SPECAL SENSES

Senses : any of the physical processes by which stimuli are received, transduced, and conducted as
impulses to be interpreted in the brain. The special senses consist of the eyes, ears, nose, throat and
skin. Each of these organs have specialized functions that make if possible for us to experience our
environment and to make that experience more pleasant. The human eye is astounding. The eye lies in
a circular cavity within several bones which, before birth, fused together. Each eye has optical
equipment, muscles, conjunctiva, tear apparatus, and eyelids.

VISUAL SENSES (EYE):

Here is a very simplified description of the many wonders in the eye:
Eyeball:
The white of the eye is the sclera. Inside that is the colored part, or iris.

Inside that is the black spot, the pupil. Light passes into the eyeball through the pupil, which can enlarge
(dilate) or shrink (contract) in size. Behind the pupil, the light travels through the lens, double convex in
shape. Behind that is a clear fluid throughout the middle of the eyeball (vitreous humor). At the back of
the eyeball, the light strikes the retina, which contains nerve fibers of the optic nerve and the nerve
cells sensitive to light. Light enters the front of the eye through the pupil and is focused by the lens
onto the retina. Rod cells on the retina respond to the light and send a message through the optic
nerve fiber
Two types of cells are there: rods and cones.

There are 100 million rods in each retina, which can see things as light and dark (black and white), even
in very dim light.There are less cones; they see color, but only in brighter light.

This is why, at night, you only see objects as dark and light, without any color to them.

The lens bends thicker or thinner in order to focus the light into a sharp image. This focusing is

called accommodation. The light image is then carried to the cells and nerves in the retina and is sent
through the optic nerve, to the sight center in the brain.
NERVOUS PATHWAYS FROM THE RETINAS:
The two optic nerves enter the cranial cavity and join in a structure known as the optic chiasma.
Leading from the optic chiasma on either side of the brainstem is the optic tract. in the optic chiasma,
the axons from the nasal (medial) halves of the retinas cross to the opposite sides. Thus, the left optic
tract contains all of the information from the left halves of the retinas (right visual field), and the right
optic tract contains all of the information from the right halves of the retinas (left visual field).

• THE SPECIAL SENSE OF HEARING (AUDITORY SENSE):

INTRODUCTION:
If a medium is set into vibration within certain frequency limits (average between 25 cycles per
second and 18,000 cycles per second), we have what is called a sound stimulus. The sensation
of sound, of course, occurs only when these vibrations are interpreted by the cerebral cortex
of the brain at the conscious level.
AUDITORY SENSE:
The human ear is the special sensory receptor for the sound stimulus. As the stimulus passes
from the external medium (air, water, or a solid conductor of sound) to the actual receptor
cells in the head, the vibrations are in the form of :
(1). airborne waves (2). mechanical oscillations (3) fluid-borne pulses.
The ear is organized in three major parts:
1.external ear 2.middle ear 3.internal (inner) ear.

Each part aids in the transmission of the stimulus to the receptor cells.
THE EXTERNAL EAR:
 The external ear begins with a funnel-like auricle.
This auricle serves as a collector of the airborne waves and directs them into the external
auditory meatus. At the inner end of this passage, the waves act upon the tympanic membrane
(eardrum).The external auditory meatus is protected by a special substance called earwax
(cerumen).
THE MIDDLE EAR:
Tympanic Membrane. The tympanic membrane separates the middle and external ears. It is
set into mechanical oscillation by the airborne waves from the outside. Middle Ear Cavity.
Within the petrous bone of the skull is the air-filled middle ear cavity.
Auditory Muscles:
The auditory muscles are a pair of muscles associated with the auditory ossicles. They are
named the tensor tympani muscle and the stapedius muscle. The auditory muscles help to
control the intensity of the mechanical oscillations within the ossicles.

• THE INTERNAL EAR:

Basilar membrane The basilar membrane forms the floor of the cochlear duct, the spiral portion
of the membranous labyrinth. The basilar membrane is made up of transverse fibers. Each fiber
is of a different length, and the lengths increase from one end to the other. Thus, the basilar
membrane is constructed similarly to a harp or piano. Acting like the strings of the instrument,
the individual fibers mechanically vibrate in response to specific frequencies of pulses in the
perilymph. Thus, each vibration frequency of the sound stimulus affects a specific location of
the basilar membrane. Organ of Corti. Located upon the basilar membrane is the organ of Corti.
 The organ of Corti is made up of hair cells. When the basilar membrane vibrates, the hair cells
are mechanically deformed so that the associated neuron is stimulated.

NERVOUS PATHWAYS FOR HEARING:

The neuron (associated with the hair cells of the organ of Corti) then carries the sound stimulus
to the hindbrainstem.

• Via a special series of connections, the signal ultimately reaches Brodmann's area number 41,
on the upper surface of the temporal lobe .

• Here, the stimulus is perceived as the special sense of sound. It is interesting to note that
speech in humans is primarily localized in the left cerebral hemisphere, while musical
(rhythmic) sounds tend to be located in the right cerebral hemisphere.
TASTE:
Taste is mainly a function of taste buds In mouth taste buds are present PRIMARY SENSATION:

In taste cell 13 chemical receptor are present

* 2 sodium * 2 potassium * 1 chloride * 1 adenosine * 1 inosine * 2 sweet * 2 bitter * 1 glutamate
* 1 hydrogen ion receptor
For practically analysis of taste they are grouped in 5 general categories called primary sensation of
taste they are
* Sour * salty * bitter * sweet * umami
TASTE:
SOUR
Sour taste is caused by H ion conc.
More H ion conc. more acidic food stronger the sour sensation.
SALTY:
salty taste is caused by sodium ion conc.
Cat ion of sodium is responsible for salty taste.
SWEET TASTE:
chemical like sugar, glycol, alcohol, aldehyde, amides, ester and organic compound cause sweet
taste.
BITTER:
two particular class cause bitter taste
Long chain organic substance that contain nitrogen Alkaloids (including caffeine and nicotine)
UMAMI:

Umami taste of food containing L-glutamate pleasant taste sensation

TASTE BUDS AND ITS FUNCTIONS:
Diameter of taste buds is 1/30 millimeter. Length of about 1/16 millimeter. composed of 50
modified epithelial cell.
life span is 10 days.
In taste cell outer tip pores, microvili n taste hairs are present.
LOCATION OF TASTE BUDS:
3 types of papillae of the tongue
* Large number on the wall of the troughs (posterior tongue)
* Moderate number are on fungi form papillae (anterior tongue)
* Moderate number on the foliate papillae (lateral tongue)
* Transmission of taste signals into the CNS. Through neural pathway
GUSTATION:
SENSORY RECEPTORS:
Molecules of various materials are also dispersed or dissolved in the fluids (saliva) of the mouth.
These molecules are from the food ingested(taken in).
Organs known as taste buds are scattered over the tongue and the rear of the mouth.
Special hair cells in the taste buds are chemoreceptors to react to these molecules.
SENSORY PATHWAY:
The information received by the hair cells of the taste buds is transmitted to the opposite side of
the brain by way of three cranial nerves (VII, IX, and X).This information is interpreted by the
cerebral hemispheres as the sensation of taste.
SENSE OF SMELL:
The physiology of smell in humans begins in the nasal cavity.
There, a huge number of receptors (over 40 million) are located in the upper roof of the cavity
The receptors have cilia projections that stick out into the cavity space.
These increase the surface area and the sensitivity of the receptors.
One reason for the receptor sensitivity concerns the mechanics of airflow in the nasal cavity.
The air rushes in quickly (at about 250 milliliters per second) and is turbulent. Thus, not all of a
particular odor will have a chance to contact a receptor.
So, a receptor must be able to swiftly detect a low concentration of a molecule.

The olfactory receptor cells are replaced every three to four weeks.

The receptors are responsible for detecting a large number of odours (about 2,000, depending on
the individual).

A group of genes is known to encode proteins associated with the receptors that may function in
the specific detection of an odor.
There may be upwards of 1,000 very specific odor receptors.

Odors reach a receptor by diffusing through the air and physically contacting the receptor.

Surrounding the cilia is a mucous membrane.

It is into this membrane that an odor dissolves.

The binding of an odor molecule to a receptor stimulates the activation of a protein called the G-
protein and the release of calcium from the receptor membrane.

These events begin the process whereby an electrical potential is generated.

The potential constitutes the signal that is sent off to the brain.

A signal is relayed to the anterior olfactory nucleus, which is essentially a collection point for the
receptor signals.

The signals are then routed to a region of the brain responsible for the processing of the
information.

This region is known as the primary olfactory cortex.

Following the stimulation of a receptor, the odor molecule is rapidly destroyed and the stimulation
ended.

This frees the receptor for stimulation by another odor molecule.

In this way the sensitivity of the smell sensory system is maintained.

Anosmia – absence of sense of smell

Hyposmia – diminished olfactory sensitivity

Dysosmia – distorted sense of smell

More than 75% of humans over the age of 80 have an impaired ability to identify smells.
SOMATIC SENSATIONS(TOUCH):
The somatic sensation are the nervous mechanisms that collect sensory information for all over
the body.

Somatosensory system consist of

Ø
Receptors
Ø
Transmitters
Ø
S1
CLASSIFICATION OF SOMATIC SENSATION:
The somatic sensation can be classified into three physiological types:
The mechanoreceptive somatic senses (tactile and position)
The thermoreceptive senses (heat and cold).
The pain senses.
Other classification includes:
Exteroceptive sensation
Proprioception sensation
Visceral sensatio
Deep sensation

PHYSIOLOGY OF SOMATOSENSATION:
Initiation of somato sensation begins with activation of a physical “RECEPTOR”
Receptors having similar structure in all cases can be activated by

Mechanoreceptor or Chemoreceptor:
Another activation by vibration generated as a finger scans across a surface.
The general principle of activation is similar.
 The stimulus causes depolarization of the nerve ending & then an action potential is initiated.
This action potential then (usually) travels inwards-towards the Spinal Cord.

PREPAIRED BY:
ASAD SAJJAD
MLS(2B)
F23-102