmosis hydrates the embryo; hydrolytic enzymes are
activated causing hydrolysis of stored food materials into their relatively simple soluble
substances; transported to the growing parts of the embryo.
Stored Foods Enzyme Product(s) Use of product during germination
Starch Carbohydrases Glucose Oxidised releasing energy for growth
Proteins Protease amino acids Synthesis of cell wall components
Lipids lipase Fatty acid & Synthesis of new enzymes & proteins
glycerol Oxidised releasing energy for growth
Membrane synthesis

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 A graph showing changes in dry mass of embryo & endosperm during germination.
Mass of endosperm decreases with increase in
days of germination because stored foods are
hydrolysed to smaller soluble products transported
to the growing points of the embryo for growth.
From day 0 to about day 7, total mass decreases
because aerobic respiration of sugar in both
endosperm and embryo occurs;
From about day 7 to day 10, total mass increases
gradually because first foliage leaves formed
carryout photosynthesis subsequently increase the
dry mass of the embryo; rate of photosynthesis
outweighs respiration From day 0 to day 2, mass
of embryo is low and remains constant; hydrolysis
of stored food is taking place; no translocation yet;

Activity
1. The average dry mass of the seedlings of a cereal were obtained at different stages of
germination. The results are as recorded in the table below.
Time (days) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0
Mass of embryo (g) 1.2 1.2 1.5 2.8 4.2 6.0 7.4 10.0 13.8
Mass of endosperm (g) 11.4 11.2 10.4 8.6 7.4 5.3 4.8 4.7 4.6
Total mass of grain (g) 12.9 12.8 12.3 11.8 11.8 11.5 12.4 14.9 15.2

(a) Plot a suitable graph on the same axes to represent the information in the table
(b) Describe the changes in the mass of;
(i) Endosperm (ii) Embryo
(c) Account for the changes in mass of;
(i) Endosperm (ii) Embryo

2. The graph in the figure below shows changes in mass of starch and protein in a typical
pea seed. Study it carefully and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Describe the changes in the mass of
starch over the 20days germination
period.
(b)How are the changes in mass of
starch and proteins,
(i) Similar
(ii)Different
(c) Explain why the mass of starch and
proteins change in the germinating
seed.
(d) Suggest two ways in which the
products from each of starch and
proteins may be used in the
germinating seeds.

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 Changes in dry weight of a germinating seed.
Initially, dry mass decreases; stored foods
are oxidized releasing energy for embryo
growth;
Dry mass then increases rapidly because
first foliage leaves are formed; carryout
photosynthesis; rate of photosynthesis is
higher than rate of respiration.
Dry mass decreases slowly due to old age;
dispersal of seeds and fruits, falling off of old
leaves

SEED DORMANCY
This is the inability of viable seeds to germinate; even when all conditions for germination are
present;
Causes of seed dormancy
1. Hard and impermeable testa; for the embryo to break; preventing water; and
oxygen from entering the seed; hence preventing physiological process of
germination;
2. Premature/Immature embryo; unable to synthesize growth stimulating substance
therefore production of hydrolytic enzymes for food reserves will not occur;
3. Unfavourable temperature;
4. Germination inhibitors e.g. abscisic acid which inactivate enzymes;
5. Light in some seeds;
6. Low concentration of germination promoters; to initiate growth;
7. Prolonged/poor storage/pest attack; leading to loss of viability;

Breaking of seed dormancy

Causes of seed Domancy Ways of Breaking seed Domancy
1. Microbial breakdown in the soil e.g. by fungi
2. Digestive action by enzymes of mammals, birds;
Hard and impermeable 3. Exposure to alternating low and high temperatures;
testa allowing expansion and contraction that cracks the testa;
4. Treatment with Sulphuric acid and alcohol that removes
a waxy layer of seed coat; facilitating water uptake by
imbibition;
5. Physical abrasion of seeds by sandpaper; or pricking a
hole in the testa;
6. Action of fire on seeds of certain species, burning away
testa;
Immature 1. Allowing an after-ripening period; for full
embryo embryo development;
Germination inhibitors 1. Treatment of seeds with germination stimulators e.g.
Gibberellic acid;
2. Prolonged exposure of seeds to moist and cold conditions
in presence of oxygen; which allows synthesis of
gibberellic acid; and decreased abscisic content of the
seed;
3. Soaking the seed in water; for diffusion of the
germination inhibitor out of the seed;
Unfavorable Temperature 1. Provide suitable temperature for enzyme action

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 Importance of seed dormancy
1. Maturation of some seed embryos;
2. Gives sufficient time for seed dispersal and thus colonization of new areas;
3. Reduces competition for resources;
4. Gives sufficient time for level of germination inhibitors to decrease;
5. Gives sufficient time for growth promoters to increase;
6. Ensures seeds are stored for a longer period of time;
7. Conserves food reserves due to very low respiratory rates;
8. Allows seeds to germinate only during favourable conditions;
UNEB 2017 (34)
Qn: Outline the importance of a seed remaining dormant during favorable conditions of germination?
MERISTEMS (MERISTEMATIC TISSUES)
Meristems are a group of cells with the ability to divide by mitosis; to form new cells, which
grow to form the plant body.
Consists of small sized; thin walled; cuboidal/brick-shaped cells; with large nucleus;
dense cytoplasmic contents; no vacuoles; and are tightly packed with no air spaces
between them;
Types of Meristems and their importance
Type of meristem Location in plants Importance
Apical meristem Roots and shoot tips Allows increase in length of stems and roots/
causes primary growth
Lateral meristem Occur as cylinders Responsible for secondary growth of a plant;
(Cambium) towards the outer parts of the
stem diameter/width/girth of a plant resulting
into an increase in;
(i) Vascular cambium
(ii) Cork cambium
Intercalary Nodes of Allows increase in length in positions other
meristem monocotyledons than the tip
Presence of intercalary meristem allows grasses to continue growing despite being
grazed by animals or cutting during mowing;
Schematic representation of positions of different meristems

Types of growth in plants

(a) Primary growth
First form of growth; occurring mostly in dicotyledonous plants and herbaceous plants;
Involves increase in length of stems and roots of plants; Caused by activity of apical
meristem and intercalary meristem; Occurs in 3 main regions i.e.
(i) Region of cell division; Cells of apical meristem divide by mitosis to form new cells
(ii) Region of cell expansion/enlargement/elongation; New cells increase in size after
osmotic uptake of water into the cytoplasm; and then into vacuoles; expands, cell walls
are stretched increasing length;

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 (iii) Region of cell differentiation/maturation; Elongated cells are modified into
different forms to perform specific functions as shown in the table below;
In shoots In roots
Causes development of leaves and Development of root hairs that absorb water and mineral salts
branches from axillary buds and from the soil
flowers. Root cap; protects the root tip as it pushes its way through the
Formation of xylem vessels; soil
transport water and mineral salts Pericycle that gives rise to lateral roots
Phloem sieve tubes; transport Epidermis with no cuticle thus permeable to water and mineral
manufactured food salts
Cortex cells;. package and storage Endodermis whose walls have a band of suberin that controls
of starch Epidermis water and salt movement from the cortex to the xylem.
Vascular tissues i.e. phloem and xylem

Longitudinal sections of root and shoot tips showing regions of primary growth.

An experiment to demonstrate the region of elongation (growth) in a seedling

Aim: An experiment to demonstrate the region of growth in a seedling
Requirements:
Freshly germinated bean seedling with straight radicle; (Black) ink; conical
flask; Pins; Water; cork;
Procedure
• Freshly-germinated bean seedling with straight radicle of 2.5cm long is taken;
• Radicle is marked with black ink at 2mm interval;
• Seedling is pinned to the underside of the cork with radicle hanging downwards; and the
cork is fixed into the neck of a conical flask with little water at the bottom;
• Set up is left in the dark; for 2 days; to cut off the effect of light;
• Seedling is removed and intervals between the marks are remeasured;
• Region of elongation/growth indicated by area where the marks are farther apart than
2mm occurs just behind the root tip;
Set up apparatus

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 (b) Secondary growth (thickening)
Occurs in woody perennial plants e.g. trees and shrubs.
Caused by mitotic division of lateral meristem i.e. vascular cambium and cork
cambium (Phellogen)
Results in;
(i) An increase in diameter (girth) of a plant shoot and root
(ii) Formation of a large amount of secondary xylem (wood); and an external cork layer (bark)
(iii) Formation of secondary tissues e.g. secondary phloem and secondary xylem.
Secondary growth of stem in dicot stems
Role of vascular cambium Role of cork cambium (Phellogen)
Cells of the vascular cambium(fusiform Increase in girth exerts pressure on
initials) the outer cells of the stem causing
divide by mitosis; forming secondary stretching and rupturing the
xylem epidermis;
(wood); to the inside; and secondary Mitotic division of cork cambium
phloem; to occurs; forming cork cells/phellem;
the outside; More secondary xylem on the outside; and secondary
produced; cortex; on the inside;
and more lignified than secondary phloem; Walls of cork cells are impregnated
Spherical shaped cambial cells/ray initials with suberin; and at intervals, cork
mitotically divide producing rays of cells are loosely packed; forming
parenchyma lenticels;
cells/medullary rays; running radially
between
secondary xylem and phloem;

Describe how secondary growth is brought about in dicotyledonous stems.

Lenticels on tree barks Cork formation and lenticel in section

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 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN SELECTED ANIMALS
a) Growth pattern in mammals e.g. humans
Graph comparing growth pattern of males & females
Growth parameter e.g.

Growth parameter e.g.

Growth curve is S-shaped/sigmoid; and its growth is limited; ceasing at adulthood;
Description of Growth patterns in Humans summarized in the Table below
Growth stage Description
Infant growth Growth is rapid because babies are dependent on mothers for
survival, adequate supply of nutrients to the baby allowing the
baby’s cells to rapidly divide by mitosis; and thus rapidly
increasing in number;
Both males and females undergo same growth
Childhood growth Slow growth occurs because of insufficient amounts of growth
hormones secreted and no production of sex hormones;
Growth rate in males is slightly higher than in females
Adolescence growth; Growth is rapid due to secretion of sex hormones that promote
development of growth;secondary sexual characteristics and
reproductive organs and growth hormones that increase growth;
Growth rate in females is higher than in males; with rapid growth
stopping earlier; females attain puberty/sexual maturity earlier
than males
Adulthood growth; Growth remains constant/growth rate is zero; full maturity attained;
Growth of parts like nails, skin and hair continues
Old age growth Growth decreases; number of old cells dying outweigh new cells
formed;

Allometric growth in humans

Human organs grow at different rates from entire body & stops growing at different times;
Explanations of different growth rates of different organs:
Lymphoid tissue/lymph gland;
Grows rapidly to a peak in early life; to produce white blood
cells to fight infections; when immunity has not been acquired;
Decreases rapidly to almost half its maximum size attained;
because white blood cells are now produced by fully developed
bone marrow of long bones; most of thymic tissue is being
replaced by fat tissue;
Brain; Increases rapidly first upto 2years, then gradually to
about 12years, to coordinate growth; development of different
body parts and learning
Reproductive organs; Grows very little in early life upto about
13 years, as urino-genital organs for excretion;
Size attained then increases rapidly due to sexual maturity; at
puberty;

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 (B) GROWTH PATTERN IN ARTHROPODS E.G. INSECTS
Growth is intermittent/discontinuous involving
periods of extremely rapid growth/ growth
spurts; followed by periods of little or no
growth;
Hardened/rigid exoskeleton limits body growth;
At moulting/ecdysis, hardened exoskeleton is
shed off; new soft cuticle is formed underneath;
insect swallows water or air; rapidly expanding
the body; before its cuticle hardens again;
subsequently increasing mass;
Successive moults result into formation of new
stage of insect. This is called metamorphosis;

METAMORPHOSIS
Is the change in body form from an immature form into adult form; in
two or more distinct stages;
Occurs in arthropods e.g. insects and amphibians;

Importance of metamorphosis.
1. Enables the larva and adult to exploit different habitats; and even ecological
niches; reducing competition for valuable food resources;
2. Synchronises each stage with suitable climatic conditions for survival of
species/Allows organisms survive unfavourable conditions e.g. insects as egg
and pupa;

Insect metamorphosis
Complete Incomplete metamorphosis
metamorphosis
Egg hatches into larva strikingly different Egg develops into the adult via a series
from adult; the larva moults to produce of nymphs (growth stage); Nymphs
pupa/chrysalis (dormant stage) before resemble the adult insect except are
moulting to produce(active adult/imago; smaller; sexually immature and lack
wings;
Exhibited in holometabolous insects Exhibited in hemimetabolous insects
such as butterflies, moth, beetles, flies such as locusts, grasshoppers, termites,
etc and cockroach

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 Life cycle of a butterfly
Adult male and female butterfly mate; eggs are fertilized internally in the female’s
body; Female butterfly lays eggs singly; on the underside of young leaves;
After about 2days to 3days; egg hatch into larvae/caterpillars; which feed on plant
leaves using their mandibles and grow quickly;
After 3days; caterpillars moults four times; changing into es. pupa/chrysalis;
After 7days to 10 days; tissue reorganization occurs; pupal skin splits; adult butterfly
emerges; Small and crumpled wings expand, dry and harden; and after an hour; adult
butterfly is ready to fly away, feed, mate and lay more eggs

Life cycle of a housefly

The housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
After mating, the female housefly lays eggs in batches. The eggs are laid on rotting matter such
as meat or faeces, where it is warm and moist. This provides the conditions for the eggs to
develop. After about 8-24 hours, the eggs hatch into larvae. The larvae (maggots) are white and
conical shaped. The maggot has a small head which is not easily visible. The head bears a
mouth with two hook-like teeth. These are used for feeding on decaying matter in which the
larva finds itself. The hook-like teeth also helps the larva move through the decaying matter.
The larva has no legs but has pads with short spines that help in movement. Spiracles are
present only on the 2nd and the last segment. They are used for breathing. The larva has no
eyes but sensitive to light. It prefers dark, moist, and warmer regions of the decaying matter. It
grows by shading its outer layer (cuticle). After 5 days and shading its cuticle twice, the larva
is about 1cm long. It then moves to a drier region of the meat or faeces and pupates.
The pupa is cigar shaped. The cuticle hardens, darkens and becomes brown to form the
puparium or pupa case. This forms a protective covering as internal reorganization of tissues
takes place inside. After the puparium bursts open, the adult fly emerges. The wings expand
and harden and after a few hours, the fly flies away.

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 Life cycle of a Mosquito
It begins with mating and internal fertilization and is a complete metamorphosis. The
difference however are observed for both Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes
Mosquitoes eggs are laid in still water (swampy pools, water collected in old pots/ tins,
in axils of leaves, blocked drains or gutters), and the earliest stages of life take place in
water. The eggs are boat shaped and those of Culex species stick together to form raft.
Those of anopheles are laid singly each with air float.
The larva consists of a head, thorax and abdomen. It swims through water, tail first by
wriggling its abdomen. Culex larva uses Siphons for obtaining oxygen whereas an
anopheles uses spiracles, located on the eighth abdominal segment on both types of
lava. The pupa differs from the larva in being fairly active. It is comma-shaped with two
tail fins at the end of the abdomen. It breathes atmospheric oxygen through a pair of
trumpets on the thorax.
After few days the pupa skin splits and adult emerges. It rests on pupa case while the
wings unfold and harden and then flies a way.

The life cycle of mosquito

Economic importance of mosquitoes

They carry malarial parasites which cause malaria. These germs are carried by a
female anopheles. The disease causing parasite is referred to as plasmodium. The
four types of plasmodia are;
1. Plasmodium malariae
2. Plasmodium vivax
3. Plasmodium ovale
4. Plasmodium falciparum

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 Symptoms of malaria
 A Person with malaria has very high fever.
 Headaches.
 Sometimes vomiting.
 Pain in the joints and sometimes the general body.
 There is alternate cold and shivering spells as well as hot sweating.
 Loss of appetite.
 Anemia.
 Enlarged liver and spleen.
Malaria may cause convulsions and sometimes death in children and abortions in
pregnant women due to destruction of red blood cells by the parasites.

Control of spread of malaria

Of these diseases malaria is probably becoming the most serious and is increasingly
becoming a killer of such great as AIDS. This is mainly because the parasites causing
it are becoming resistant to drugs like chloroquine which in the past have been very
effective at old malaria.
As things stand now, effective control of the mosquito is as much prerequisite to
control malaria as it is to combat the disease.

Appropriate measures include;

 Destroying the breeding places where larvae develop from by draining or applying
a film of oil over the water surface to prevent oxygen reaching the mosquito larva.
 Burning or burying all empty containers to prevent water from collecting during
the rainy season.
 Clearing bushes around homestead. Mosquitoes like to rest and breed on them
during the rainy season.
 Biological control which involves the introduction of fish into water bodies which
feed on the larvae and pupa.
 Mosquitoes can be killed by spraying with insecticides using special sprayers.
 Removal of small water containers such as old tins, bottles, and drainage
channels, so as to reduce on breeding sites.
 protecting our bodies from mosquito bites by using mosquito nets at night as well
as wearing clothes which cover both legs and arms in the evening
 Parasites development in the human body can be controlled by taking modern
prophylactic drugs regularly.
 Applying mosquito repellant cream to the body.

Aedes species carry a virus which causes Dengue. It also carries germs which cause
yellow fever.
The Culex species carry filarial worms which cause elephantiasis. It is not a killing
disease but causes discomfort due to large swelling of the legs and/ arm.

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 Differences between Anopheles and Culex Mosquito
Anopheles Culex
i) Eggs are laid singly Eggs are in rafts
ii) Eggs have air floats to keep buoyant Eggs have air float
iii) Eggs are boat shaped Eggs are cigar shapes
iv) Larva lies parallel to the water Lies at an angle to the water
surface surface
v) Larva has a pair of spiracles for Larva has siphon for breathing
breathing
vi) Adult at rest lies at an angle to the At rest lies parallel to the object
object

Activity 1
In groups of three discuss the following items and present your work in class. Use
Library Biology Books, internet and consultations from Biology teachers.
1. Define the term metamorphosis
2. Explain the differences between complete and incomplete metamorphosis
3. Describe the stages of development of an insect.

Amphibian metamorphosis
Externally fertilised eggs hatch into tadpoles, which develop into adult
frogs/toads coupled with modification of pre-existing structures as it
moves from water to dry land such as;
(i) Loss of tail
(ii) Gills replaced by lungs
(iii) Full development of legs;
Stages of development in an amphibian

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 Activity:2
What to do?:
In a group of two Brainstorm on the following concepts and present your findings to
the rest of the Class
What you need?: You need internet, and Biology text books.
1. Describe the stages of development in an amphibian.
2. Explain metamorphosis in a frog

Differences between growth in plants and animals.

Growth in Animals Growth in Plants
Occurs all over the body Occurs in meristems
Stops at adulthood/limited Continues throughout plant
life/unlimited
Tissues and organs are more adapted Tissues and organs are less adapted and
and specialized specialized
Growth control factors not sensitive to Growth control factors are sensitive to
environmental factors such as sun light. environmental factors such as sun light.

END

BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES LSC: By Joseph Lomoi [email protected] +256772194332/+256752194332 Page 18