Bigindicators and biomonitors B.A. Markert, A.M. Breure, H.G. Zechmeister, editors © 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd, Ati rights reserved. 285 Chapter 9 Algae as ecological bio-indicators M.T. Dokulil Abstract The value of algae as hio-monitors and bio-indicators has already been recognised in the mid 19th century: The first concept which has been developed was the svstem of saprobity. It was mainly designed for organic pollution of streams and rivers. This system was altered, modi- fied and expanded over the years by several authors, Because saprobity is defined as the intensity of heterotrophic activity, all photoautotrophic species were finally excluded from the saprobic system when problems of inorganic nutrient load to rivers became increasingly important. Parallel to the progress in running waters, the trophic classification system has been developed for lakes which is based on inorganic nutrients and their loading from the caichments. The basis of both this concepts and other systems is the belief that the presence, absence or abundance of species or species assemblage readily reflects the character of the habitat within which they are found, Those species are usually identified as bio-indicators. This concept of indicators can be extended beyond presencelabsence by relating abundance, hiomass or growth of algal species to environmental impacts in general or specific stress symp- toms in particular, The indicator species then becomes a ‘bio-ensor’ for the bioassay of environmental contamination. Another concept associates indicator species with organisms accumulating substances from the surrounding environment so as to reflect natural levels and exposure to these substances Such species are ‘bia-accumulators ‘ which are especially useful wien concentrating very low levels of a substance. In this chapter, principles of algal bio-indication and bio-monitoring in the environment is outlined for streams and rivers, lakes and reservoirs, as well as for marine ecosystems, Both pelagic and benthic algal groups and species are considered. Field and laboratory bioassay procedures and techniques are described and discussed for both natural assemblages and laboratory cultures. Aspects of sediment testing are included, Since environmental containi- nation and pollution has severely expanded in the recent past, ecotoxicological methods became increasingly important. More integrative new approaches such as ‘ecosystem health’ and ‘environmental integrity ‘ are briefly discussed Keywords: algal bio-indicators, rivers, lakes, ecatoxicology. bioassay, saprobity, trophic system, . Introduction The value of algae as bio-monitors for fresh waters has already been recognised in the mid 19th century (Cohn, 1853). The first attempt to classify aquatic organisms as indi- cators of water quality was made by Cohn (1870), later modified by Mez (1898). The relation of organisms to the quality of water was more clearly defined by Kolkwitz, and Marsson (1902, 1908, 1909) who also created the name ‘saprobic organisms’.286 M.T. Dokulil The system of saprobity, a term to describe the biotope introduced by Sramek-Husek (1956), was further developed and revised by Kolkwitz (1950) and Liebmann (1962). Several simple and more elaborated definitions of saprobity by various authors are listed by Sladeéek on page 27 in his comprehensive overview of 1973. Because sapro- bity is defined as the intensity of hteterotrophic activity, all photoautotrophic species were excluded from the saprobic system in a revision (Friedrich, 1990) to avoid over- lapping with trophic indication In short, the presence, absence or abundance of specics or species assemblage readily reflects the character of the habitat within which they are found. Those species are usually identified as bio-indicators. Since then, various elaborated systems deducing water quality from observations of indicator organisms have been developed, evolved, and diversified both in the field and in the laboratory as bioassay. The terms “indicator”, “bio-indicator” or “indicator species” may be used and understood, however in several different ways. As a pre- requisite for an alga to become an indicator we need to know the requirements of that species with regard to one or more environmental variables. The presence of such a species in a given habitat will then indicate that one or more parameters are within the tolerance limits of that species, This concept of indicators can be extended beyond presence/absence by relating abundance, biomass or growth of algal species to environ- mental impacts in general or specific stress symptoms in particular, The indicator species then becomes a “bio-sensor” for the bioassay of an environmental contam- ination. Another concept associates indicator species with organisms accumulating substances from the surrounding environment so as to reflect natural levels and expo- sure to these substances Such species are “*bio-accumulators” which are especially useful when concentrating very low levels of a substance, Algae are most useful as indicators in the context of eutrophication but have been employed as well to detect organic pollution because of their well documented toler- ance (e.g. Palmer, 1969), Their value as bio-accumulators of e.g. pesticides or heavy metals is limited. Some species, such as Selenastrum capricornurum, ate used as bio- sensors in laboratory bioassays while natural phytoplankton assemblages are often used for in situ bioassays (Schelske, 1984), Ecotoxicology is another field in which algae have been applied. Some common phytoplankton bioassay techniques mentioned later in the text are summarised in Figure | In a wider concept, organisms are seen as fundamental sensors that respond to any stress affecting the system in which they live (Loeb and Spacie, 1994). Any stress. physical, chemical or biological, imposed on an aquatic system manifests its impact on the organisms living within that ecosystem through their health. The health of ar: aquatic ecosystem is affected when its capacity to absorb stress is exceeded. The concept proposes that the environmental health of aquatic ecosystems can be assessed by biological monitoring using organisms as diagnostic tools. 2. Bio-indication and bio-monitoring in the environment Field assessment of environmental quality usually uses algae which are either plank- tonic or attached to surfaces. True planktonic forms are confined to lakes and large,Algae as ecological bio-indicators 287 Phytoplankton Bioassays ——= Field / in situ Laboratory Algal cultures Natural assemblages Indices to describe Batch ewtures Batch cultures assemblage structure Botties/ Moorings Continuous cultures Size spectra (Turbidostat/ Chemostal) Flow throughbotties Microplate aigal assay ‘Algal (ractionaton broassay (AFB (‘C-uptake/ Biomass / Pigments) Dialysis bags Selenastrum capricornuturn Autotrophic picoplankton aseay (C-uptake) (*C-uptake / Abundance) Microcosms/Mesocosms Ankistrodesmus bibrianus Biosensors (two chamber device} Insituptankton cages Continuoustlow-through systems — Flow-cytometry Figure 1. Phytoplankton bioassays commonly employed in laboratory and field/in situ situations (modi- fied from Munawar et al., 1989. slow flowing rivers. They are simple and inexpensive to collect by conventional limno- logical water-samplers. Attached algae may be removed in the field by scraping or brushing of definite areas when quantification is attempted. In order to overcome several deficiencies of detachment techniques, artificial substrates of various kinds have been tried with some success (Hellawell, 1986). Detailed description of method- ology and statistical evaluation of benthic algae used as bio-monitors is included in Lowe & Pan (1996). 2.1, Rivers Historically the concept of saprobity included autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms (Sladeéck 1977). Therefore several indices have been developed and used for both. As organic pollution in rivers decreased due to restoration measures, trophic problems became more pronounced resulting in the development of separate trophic bio-indices (Table 3). Ultimately all autotrophic organisms were treated separately from the saprobic system (Friedrich, 1990). General indices of water pollution can be found in Abel (1989). Trophic classification of rivers from phytoplankton and periphyton structure and abundance is now inchided in the EC-Water Framework Directive (2000) permitting biology based quality estimation. While the usage of benthic algae for the classi tion of running waters has quite a long tradition, phytoplankton has widely been neglected which is quite the opposite situation compared to lakes,288 M.T. Dokulii Table J. Criteria for trophic classification of plankton-dominated rivers (modified from Schinitt, 1998). ‘Trophic classification Primary Chlorophyll-a — Chlorophytl-a productivity 90-percentiles Average (ee t"'] (egy 1 Oligotrophic Very low 38 <4 THE Mesotrophic Low to moderate 8-30 38 W Butrophic Moderate 20-100 7-30 I-IIL— Eu- to polytrophie Moderate to high 70-150 28-30 w Polytrophic High 120-250 50-160 U-IV Poly- to saprotrophic Very high 200-400 >100 Vv Saprotrophic Extremely high >400 2.1.1. Phytoplankton Long-term changes in rivers using plankton biocoenoses are relatively easy to detect because methods are similar to lakes but standard protocols for surveys are jet to be developed. River plankton assemblages are most often dominated by diatoms. Green algae and Cryptophyceae appear in summer (Dokulil, 1991, 1996). At reduced flow rates Cyanobacteria can grow and sometimes produce short-lived blooms because of improved light conditions and less turbulence (Steinberg and Hartmann, 1988), In general, the plankton flora of rivers is far less diverse than those of lakes and is often dominated by centric diatoms (Rojo et al., 1994; Reynolds and Descy, 1996). Species which might be used as indicators are Aulacoseira granulata, Actinooyclus normanii Stephanodiscus neoastrea, Cyclotella meneghiniana among many others. The useful- ness of river plankton for bio-indication is, however hampered because of the wide ecotogical tolerance of most species (Lange-Bertalot, 1978, 1979). A gencral trophic classification of plankton-dominated rivers (Schmitt, 1998) uses the 90th percentiles of the chlorophyll-a concentrations from the growing season March-October (Table 1). Peak and average values may be used in addition, Ranges indicate the changing chlorophyll content of algal biomass with varying algal com- position which increases according to Behrendt and Opitz (1996) from Bacillario- phyceae (diatoms) to Cyanobacteria (Cyanoprokaryota) to Chlorophyta (green-algae). ‘A similar trophic system, including algal abundances and primary production, has been published by Felféldy (1987) for Hungarian rivers and lakes (Table 2). This system unifies trophic categorization for all types of surface waters as discussed by Hamm (1996) 2.1.2. Phytobenthos In contrast to plankton species, the algal periphyton in running waters include many of the requirements for an excellent monitoring system because they occur ubiquit- ously from clean springs to highly polluted river sections (Patrick, 1994). Macro-Algae as ecological bio-indicators 289 Parameters for the trophic characterization of rivers and lakes (modified from: dy, 1987). Trophie level Algal abundance Chlorophyll-a Primary Primary [0%cells 9) tug i) production _ production Img m=? '] [gC ma} 1 Ultra-oligotrophic —<0.01 4,000 >800 scopic conglomerations of algae are sampled and evaluated from transects or squares. Evaluation of microscopic periphyton is done after scraping off from the natural habitat or uses artificial substrata such as glass slides, styrofoam, plexiglass or tiles. In principle, the presence of any species whose environmental limits are clearly understood could be used as an indicator. In practice, its ecological range is often to broad or too little is known to be of any use. Healthy growth of a species often is a much better indicator than just its presence. Cladophora glomerata, for example appears in almost all streams but large growth is only found when nutrient levels are high (Whitton, 1979). Several lists of individual species do exist classifying species according to their reaction to one or the other type of pollution or contaminant (Mauch, 1976; Rott et al., 1997, 1999), The most objective accounts of the tolerance of individual species have been made for diatoms. Continuous long-time monitoring of rivers using diatometers (Patrick and Hohn, 1956) clearly show that algal assemblages on glass-slides reflect well pertur- bations such as increase in pollution, building of dams or small amounts of toxic pollution (Patrick, 1976), Winter and Duthie (2000) evaluate for instance in-stream nutrient concentration from pattems of epilithic diatom distribution. From a combina- tion of chlorophyll-a measurements and an analysis of benthic algal assemblages Biggs (2000) constructed a nomograph relating nutrient concentrations and days of accrual to trophic conditions (Fig. 2). These and many other observations anid elaborations have led to the formulation of many different indices for algal commu- nities, especially diatoms by a large variety of authors, summarised in Table 3. Besides saprobic and trophic indication, diatoms are used for many other indications such as salinity, acidity, pH-value, Al-concentration, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and humic substances (Schénfelder, 2000). In palaolimnology, water-temperatures, pH-values or phosphorus concentrations from the past are reconstructed from the analysis of diatom frustuls found in the sediments. Some of the more recently developed diatom indices are often based on experi- mental investigations such as those by Reimann and Hamm (1996), who analysed290 M.T. Dokulil Table 3. Indices for the assessment of running waters based on algal biocoenoses of the natural environment (updated from Ghetti & Ravera Indices Saprobic indices Biol. Effect of Org. Load (BEOL) Relative Purity Saprobic Index (S) Saprobic Index (8) Saprobie Index (S) Saprobic Index (S1) Saprobic Index (Slyy)) Saprobic quotient (SQ) Biotic ind ‘Cemagref diatom: Index (IDC) Diatom Index (IDD) Diatom Index (IILB) Diatom Index (IPS) Diatom Index (ILM) Diatom Index (CEC) Diatom assembl. Index (DAIpo) Generic diatom Index (GDN) Median diatomic Index (MI) Trophic diatom Index (TDI) Trophic diatom Index (TDI) Eutrophic Pollution Index (E/P-1) Trophic Index (BRB) Trophic Diatom Index (TDI) Trophic fndex (TH and TIyj,) Specific diversity indices Equitability Log-normal distribution Number of individuals per taxon Sequential Comparative Index (SCD) Taxa richness (S) Total number of individuals (N) Comparative indices Fluctuation Index (D) ‘Communities PA PA PA PA D AD PAD AD AD AD AD AD D AD AD D D D D AD 1994 and DePauw et al., 1992). References Knopp 1954 Kndpp 1954 Pantle and Buck 1955, DIN 38-410 Zelinka and Maryan 1991 Sladecek 1986 Kobayasi and Mayama 1989 Rott et al, 1997 Dresscher and Van der Mark 1976 Cemagref 1984 Descy 1979 Lange-Bertalot 1979 Cemagref 1982 Leclerq and Maquet 1987 Descy and Coste 1991 Watanabe et al. 1986 Rumeaux and Coste 1988 Bazerque et al, 1989 Schiefele and Kohmann 1993, Kelly and Whitton 1995; Kelly 1996 Deli "Uomo 1996 Schiinfelder 1997 Coring et al. 1999 Rott et al. 1999 Lloyd and Ghelardi 1964 Preston 1948 Helaweil 1986, Plafkin et al 1989 Caims et al. 1968 Helawell 1986, Plafkin et al, 1989 Helawell 1986, Plafkin et al. 1989 Dubois 1973 P= Plankton, A = Periphyton (Aufwuchs), D = Diatoms,igae as ecological bio-indicators 291 1000 t+ 100 From Biggs (2000) 100 I~ 10 Eutrophic Mesotrophic Soluble inorganic Nitrogen (SIN, mgm’ Soluble reactive phosphorus [SRP, mg m*] Oligotrophic oa Ot T i 0. 0 20 40 60 80 100 Days of accrual [da] ‘iyure 2. Nomograph predicting maximum benthic algal biomass as chlorophyll-a indicative of oligo- sophie, mesotrophic, and eutrophic conditions from mean monthly soluble inorganic nitrogen (SIN, left axis), soluble reactive phosphorus SRP, right y-axis) and days of accrual (d,, x-axis). Boundaries were set to 60 mg m~ chlorophyll-a to separate oligotrophic ftom mesotrophic, and to 200 mg m’* for mesotrophic to eutrophic (modified from Biggs, 2000). periphytic diatoms in artificial field and laboratory mesocosms. Based on the concept of differentiating species (see below) and intensive field investigations throughout Germany Schiefele and Kohmann (1993) developed a weighted trophic diatom index TDD > y, Dw TDi = > yy, a with TDIg,= Trophic diatom index for sampling site (SS) Y, = telative abundance of species i = | to » at the sampling site TDI, = Index based on either phosphorus or phosphorus and nitrogen for species | ton W, = Weight i= 1 to n for species 1 to n This formula is mathematically equivalent to the saprobic index by Pantle and Buck +1955) or Zelinka and Marvan (1961),292 M.T. Dokulii Table 4, Relation of trophic levels to the Trophic Diatom Index (TDI), trophic condition nutrient load (modified from Schiefele and Kohmann. 1993), Trophic level TDI Trophic condition Nutrient load 1 oligotrophic (0) natural 1s oligo-mesotrophic (om) low 2 mesotrophic (m) moderate 2 meso-eutrophic (me) critical 3 eutrophic (e) significant 35 eu-bypertrophic (eh) high 4 hypertrophic (h) very high The Trophic Diatom Index (TDI) characterises the trophic level of streams and rivers using seven levels similar to the saprobic system (Table 4). Both classifications are independent and their levels unequal. The value of the TDI lies mainly in its ability better to classify nutrient loads than some of the commonly used saprobic indices It is best applied to neutral ot slightly alkaline, meso- to hypertrophic waters The weighted trophic diatom index of Schiefele and Kohmann (1993) for running waters is similar and comparable in methodology to the index developed for lakes by Hofmann (1993, see below Section 2.2), Besides indices, several authors have attempted to describe community structure with elaborated differential concepts (Lange-Bertalot, 1978, 1979; Schicfele, 1987 Steinberg and Schiefele, 1988). These authors finally defined five groups of different tolerance levels against pollution and two groups describing nutrient conditions: most tolerant species (mt); reproduce even in polysaprobic areas highly tolerant species (ht) which occur up to the a-meso-polysaprobic level tolerant species (t) tolerating a-meso-saprobic conditions sensitive species (s) which are sensible against pollution but tolerating B- te «-meso-saprobic situations highly sensitive species (hs) which avoid saprobities greater than B-meso-saprobic oligotraphentic species (o]) indicating low nutrient concentrations eutraphentic species (eu) preferring high nutrient levels. Using this system, running waters can be classified into three levels of pollution and four classes of trophy from relative species abundances according to the scheme given in Table 5. Examples of applications to running waters of various types include e.g Dokulil et al. (1997) and Pipp and Rott (1994). Other authors bave used ordination techniques and weighted-averaging regression- calibration models for inferring stream water conditions from diatom pattems versus nutrients (e.g. Sch6nfelder, 2000: Winter and Duthie, 2000). In some cases. phytosociological techniques were applied to bioindication of water quality using planktonic and benthic algal species (Méller and Pankow, 1981; Tauscher. 1999).Algae as ecological bio-indicators 293 Table 5. Bioindication of trophy and pollution according to the system of differential diatom species {from Steinberg and Schiefele, 1988). ol = oligotraphentic species, eu = eutraphentic species, hs = highly sensitive species, s = sensitive species, t ~ tolerant species, ht ~ highly tolerant species, mt = most tolerant species. For more details refer to the text. e abundances of the differentiating algal groups Trophic level 1 10% tr htt mt +s < 10% u 10% — en<50% t+htt mt+s< 10% ul 0% = eu = 50% t+ht+mt+s< 10% IV ol < 10% hs < 10% eu = 50% Pollution class 1 ol + hs <10% eu < 50% t+ht+ mt +s > 16% 2 ol + hs <10% eu < 50%, C+ ALE met s = 50% 3 ol + hs <10% eu < 10% t+ ht + mt +s = 50% Attached algae other than diatoms are additional valuable indicators of conditions in flowing waters (e.g. Backhaus, 1973). Macroscopic and microscopic sessile green algae, although difficult to identify, are often the most common species present in river beds during summer. John and Johnson (1991) developed a field and laboratory protocol to enable the use of these species for detection of response to heavy metals, autrient enrichment and other types of pollution. In conjunction with the EC Directive on the ecological quality of waters, many countries develop protocols, standards and lists of indicator species for the assessment of river water quality (e.g. Jarlman et al., 1996; Rott et al., 1997, 1999). The indices developed by Rott el al. (1997, 1999) include saprobic as well as trophic indices. The latter is either based on all algal classes or solely on diatoms. Mathematic- ally it is similar to the trophic index of Schiefele and Kobmann (1993): DS WGA, 2 > GH, a sith TT = trophic index of all algal groups or diatoms only (Tly.,) TW, = trophic value of species / (tabulated in Rott et al., 1999) G, = Weight given to species i (tabulated in Rott et al., 1999) H, = relative abundance of species i in % Biotic integrity of rivers is estimated with a new index of biological integrity (PIBI) eveloped fiom periphyton assemblages using a wide variety of estimators such as egal genera richness, relative abundance of diatoms, various types of acidophilic, straphentic or motile dominant diatom genera. cyanobacteria, chlorophyll and ash- ve dry biomass (Hill et al., 2000).294 M.T, Dokulié Biomass per unit area or ratios of different components have sometimes been used as indicators of water quality. For instance, Weber and McFarland (1969), quoted from Whitton (1979), proposed an index of ash-free dry weight of periphyton to their respec- tive chlorophyll-a content, both in g m ?. This index should be higher in polluted areas that contain a larger proportion of heterotrophic organisms. ‘The response of photosynthesis and respiration to factors such a8 nutrient enrich-, ment or a pollutant can be used to evaluate water quality. Of especial importance is the P/R-ratio which is: <1 in septic zones, increases rapidly and reaches values >I in the recovery zone. Further downstream the P/R ratio approaches one. River primary production is often estimated from continuous upstream-downstream recordings of oxygen and other parameters. Water quality is deduced ftom these measurements (Kelly et al., 1976). 2.2. Lakes and reservoirs Several techniques, indices and indicator species have been proposed by a variety authors for the trophic classification of lakes and reservoirs with natural phytoplankton assemblages. The phytobenthos (periphyton, Aufwuchs) in lakes has attracted much less attention, especially when compared to river benthos. In some cases differenc at higher taxonomic levels (algal groups) were used to characterise trophic levels uf lakes. 2.2.1. Phytoplankton 2.2.11. Indices using algal groups Chlorococcal ~ Desmid Quotient (Thunmark, 1945) Trophic levels are characterised by the relationship of the number of species found ir a sample according to Chlorococcal species number Desimid species number Oligotrophic lakes have values <1, usually between 0.2 and 0.7: eutrophic waters are characterised by Q > 1 (1-3); hypertrophic lakes may reach values as high as 14 Other authors could not validate this quotient and reported high variability. « Algal quotients according to Nygaard (1949) In addition to Thunmark’s index, Nygaard developed further indices based on various algal groups: Myxophyceae Myxophyceae Quotient = ~>*0PHycea® Sy ele Desmids : Centrales Diatom Quotient = =~ PennalesAlgae as ecological bio-indicators 295 Euglenophyceae Euglenophyceae Quotient = 9 — Chlorococeal greens Compound Quotient = Des Characteristic values of trophic levels are: Dystrophie 0-03 Oligotrophic Mesotrophic 1-25 Eutrophic 35 Hypertrophic 5-20 Polytophic 10-43 Again, the compound index, as all others proved to be of rather limited value, E:0 und EV:EO ratios according to Jarnefelt et al. (1963 cit. acc. to Heinonen, 1980) The ratio of eutraphentic to oligotraphentic species (E:Q) and the quotient of the total biomass of eutraphentic species to the biomass of oligotraphentic species EV:OV) is defined on species level E _ Number of eutraphenti species © Number of oligotraphentic speci EV __ Total biomass of eutraphentic species OV ~ Total biomass of oligotraphentic species According to Heinonen (1980) the E/O index fits better at higher trophic levels while the biomass based quotient is very variable. Moreover, application is restricted due to the limited number of oligotraphent indicator species. Algal quotient according to Stockner (1971) The index is based on the ratio of the two diatom groups Araphidineae/Centrales. Originally, it was developed for diatom frustules in recent sediments. The author proposed the following classification A/C ratio Lake type 0.0-1.0 Oligotrophie 10-20 Mesotrophic 20 Eutrophic296 M.T. Dokutii 2.2.1.2. Classification based on indicator species Some of the above mentioned authors as well as several others have tried to classify lakes using the indicator species concept. A pre-requisite for defining indicators is 2 good knowledge of the algal species specific taxonomy and their related environmental requirements (¢.g. Teubner, 1995). # Indicative species according to Thunmark (1945), Nygaard (1949), Fimefelt (1952 or Teiling (1955) All these authors proposed various lists of algal species which are either indicative for specific trophic situations, are indifferent or have no indicator value for lakes. For more details one must consult the original reference because the listings are voluminous These approaches are of limited regional importance because most information origin- ated from Scandinavian countries. Dominant limnetic algae according to Rawson (1956) The author proposed a list for Western Canada in which the dominant algal species are placed in approximate sequence from oligotrophic to eutrophic occurrence (Table 6). Dominance is defined as a high percentage of the species in phytoplankton counts over much of the summer season. It should be made clear that this list shall only be used in Canada. Lakes in different regions of the world may need different species list (see further down) Qualitative characterisation according to Heinonen (1980) Classification was based on qualitative phytoplankton analyses and on a differentia- tion of lakes based on their total plankton biomass. Lakes with a biomass ranging from Table 6. Approximate trophic distribution of dominant algae in lakes of Western Canada (from Rawson, 1956). Oligotrophic Asterionella formosa Aulacoseira islandica Tabellaria flocculosa var. fenestrata Tabellaria flocculosa Dinobryon divergens Fragilaria capucina Stephanodiscus niagarae Staurastrum spp. Aulacoseira granulata Mesotrophic Fragilaria crotonensis Ceratium hirundinella Pediastrum boryanun Pediastrum duplex Coelospherium naegelianum Anabaena spp. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Microcystis aeruginosa Eutropine Microcystis flos-aquaetae as ecological bio-indicators 297 0.01-0.50 mg \*! ave considered oligotrophic those with B >2.5 mg I-! are called eutrophic, Indicator species dominant in one or the other lake type are listed. Comparison to the species listed by Jimefelt et al. (1963, cited in Heinonen 1980) sobstantiated the indicative value of species such as Arthrodesmus incus, Dinobryon cylindricum and Mallomonas borgei, Many of the so called oligotraphentie species, however were often found in eutrophic lakes. « Trophic Lake Index (Hirnstrim, 1981) Hémstrém postulates that the composition of the phytoplankton reacts more slowly to changing trophic conditions (>1 year) while total biomass readily reflects the nutrient situation, Based on these asstimptions, he devleoped a Trophic Lake Index (/,) which 1s calculated from Xr) zs with [, = Trophic Index of the species (range 0-100) f = frequency as log Biovolume in um? ml-! (modification by Tremel, 1996). The indicator valence of an algal species, ranging from 0 to 100 with increasing trophic state, is estimated from calculating median biomass for all the lakes in which a species occurs relative to the highest median observed (Fig. 3). This index is interesting for classification because it is based on relative frequencies which should remain more stable then absolute occurrence in case of zooplankton grazing. 4 Aphanizomenon flos-aquae ‘Anabaena planctonica Anabaena spiroides "4s E = ‘Staurastrum paradoxum 2 Staurastrum pingue eas Staurastrum smithli 2 16 Tatraedron caudatumy 3 a ¢ ictyospherium pulchellum 3 Gymnodinium fuscum 3 = oe ‘Gomphospheria lacustris. Fragilaria crotonensis Merismopedia tenuissima 0.0} ° 20 40 60 80 100 Trophic Index Figure 3. Relation between median volume and trophic index of phytoplankton species (modified from Hérnstrdm, 1981),298 M.T. Dokulil Table 7. Algal bioindicators for trophic levels (Lrom Kimmerlin, 1990). Species which are ‘common but have no indicative value are tisted under ‘eutraphent’ Trophic tevel Algal group Algal species Oligotrophic Bacillariophyceae Cyelotelta bodanica Chrysophyceae Chromulina erkensis Chromulina rosanoffii Xanthophyceae Istmochloron trispinatum Cryptophyceae Cryptomonas obovata Oligo-mesotrophic__ Cyanophyceae Microcystis wesenbergii ptophyceae Cryptaulax vulgaris Mesotrophic Bacillariophyceae Tabellaria fenestrata Eutrophic Cyanophyceae Microcystis aeruginosa Aphanizomenon flas-aqae Anabaena planctonica Bacillariophyceae Stephanodiscus hanteschii St. astrea St. binderanus Conjugatophyceae Mougeotia thylespora Eutraphent (euryék) —_Bacillariophyceae Asterionella formosa Cyelotella radiosa Dinophyceae Ceratium hiruadinella Cryptophyceae Rhodomonas minuta Cryptomonas ovata ¢ Indicator species and indicator group study by Rosén (1981) From a large data-set of medium and small sized Swedish lakes, algal species with clear environmental characteristics were defined from distribution functions. Results indicate that blue-green and green planktonic algae, besides well defined eutrophic species, comprise types indicative of clear lakes or low or high humic content Chrysophyceans often dominate in nutrient poor waters. Diatoms are absent from ultra- oligotrophic lakes. Dinoflagellates and Cryptophyceans are confined to certain lake types, Within the Chloromonadophyceans, Gonyostomum semen is an excellent indi- cator for humic lakes. The study contains detailed lists of the various species and their indictor value with respect to several limnological important variables. @ Algal Bioindicators according to Ktimmerlin (1990) Indicator species are deduced from long-term observations on Lake Constance, Germany (Table 7). @ Algal Bioindicators and Trophic Index by Brettum (1989) The system used by Brettum (1989) is an extension and claboration of the method carlier developed by Hérnstriim (1981, see above). More than 120 species are assignedAlgae as ecological bio-indicators 299 to seven trophic categories (ultra-oligotrophic to hyper-eutrophic) according to the probability of their highest appeatance calculate from W n, “xy N Pp with N, = total number of algal species within a trophic class n, ~ number of a specific species (i) per group V, = percentage contribution of species / to total biovolume These values are normalised to the interval at which the species contributes most (=100) which results in a numeric distribution of all species in the seven trophic classes which are summarised in Brettum’s study. A compound index is finally calculated from the individual species indices: = Dito : Dy = with J, = index for the trophic level 7 v, = total biovolume of species i ij, = index value of species 7 for the trophic category T This index has the advantage that it uses volumes rather than relative abundances. Similar to the study by Rosén (1981), distribution of species is related to several environmental variables: « BRB-Index (Schénfelder, 1997, 2000) Bioindication with the BRB-index was developed for bicarbonate-rich waters in Brandenburg. Germany and is therefore restricted to this and similar types of waters but can be used for plankton and benthic diatoms both in streams and lakes, The concept of Schdnfelder (1997) is based, similar to many other approaches, on the optimum and the tolerance range of diatom species to total phosphorus concentrations which are calculated from: s Dn 1P*d,, In TP — Optimum, = ‘+ 5 Das a swith dy, = n/n, where 7P = total phosphorus k= taxon for which 7P is estimated i= sample number sy = number of samples d,, = dominance of taxon & in sample i nm,, = abundance of taxon & in sample i n, = abundance of all species in sample i300 M.T. Dokulil The tolerance range of the individual species is estimated from the standard deviation of In TP: 5 > 4,, * (in TP Optimum ~ In TP,)? by Ths ee Sd, ahi a These tolerance values are then converted to integer TP-factors from: SP ry = 3.4999 ~ 3.333 typ, Mathematically negative results are considered to be zero. These factors are inversely proportional to the indication of TP by the species (SF jp, = 0 equals wide ecological tolerance, SF;,,, = 3 little tolerance). The trophic index is finally calculated ftom the dominance, the TP-factors and TP- optima of all the species (m) from: > d,, * SF, * In TP — Optimum, a BRB - index = — 4, * SF, Po The calculated index is calibrated against the natural-logarithms of the measured TP- concentrations which are related to 1] trophic conditions (Table 8). The TP factors for a large number of benthic and planktonic species can be found in Schénfelder (1997). © Phytoplankton Indicators (Lepist and Rosenstrom, 1998; Lepisté, 1999) Most recent collection of extensive lists of indicator species for various types of trophic conditions. Indication based on an evaluation of references and own observations. 2.2.1.3. Classification from biomass or biovolume Phytoplankton biovolume or biomass has been used by several authors for the trophic classification of lakes. The systems of Rosén (1981) and Rott (1984) are identical, The Norwegian (Brettum, 1989) and the Swedish classifications (Willén, 2000) are both based on either mean or maximum values. Four systems are compared in Table 9 from which it becomes evident that greatest discrepancies among delineation by authors are between Heinonen (1980) and all others. The main differences lie in the number of trophic categories considered. Brettum’s classification is the most differentiated one within this comparison while those of Rosén (1981) and Rott (1984) have overlapping values but consider only three trophic levels. Categorisation and delineation using algal biomass by different authors is graphically summarised in Figure 4. 2.2.1.4. Classification based on seasonal phytoplankton associations Detailed analyses of phytoplankton succession and seasonal development culminated in the description of 26 provisional associations by Reynolds (1997) which in his view : 4 f : atigae as ecological bio-indicators Table 8. Concentrations of total phosphorus (TP) for the trophic categories as defined by Schénfelder (1997), Trophic staras Range of TP feel] Ultraoligotrophie 43 Ultra- to oligotrophic 43-70 Oligotrophic 70-116 Oligo- to mesotrophic 11.6-19.1 Mesotrophie 191-315 Meso- to eutrophic 315-519 Eutrophic 51.9-85.6 Eu- to polytrophic 85.6-441.2 Polytrophic 141.2-2328 Poly- to hypertrophic 232.8-383.8 Hypertrophic 2383.8 301 ‘able 9, Comparison of trophic delineation from phytoplankton fresh-weight biomass accord- ng to various authors, Trophy Average fresh weight biomass [mg 1~'] Heinonen Rosén (1981), Brettum Wilken (1980) Rott (1984) (1989) (2000) lira-oligotrophie <0.2, 10 Ds re different vegetation types recognisable within freshwater phytoplankton (Table 40). the number of entries and the species associated with are seen as an open, change- ble system by Reynolds. Associations are not defined via species but through snctional algal groups. Adaptations to limiting factors can result in the preference of 40149 unyuogy ‘vanudg ‘Pua/nq eiaaeg snydonojoug puaysioug muauogi4), ‘Dlunajonuig ‘Dyjaurwed, sasdowuadsoapuyy rayopas xayjoutury / nypavsp xLuporyUDfe, moaBnow/suaosaqna xysOryUN/ muvpSoay ‘wnusnandig puvjjagny ‘wmsousoy sysXoosonpy sustoo.oypy ‘nies puavydsoydwor ‘wnnsidsuosu wnpuaprag ‘unnD.> aoaysounydy ‘vsdvzounydy 19B10y sus%0Q “snusapour2g “wnaserpag puanqouy putuopung ‘oulsopns snopovakuog ‘susioosavyds pyasonydsosiay ‘wakugaurg] pyosziupy snosiponnydals, mnBiguy vgasoovjny ‘njnios snosipounydarg “nyyououaise porpon pasasorpny “dds nyjauoassp sisuauoa ryyaropax “dds viuajoseu7) aiqdonosyo, a1ydonna-osayy o1ydono%i aiydonng arydoamng, yong aiydosjosaut-o8410 d1ydonna-osapy d1ydonosawu-o8110 arydosing arydosiny aiydosng dono81jQ otjdo.nnosayy aiydonray, dong arydos10319, arydono3Q, €X ex. IX Mv A “wtjezanwn Figure 5. Schematic growth curve of algae in batch culture compared to stimulation and toxic effects of a test substance. p = specific growth rate coefficient. of algae that can grow in a water sample under standardized conditions. These tests are often used to judge: © the degree of eutrophication of surface water (Thomas, 1953; Skulberg, 1964) e the eutrophication potential of the effluent of sewage treatment plants (Forsberg, 1972) © the possible effects of environmental measures on the degree of eutrophication of water systems (van der Does and Klapwijk, 1987) Growth curves obtained by such tests or bioassays schematically are displayed in Figure 5 together with schematic effect-curves of a stimulating and a toxic substance. In some cases, these growth curves show a second exponential phase after a retarda- tion phase. depending on the culture medium used (Bolier and Donze, 1989). Growth tests are performed in batch cultures under defined nutrient, CO,, pH and light conditions. Biomass development over time is estimated from microscopic or electronic cell counts, chlorophyll-a concentration, ATP-, DNA-content or similar parameters. Turbidity measurements may overestimate biomass when bacterial con- tamination is high. Test results are analysed from algal growth curves against an untreated control (Gunkel, 1994). Laboratory tests used in eco-toxicology are summarised in Steinberg et al. (1995).Ligae as ecological bio-indicators 3 521. Algal growth inhibition test Standard test: OECD Guideline for testing of chemicals 201, 7.1984 Organisms: unicellular green algae (Ankistrodesmus bibraianum, Scenedesmus subspi- caus or Chlorella vulgaris) (dilution series between NOEC and concentration >LC 50. Growth is followed by cell counting for 72 hours End point: EC 50 and NOEC 3.2.2. Inhibition of green-alga by water contaminants (Scenedesmus vrowth-inhibition test) Standard test: DIN 38 412, L9, 1989 (ISO/DIS 6862:06.87). Organism: Scenedesmus subspicatus CHODAT, 4 unicellular green alga dilution series of the substance or water to be tested run in 100 m] Erlenmayr-fiasks ith culture media at 23°C, 8 000 Lux continuous light for 3 days. somass must at least be estimated after 24, 48 and 72 hours. tnd point: EC 10 and EC 50 after 72 hours 2.2. Measurement of non-toxic effects of waier contaminants on green sae (Scenedesmus-chlorophyll-fluorescence test) in dilutions Standard test: DIN 38 412, L33, 1991 Organism: Scenedesnms subspicatus CHODAT, a unicellular green alga dilution series are incubated as above. Fluorescence is measured at the end at 685 nm ‘rom all dilutions relative to the untreated control. Toxic effects are present if fluo- scence is inhibited by 20%. All the above mentioned tests can largely be automated. Typical results of algal growth potential (AGP) tests are shown in Figure 6 from ua intensive study in the Netherlands (Klapwijk et al., 1989) and from a deep alpine ike (Dokulil, unpublished), Both observations indicate that phosphorus was the substance most likely limiting growth. Seasonal varying nutrient limitation was found a English lakes using laboratory bioassays with Asterionella formosa and Rhodo- unas lacustris as test organisms (Barbosa, 1989). Phosphate was the major element miting both species throughout the year, except during spring diatom development vhen dissolved silica became limiting. Chelated iron increased growth, particularly in ombination with phosphate. Comparison of AGP-bioassay and phosphate uptake Lanetics with natural phytoplankton, however gave somewhat inconclusive results as eported by Van Donk et al. (1989). $23. Bioassays with macroalgae Macroalgae may also be used as test-organisms, Inhibition of trichom movement in ke blue-green Phormidium autumnale (cyanobacteria) is used to screen for toxic hstances (Noll and Bauer, 1973; Breitig and Tiimpling, 1982). Haglund et al. (1990) ase the red-alga Gracilaria tenuistipitaia (Rodophyta) to test marine and brackish saters for toxic pollutants. Effects of tributyltin (TBT) on community metabolismM.T. Dokulil snoydsoud a jmjoq) Busy ‘Aaspuoyy wroy HOryUR;dOL20 xm ~ netplankton ; 5-20 am ~ nanoplankton ; I--S wm — ultra- plankton ; < | pm - picoplankton) is estimated against an untreated control. Similarly,314 M.T. Dokulil long-term effects of sediment elutriates can be evaluated from 4 day bioassays in S-litre bottles using natural phytoplankton or a mixed culture of Ankistrodesmus braunii (Naeg.) Brunnthaler and Chlorella vulgaris Beyerinck. This test may be expanded to include the solid phase of the sediment allowing differential bioassay of the effects of both solid- and liquid-phase of sediment contaminants. In this case, the sediment compartment may be separated from the water/organism part by a membrane allowing exchange of substances but prevent mixing (AhIf, 1985). The use of sedi- ments directly in bioassays with algae is recommended over elutriates because a large number of toxic chemicals can not be extracted with water (Ongley et al., 1988), All these bioassay techniques integrate the response of test organisms to contami- nants and nutrients. They often give best results when combined with other assessment methods (Ahlf et al., 1989; Gregor and Munawar, 1989). 4. Ecotoxicology In ecotoxicology biomonitoring is the accumulation of contaminants in cells or tissues of organisms without severe damage or even death. The contaminant and its quantity can only be evaluated after chemical analysis (exposure-monitoring). Effect- monitoring estimates the quality and quantity of a contaminant through analysis of the population structure (bioindication) because populations or assemblages change char- acteristically when impacted by polluting substances. A contaminating substance (xenobiotica) must be biologically available to be of environmental relevance and hence be taken up by organisms in one way or the other. The ability of many plants and animals to accumulate exotic substances makes them idle for biomonitoring Criteria for effective biomonitors for organic contaminants include the following: 1. The organisms must accumulate the xenobiotic substances without being affected by environmental relevant concentrations 2. The organisms should preferably be sessile to be representative for the investigated area. 3. The organisms should cither live everywhere in the area investigated or be tolerant to exposure in chambers, cages, etc 4, The organisms shall be long lived to act as integrators of contaminations. 5. The organisms shall be of such a size that enough tissue for chemical analysis is available. 6. Collection and handling of the organisms should be easy. 7. A simple correlation should exist between the mean concentration of the contam- inant in the environment and the conient in the organism. 8. All individuals of a species used in biomonitoring must, under all circumstances, have the same relation to the concentration of the contaminant. 4.1. Measurement techniques Acute toxicity is usually estimated from 72 hour growth tests using the green-algae Scenedesmus subspicatus. The no observed effect concentration (NOEC) is defined asAlgae as ecological bio-indicators 315 the concentration at which Jess than 20% of the organisms ( 7, effects will largely depend on assimilation and accu- mulation by phytoplankton (Thomann, 1989) 4.4, Heavy metals Several algal species accumulate considerable amounts of metals and can thus be used as monitors for elements such as cadmium, copper or lead (Hellawell, 1986; Whitton, 1984), Both field and laboratory populations have been used with success, A detailed description of toxicity effects of various metals can be found in Moore and Ramamoorthy (1984). Most metals are slightly to highly toxic to algae, arsenic, copper, mercury and zinc having the greatest effect. Impacts on algae in natural waters is highly variable. Cyanobacterial strains reacted more sensitive to heavy metals in a comparative laboratory growth inhibition test than green algae (Kusel-Fetzmann et al., 1989), Because of its widespread occurrence, the filamentous green alga Cladophora has been assessed more than any other species except perhaps for Chlorella in the laboratory. Both species concentrate various metals proportionally to ambient concen- trations. An example of pH-dependent Zn uptake by Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kitz.Algue as ecological bio-indieators the concentration at which less than 20% of the organisms ( 7, effects will largely depend on assimilation and accu- mulation by phytoplankton (Thomann, 1989). 4.4, Heavy metals Several algal species accumulate considerable amounts of metals and can thus be used as monitors for elements such as cadmium, copper or lead (Hellawell, 1986; Whitton, 1984). Both field and laboratory populations have been used with success. A detailed description of toxicity effects of various metals can be found in Moore and Ramamoorthy (1984). Most metals are slightly to highly toxic to algae, arsenic, copper, mercury and zine having the greatest effect. Impacts on algae in natural waters is highly variable. Cyanobacterial strains reacted more sensitive to heavy metals in a comparative laboratory growth inhibition test than green algae (Kusel-Fetzmann et al., 1989), Because of its widespread occurrence, the filamentous green alga Cladophora has been assessed more than any other species except perhaps for Chlorella in the laboratory. Both species concentrate various metals proportionally to ambient concen- trations. An example of pH-dependent Zn uptake by Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kitz.Algae as ecological bio-indicators 37 200 From: Vymazal 1987 150 100 Zn Uptake [ug Zn gt dry weight] 5,50 7.50 850 pH-vaiue Figure 7. Relationship between Zn uptake in Cladophora glomerata and pH. Bars indicate maximum and minimum values (modified from Vymaza), 1987), is given in Figure 7 (Vymazal, 1987). In contrast, enrichment ratios of the red-alga Lemanea fluviatilis decreased with increasing aqueous concentration (Fig. 8, Whitton, 1984), Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are usually mixtures of isomeres marketed under a variety of names. They are non-ionic, non-flammable compounds with extremely low water solubility but are highly lipophilic, and hence of significance to biota, Algae as indicators of PCB-pollution ate advantageous because they represent organism at the basis of the food chain. Marine phytoplankton for instance has an enor- mous capacity for accumulating organohalogen compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (Ramade, 1987). Concentrations of PCB in the range of 11 to 111 pg b! were reported to inhibit growth and photosynthesis in green algal species (see Steinberg et al., 1992 or Hellawell, 1986). 4.6, Pesticides Several of the many different groups of pesticides can not be biomonitored with algae mainly because of their low bioaccumulation (c.g, urea-based pesticides, comp. Steinberg et al., 1992, p. 178 ff}. Although nitrogen-based herbicides such as e.g. atrazin are strongly accumulated by phytoplankton and the coccoid green-algal species Scenedesmus acutus and Chlorella fusca, biomonitoring is not possible because of the318 M.T. Dokulil wong —[-—ttel etl nae From Whitton (1984) 10000 Enrichment ratio in Lemanea 0.001 0.01 ot 1 Figure 8. Relationship between enrichment ratio for zine in Lemanea fluviatilis and total zinc concen- tation in water of stream and rivers (r = ~0.84), modified from Whitton (1984) high variability (Kusel-Fetzmann et al.. 1989) and discrepancy of measured and calcu lated BCF-values. Side-effects of atrazin on aquatic ecosystems are reported, however for singie species, communities and food chains (Lampert et al., 1989). In running water experiments, the composition and quantity of periphytic algae, especially Rhopalodia, Phormidiwn and Cladophora are affected at atrazin-levels of | mg 1”! Adverse effects on diatoms become visible already at concentrations of 0.01 mg I”. Pre-incubation with the herbizide did not result in adaptation (Kosinski, 1984; Kosinski and Merkle, 1984). Tabulated data on accumulation and toxicity of selected pesticides by algal species are summarized in Steinberg et al. (1992). The specific diversity of phytoplankton and biomass estimations via chlorophyll-a in ponds were used by Goacolou and Echaubard (1987) to evaluate in situ pesticide contamination. The biocoenotic structure, species richness and chlorophyll levels were significantly altered in ponds affected by pesticides. 4.7. Tensides Toxicity from various tenside classes vary by four orders of magnitude within a single algal species. In general. however, kationic tensides are far more effective to algae than anionic or non-ionic tensides. The sensitivity of different algae to a single tenside varies by three orders of magnitude, depending on the species used, their physiologyAlgae as ecological bio-indicators 319 Table 12. Mean concentration factors 1987), for various radioisotopes in marine algae (from Ramade, Radionuclides Cone. factor Radionuclides Cone. factor 09 0S 50 250 sosiy 500 4000 Zr, SND 1500 1 osu, “Rh 400 lat MT 5000 2 Xe 1 1200 Cs 1s 2000 Ba, La 25 3000 nace 700 2x 108 HSS 5 500 203.210 700 10° 26P0 1000 1 Ra 1000 Pu 1300 and the overall test conditions. The cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa for instance, is 10-times more sensible than the green Ankistrodesmus bibraianum, Toxicity values for tensids are tabulated by Lewis (1990). 4.8. Radioisotopes According to the summary by Ramade (1987) the average concentration factor of radioisotopes by algae varies considerably depending on the isotope (Table 12). References Abel, P.D., 1989, Water Pollution Biology. lohn Wiley, New York. AhIf, W., 1985, Behaviour of sediment-bound heavy metals in a bioassay with algae: bioaccumulation and toxicity. Von Wasser 65, 183-188. AbIf, W.. Calmano, W., Erhard, J,, Forstner, U., 1989, Comparison of five bioassay techniques for assessing sediment-bound contaminants. Hydrobiofogia 188/189. 285-289. AbIf, W., Munwar, M., 1988. Biological assessment of environmental impact of dredged material. In: Salomons, W., Férstner, U. (Eds). Chemistry and Biology of Solid Waste. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp. (27-142, Backhaus. D., 1973. Fliesswasseralgen und ihre Verwendbarkeit als Bioindikatorea, Verhandlungen der Geselischalt fiir Okologic, Saarbriicken 1973, 149-168 Barbosa, F.A.R., 1989. Evidence from algal bioassays of seasonal nutrient limitations in two English lakes. Hydrobiologia 188/189, 21 1-228 Barnes. W.S.. 1980. Assays for dispersed mutagens in marine environments using extracts of bioconcen- trators. Considerations, problems, and applications. Ph.D. Dissertation, Botany Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Bazerque, M.F.. Laville, H., Brouquet, Y., 1989. Biological quality assessment in two rivers of the northern plain of France (Picardie) with special reference to chironomid and diatom indices. Acta Biologicae Debrecen, Oecologia Hungarica 3, 29-39320 M.T. Dokulil Behrendt, H., Opitz, D., 1996. Ableitung einer Klassifizierung flir die Gewiissergite von plankton- dominierten Flieflgewassem und Flussseen im Berliner Raum. Berichte des Instituts flir Gewas dkologie und Binnenfischerei (GB) 1, 1-26 Bellamy, DJ.. Witteck, A., John, D.M., Jones. D.J., 1973. A method for the determination of seaweed production. In: A Guide to the Measurement of Marine Primary Productivity under Some Special Conditions. UNESCO, Paris. pp. 27-33. Bellinger, E.G., 1979. The response of algal populations to changes in lake water quality. In: James, A and Evison, L, (Eds), Biological Indicators of Water Quality, John Wiley, Chichester, pp. 9-1-9-25. Biggs. B.LF., 2000. Eutrophication of streams and rivers: dissolved nutrient-chlorophyll relationships for benthic algae, Journal of the North-American Benthological Society 19, 17-31 Blaise, C., 1986. Micromethod for acutee aquatic toxicity assessment using the green alga Selenastrum capricornutum Toxicity Assessment 1, 377-385 Blaise, C., Legault, R., Bermingham, N., van Cuitlie, R., Vasseur, P., 1986, A simple micoptate algal assay technique for aquatic toxicity assessment, Toxicity Assessment 1, 261-28] Bolier, G., Donze, M., 1989. On the accuracy and interpretation of growth curves of planktonic algae. Hydrobiologia 188/189, 175-179. Breitig, G., Tiimpling, W_v., 1982. Ausgewahlte Methoden der Wasseruntersuchung. Bd. Il. Biologische, mikrobintogische und toxikologische Methoden, 2. Aufl, G. Fischer Verlag, Jena Brettum, P., 1989, Alger som indikatorer p Vannkvalitet i norske innsjeer Planteplankton, NIVA, Blinder, Oslo Caims, J., Albaugh, D.W., Busey, F., Chaney, M.D., 1968. The sequential comparison index. A simplified method to estimate relative differences in biological diversity in stream pollution studies. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation 40, 1607-1613. Cemagref, 1982, Bude des méthodes biologiques d°appreciation quantitative de la qualité des eaux. Rapport QE.Lyon-A.F- Bassin Rhne-Méditerraneé-Corse Charles, D-F., Smol, .P., Engstrom, D.R., 1994, Paleolimnological approaches to biological monitoring. In: Loeb, $.L., Spacie, A. (Eds), Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Systems, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp. 233-293 Cohn, F., 1853, Uber lebende Organismen im ‘Trinkwasser. Z. klein, Medizin 4, 229-237 Cohn, P., 1870, Uber den Brunnenfaden (Crenothrix polsspora) mit Bemerkungen iiber die mikroskopische Analyse des Brunnenwassers, Cohn’s Beitrige zur Biologie der Pflanzen 3, 1-108, Coring, E., Schneider. S., Hamm, A., Hofmann, G., 1999. Durchgehendes Trophiesystem auf der Grundlage der Trophieindikation mit Kieselalgen. DVWK Materialien 6, 1-219, Costa, J-E., Howes, B.L.. Giblin, A.E., Valiela, 1, 1992. Monitoring nitrogen and indicators of nitrogen Joading to support management action in Buzzards bay. In: McKenzie, D.H., Hyatt, D.E., McDonald. VJ, (Eds). Ecological Indicators. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 499-531 Dell” Uomo, A.. 1996. Assessment of water quality of an apennine river as a pilot study for diatom-based monitoring of Italian watercourses. In: Whitton, B.A.. Rott, E.. (Eds), Use of Algae for Monitoring Rivers Il. Proceedings of an International Symposium, University of Innsbruck, Austria, pp. 65-71 DeNoyelles, F.Jr., O'Brien, W.J., 1974. The in situ chemostat ~ a self contained continuous culturing and ater sampling system. Limnology Oceanography 19, 326-331 DePauw, N., Ghetti, P-F., Manzini. D.P., Spaggiari, D.P., 1992. Biological assessment methods for running, water. In: Newman, P.J., Piavaux, M.A., Sweeting, R.A. (Eds), River Water Quality. Ecological Assess- ment and Control, European Communities Commission, Luxembourg, pp. 217-248. Desey, 1-P., 1979. A new approach to water quality estimation using diatoms. Nova Hedwigia, Beiheft 64, 305-323, Desey, J-P., Coste. M., 1991. A test of methods for assessing water quality based on diatoms, Verhand- lungen der Interationafen Vereinigung fiir Limnologie 24, 2112-2116. DIN (Deutsche Finfeitsverfahren zur Wasser-, Abwasser- und Schlammuntersuchung). 113, 1983a. Bestimming von Sauerstofiproduktion und Saucrstoffverbrauch im Gewisser mi¢ der Hell-Dunkel- flaschen-Methodle SPG und SPV (Biogene Beliiftungsrate). VCH. Weinheim. DIN (Deutsche Einheitsverfahren zur Wasser, Abwasser- und Schlammuntersuchung), L14, 1983b. Bestimmung der Sauerstoffproduktion mit der Hell-Dunkelflaschen-Methode unter Laborbedingungen SPL (Sauerstofffyroduktionspotential), VCH, Weinheim.Algae as ecological bio-indicators 321 DIN (Deutsche Binheitsverfahten zur Wasser-, Abwasser- und Schlammuntersuchung), L9, 1989 Bestimmung der Hemmwirkung von Wasserinhaltsstoffen auf Griinalgen (Scenedesmus-Zellvermeht- ungs-Hemmtest). VCH, Weinheim. DIN (Deutsche Einheitsverfahren zur Waster-, Abwasser- und Schlammuntersuchung), 133, 1991 Bestimmung der nicht-giftigen Wirkung von Abwasser gegentiber Griinalgen (Scenedesmus- Chlorophyll-Fluoreszenztest) iiber Verdiinnungsstufen, VCH, Weinheim: Dixit, S.S., Cumming, B.F., Smol, 1... Kingston, J.C., 1992, Monitoring environmental changes in lakes using algal microfossils, In: McKenzie, D.H., Hyatt, D.E., MeDonald, V.J. (Eds), Ecological Indicators. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 1135-1155 Dokulil, M-T.. 1989, Bioassay experiments with natural phytoplankton. Unpublished draft manuscript Dokulil, M.T,, 1991, Review on recent activities, measurements and techniques concerning phytoplankton algae of large rivers in Austria, In: Whitton, B.A., Rott, E., Friedrich, G. (Eds), Use of Algae for Monitoring Rivers. Institut fir Botanik, University of Innsbruck, pp. 53~57. Dokuli], M.T., 1996, Evaltation of eutrophication potential in rivers: the Danube example, a review. In: Whitton, B.A., Rott, E, (Eds), Use of Algae for Monitoring Rivers U. Institut fiir Botanik, University of Innsbruck, pp. 173-178. Dokulil, M-T., Frisk, T., 1993. Long-term trophie dynamics and predictive model of a flood-water control system of the river Danube in Vienna, Austria. Intemational Symposium Transboundary River Basin Management and Sustainable Development, RBA Centre, Delft University of Technology, 18-22 May 1992. Proceedings, Vol. II, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 191-195 Dokulil, MT., Schmidt, R., Kofler, S., 1997. Benthid diatom assemblages as indicators of water quality in an urban flood-water impoundment, Neue Donau, Vienna, Austria, Nova Hedwigia 65, 273-283. Dresscher, T.G.N., Van der Mark, H., 1976. A simplified method for the biological assessment of the quality of fresh and slightly brackish water. Hydrobiologia 48, 199-201 EC Water Framework Directive, 2000. Official Journal (QL 327), 22 December, Falkner, R., Simonis, W., 1982, Polychlorierte Biphenyle (PCB) im Lebensraum Wasser (Aufhahme und Anreicherung durch Organismen - Probleme der Weitergabe in der Nahrungspyramide). Archiv fiir Hydrobiologie, Engebnisse der Limnologie, Beiheft 17, 74S. Felféldy, L., 1987. A biolégiai vizminosités (Biological water quality evaluation). Viziigyi Hidrobiolbgia 16. VGI, Budapest Forsberg, C., 1972. Algal assay procedure. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation 44, 1623-1628. Friedrich, G., 1990. Eine Revision des Saprobiensystems. Zeitschrift fir Wasser- und Abwasser-Forschung 23, 141-152. Gaedke, U., 1992. The size distribution of plankton biomass in a large lake and its seasonal variability Limnology Oceanography 37, 1202-1220. Gerhardt, V., Putzger. J., 1992. Ein Biotest zur Gewassertiberwachung auf der Grundlage der verzigerten Fluoreszenz von Algen. Schrifienreihe des Vereins Wasser-Boden-Luft 89, 277-292. Ghetti, P.F.. Ravera, 0., 1994, European perspective on biological monitoring. In: Locb, S.L., Spacie, A., (Eds), Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Systems. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp. 31-46, Goacolou, J., Echaubard. M., 1987. Influence des traitements phytosanitaires sur les biocoenoses dut phyto- plancon limnique. Hydrobiologia 148, 269-280. Gonor, 1.3., Kemp, P-F., 1978. Procedures for quantitative ecologi EPA-600/3-78-087, Gregor. D.J., Munawar, M., 1989. Assessing toxicity of Lake Diefenbaker (Saskatchewan, Canada) sedi- ments using algal and nematode bioassays. Hydrobiologia 188/189, 291-300, Gunkel, G.. 1994. Bioindikation in aquatischen Okosystemen. G. Fischer Verlag, Jena, Stuttgart Higlund, K.. Tomquist, L.. Pedersén, M., 1990. Toxicity tests of marine and brackish pollutants by using the mactoalya Gracilaria renuistipitata (Rhodophyta), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ecotoxicology, GSF-Bericht 1/92, 349-355. Hamm, A., 1996. Méglichkeiten und Probleme emer durchgehenden Trophicbewertung. Deutsche Gesellschaft fir Limmologie (DGL) ~ Tagungsberichte 1995 (Berlin). 11-15 Heinonen. P., 1980. Quantity and composition of phytoplankton in Finish inland waters. Publications of the Water Research Institute 37, Vesitallitus-National Board of Waters, Finland, | assessment in intertidal environments,322, M.T. Dokulil Heinonen, P., Herve, S.. 1987. Water quality cla 147-156, Hellawell, J.M.. 1986. Biological indicators of freshwater pollution and environmental management Elsevier Applied Science, London. Hill, BLH., Herlihy, A.T., Kaufmann, P.R., Stevenson, R.J.. McCormick, F-H., Burch Johnson €., 2000. Use of periphyton assemblage data as an index of biotic integrity. Journal of the North-American Benthological Society 19, 50-67. Hinckley, D., Tiemey, G., 1992, Early ecological indicators of climate change. In: McKenzie, D.H., Hyatt, D.E., MeDonald, V.. (Eds). Ecological Indicators, Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 1157-1164. Hofmann, G., 1993, Aufwuchs - Diatomeen in Seen und ihre Eignung als Indikatoren der Trophic. Dissertation. JW. Goethe-Universitit, Frankfurt am Maia. Hofmann, G., 1999. Trophiebwertung von Seen anhand von Aufwuchsdiatomeen. In: Von Timpling, W., Friedrich, G, (Eds), Biologische Gewiisserimtersuchung, Methoden der biologischen Wasseruntersuch- ung. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, 2, 319-333 Hornstrim, E., 1981. Trophic characterisation of lakes by means of qualitative phytoplankton analysis, Limnologica 13, 249-361 Jariman, A., Lindstrom, E.-A., Eloranta, P., Bengtsson, R.. 1996, Nordic standard for assessment of environmental quality in running water. In: Whitton, B.A.. Rott, E., Friedrich, G. (Eds), Use of Algae for Monitoring Rivers. Institut fir Botanik, University of Innsbruck, pp. 17-28. Jamefelt, H., 1952. Plankton als Indiktor der Trophiegruppen der Seen, Annales Academia Scientiarum Fennica A 1V. Biol, 18, 1-29. John, D.M., Johnson, L.R. 1991 Green microphytic algae as river water quality monitors, In: Whitton, B.A.. Rott, E.. Friedrich, G. (Eds). Use of Algae for Monitoring Rivers. Institut fir Botanik, University of Innsbruck, pp. 41-47. Jorgensen, $.E.. 1992. Ecological indicators and ecological modelling. In: McKenzie, D.H., Hyatt, D.E., McDonald, V.J. (Eds), Ecological Indicators. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp. 201-209, Kamenik, C., Schmidt, R., 2001 The impact of temperature on recent and fossil chrysophyte stomatocyst composition in an high alpine lake (Gossenikillesee, Tyrol). Nova Hedwigia, Beihefte, 122, 1-2 Kann, E., 1978. Typitication of Austrian streams conceming algae. Verhandlungen der internationalen Vereinigung fiir Limnologie 20, 1523-1526. Kann, E., 1986, Kénnen benthische Algen zur Wassergiitebestimmung herangezogen werden. Archiv fir Hydrobiologie 73, 405-423, Kelly, M.G., 1996, The trophic diatom index. Bowburn Consultancy, R&D Technical Repost E2, 1-148, Kelly, M.G., Homberger. G.M., Cosby. B.J., 1976. Automated measurement of river productivity for eutrophication prediction. In: Cairns, J.. Dickson, K.L. Westlake, G.F. (Eds), Biological Monitoring of Water and Effluent Quality. American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 133-146 Kelly, MG., Whitton, B.A., 1995, The trophic diatom index: a new index for monitoring eutrophication in rivers. Journal of Applied Phycology 7, 433-444. Klapwiik, S.P.. Bolier, G., Van der Does. J., 1989. The application of algal growth potential tests (AGP) to the canals and lakes of western Netherlands. Hydrobiologia 188/189, 189-199. Kndpp, H., 1954. Ein neuer Weg zur Darstellung biologischer Vorfluteruntersuchungen, erliutert an einem GiiteKingsschnitt des Mains. Wasserwirtschaft, 45, 9-15, Kobayasi, HL, Mayama, S.. 1989. Evaluation of river water quality by diatoms. Korean foumal of Phycology 4 (2), 121-133 Kolkwitz, ®., 1950. Okologie der Saprobien. Schriftenreihe des Vereins fiir Wasser-, Boden- und Lufthygiene 4, 1-64, Kolkwitz, R., Marsson, M., 1902. Grundsitze flir die biologische Beurteiltng des Wassers nach seiner Flora und Fauna, Mitteilungen der Priifungsanstalt fir Wasserversorgung und Abwasserreinigung 1, 33-72. Kolkwitz, R., Marsson, M., 1908. Okologie der pflanzlichen Saptobien, Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 26A, 505-519. Kolkwitz, R., Marsson, M., 1909, Okologie der tietischen Saprobien, Internationale Revue der gesaraten Hydrobiologie 2, 126-152 Kosinski, R.J., 1984. The effect of terrestrial herbicides on the community structure of stream periphyton Environmental Pollution A36, 165-189 ification of inland wate in Finland, Aqua Fennica 17.Algae as ecological bio-indicators 323 Kosinski, RJ., Merkle, M.G., 1984, The effect of four terrestrial heibicides on the productivity of antifi- cial stream algal communities. Joumal of Environmental Quality 13, 75-82 Kiimmerlin, R., 1980, Plnakton-Gemeinschaften als bioindikatoren fiir Stehgewisser. Okologie & Natur- schutz 3, 227-241 Kusel-Fetzmann, E., Latif, M., Zach, B. 1989. Vergleichende Toxizititsbestimmungen ausgewithlter Schadstoffe mittels Algen als Indikatororganismen. Wasserwirtschaft-Wasservorsorge. Forschungs- arbeiten, Bundesministerium Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Wien Cumpert, W., Fleckner, W, Pott, E., Schober, U., Stirkel, K.-U.. 1989. Herbicide effects on planktonic systems of different complexity. Hydrobiologia 188/189, 415-424 Lange-Bertalot, H., 1978, Diatomeendifferentialarten anstelle von Leitformen: ein geeigneteres Kriterium der Gewasserbelastung. Archiv fur Hydrobiologie. Supplement 51, 393-427 Lange-Bertalot, H., 1979. Pollution tolerance of diatoms a8 a criterion for water quality estimation. Nova Hedwigia, Beiheft 64, 285-304. Leclercq, L., Maquet. B., 1987. Deux nouveaux indices chimique et diatomique de qualité d'eau courante. Application au Samson et 4 ses affluents (bassin de la Meuse belge). Comparaison avec d’autses indices chimiques, biocénotiques et diatomiqués. Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, document de travail 28. 1-113, Lepisté, L., 1999. Phytoplankton assemblages reflecting the ecological status of lakes in Finland. ‘Monographs of the Boreal Environment Research 16, Tammer Paino Oy, Tampere. Lepistd, L., Rosenstrém, U.. 1998, The most typical phytoplankton taxa in four types of boreal lakes. Hydrobiclogia 369/370, 89-97, ine. HG., 1984, The use of seaweeds for monitoring coastal waters.. In: Shubert, LE. (Ed.), Algae as Ecological Indicators. Academic Press, London, pp. 189-210. Lewis, M.A., 1990, Chronic toxicities of surfactants and detergents builders to algae: a review and risk assessment. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 20, 123-140. ‘tebmann, H., 1962, Handbuch der Frischwasser- und Abwasserbiologie. Bd. 1,2. Aufl, G. Fischer Verlag, Fea. Lindblad, C., Kautsky, U.. André, C., Kautsky, N.. Tendengren, M., 1989. Functional response of Fucus vesiculosies communities to tributyltin measured in an in situ flow-through system, Hydrobiologia 188/189, 277-283. Loeb. S.L., Spacie, A, (Eds), 1994. Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Systems. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton Lowe, RL. 1974. Environmental requirements and pollution tolerance of freshwater diatoms. US Environmental Monitoring Series. EPA 670/4-74-005, 1-334. Lowe. RLL., Pan, Y., 1996. Benthic algal communities as biological monitors. In: Stevenson, R.J., Bothwell, MLL. Lowe. RL, 1996. Algal Ecology. Freshwater Benthic Ecosystems. Academic Press, London, pp. 705-739. Lund, J.W.G., 1972, Preliminary observations on the use of large experimental tubes in lakes Verhandlungen der Intemationalen Vereinigung fir Limnologie 18, 71-77. Mestrini, S.Y., Bonin, DJ, Droop, M.R., 1984a. Phytoplankton as indicators of sea water quality: bioassay approaches and protocols. In: Shubert, L.E. (Ed.), Algae as Ecological Indicators. Academic Press, London, pp. 71-132. Maestrini, S.Y., Droop, M.R., Bonin, D.J., 1984b. Test algae as indicators of sea water quality: prospects. In; Shubert, LE. (Ed.), Algae as Ecological Indicators. Academic Press, London, pp. 133-188. Mutvan, P., Pfibil, S., Lhotsky, O. (Eds), 1979, Algal Assays and Monitoring Eutrophication. E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart Mauch, E., 1976. Leitformen der Saprobitit fiir die biologische Gewiisseranalyse, Courier Forschungs Institut Senckenberg 21, Vol. 1-5. \lez, C., 1898, Mikroskopische Wasseranalyse. Springer Verlag. Berlin Willer, B., Pankow. H., 1981. Algensoziologische und saprobiologisele Untersuchungen an Vorflutern der Elbe. Limnologica 13, 291-350. Moore, J.W., Ramamoorthy, $.. 1984, Heavy Metals in Natural Waters. Applied Monitoring snd Impact Assessment. Springer Verlag, New York. Munawar, M., Munawar, LF., 1987. Phytoplankton bioassays for evaluating toxicity of in situ sediment contaminants. Hydrobiologia 149, 87-105.324 M.T. Dokulil Munawar, M., Munawar, LF., Leppard, G.G., 1989, Early waming assays: an overview of toxicity testing with phytoplankton in the North American Great Lakes. Hydrobiologia 188/189, 237-246. Munawar, M., Munawar, LE. Norwood, W.P., Mayfield, C.J., 1987. Significauce of autotrophic picoplankton in the Great Lakes and their use as early indicators of contaminant stress. Archiv fiir Hydrobiologie, Ergebnisse der Limnologie 25, 141-155. Munawar. M., Weise, T.. 1989. Is the “microbial loop” an early warning indicator of anthropogenic str2ss? Hydrobiologia 188/189, 163-174, Noack, U., 1987, Quasi-kontinuierliche Chlorophyllfluoreszenz-Messung in der Gewrisseriiberwachung, Archiv flir Hydrobiologie, Ergebnisse der Limnologie, Beiheft 29, 99-105, Noll, M., Bauer, U., 1973. Phormidium autummate als Indikatororganismus fir algizide Substanzen im Wasser. Verhandiungen der Gesellschaft fir Okologie, Saarbricken 1973, 169-173. Nygaard, G., 1949, Hydrabiological studies on some Danish ponds and lakes, Part II: The quotient hypo- thesis and some little known planktow organisms. Vidensk Danske Selsk. Biologica Skripta 7, 1-293. Ongley. E.D., Birkholz, D.A., Carey, J.H., Samoiloff, M.R.. 1988. Is water a relevant sampling medium for toxic chemicals? An alternative environmental sensing strategy. Journal of Environmental Quality 17, 391-404 Palmer, C.M., 1969. A composite rating of algae tolerating organic pollution. Journal of Phycology 5, 78-82 Pantle, R., Buck, H.. 1955, Die biologische Uberwachung der Gewaisser und die Darstellung der Ergebnisse Gas und Wasserfach 96, 604 Patrick, R., 1976, The importance of monitoring change, In: Caims, J.. Dickson, K.L, Westlake, G.P. (Eds), Biological Monitoring of Water and Effluent Quality. American Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 157-190. Patrick, R., 1994. What are the requirements for an effective biomonitor? In: Loeb, S.L., Spacie, A. (Eds), Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Systems. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp. 23-29. Patrick, R., Hohn, M.H., 1956. The diatometer ~ a method for determiving the pattern of the diatom flora Proceedings of the American Petroleum Institute 36, 332-339 Pipp, E., Rott, E., 1994 Classification of running water sites in Austria based on benthic algal community ructure, Vethabdlungen der Interantionalen Vereinigung fir Limnologie 25, 1610-1613. Plafkin, J.L., Bardour, M-T., Porter, K.D., Gross, S.K., Hughes, RM., 1989. Rapid bioassessment proto- cols for use in streams and rivets. Benthic macoinvertrebrates and fish. Report No. EPA/444/4-89-001 US EPA Office of Water (WH-553), Washington DC 20460. Preston, F.W., 1948. The commonness and rarity of species. Ecology 29, 254-283. Ramade, F., 1987. Beotoxicology. John Wiley, Chichester. Rawson, D.S.. 1956, Algal indicators of trophic lake types. Limnology & Oceanography 1. 18-25. Reimann, 1, Hamm, A., 1996. Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Trophieindikation anhand von Auf- wuchsdiatomeen, Informationsberichte des Bayerischen Landesames fiir Wasserwirtschaft 3/96, 1-108. Reynolds, C-S., 1997 Vegetation processes in the pelagic. A model for ecosystem theory. In: Kinne, . ), Excellence in Ecology 9. Ecology Institute, Oldenburg, pp. {371 Reynolds, C.S., Descy, J.-P., 1996, Production, biomass and structure of phytoplankton in large rivers. Archiv fiir Hydrobiologie Supplemente (Large Rivers) 113, 161-187. Rhee. G.-Y., 1989. Continuous culture algal bioassays for organic pollutants in aquatic ecosystems Hydrobiologia 188/189: 247-257. Rojo. C., Cobelas, M.A., Arauzo, M., 1994, An elementary, structural analysis of river phytoplankton. Hydrobiologia 289, 43-55. Rosen, G., 1981 Phytoplankton indicators and their relations to certain chemical and physical factors, Limnologica (Berlin) 13, 263-290, Ross, P., Jarry, V., Sloterdijk, H., 1988. A rapid bioassay using the green algal Selenastrum capricomutum to screen for toxicity in St. Lawrence River sediment elutriates, In: Cairns, 5. Ie. Pratt, JR. (Eds), Functional Testing of Aquatic Chemicals. ASTM STP 1988, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. Rott, E., 1984, Phytoplankton as biological parameters for the trophic characterization of lakes. Verhand- lungen der Intemationalen Vereinigung fiir Limnologie 22, 1078-1085. Rott, E., Hofmann, G., Pall. K., Pfister, P., Pipp, E., 1997. Indikatorlisten fir Aufwuchsalgen. Teil 1 Saptobicile Indikation, Wasserwirtsc-hafiskataster BMLF, WienAlgae as ecological bio-indicators 325 Rott, E., Pfister, P., Van Dam, H., Pall, K., Binder, N., Pipp, E., Ortler, K.. 1999. Indikatorlisten fir Aufwuchsalgen. Teil 2: Trophieindikation und autékologische Anmerkungen, Wasserwirtschafiskataster, BMLF, Wien. Romeau, A.. Coste, M,, 1988. Initiation a la systématique des diatomées d'eau douce pour l'utilisation pra- tique d’un indice diatomique générique. Bulletin de French Péche Pisciculture 309, 1-69 Sakamoto, M.. Tilzer. M.M., Gachter. R.. Rai, H., Collos, Y., Tschumi, P., Berner, P., Zbaren, D., Zbaren, J, Dokutit, M., Bossard, P., Uehlinger, U., Nusch, E.A., 1984. Joint field experiments for comparison of measuring methods of photosynthetic production. Journal of Plankton Research 6, 365-383. Sayk, D., Schmidt, D., 1986. Algen-Floureszenctest, cin vollautomatischer Biotest. Zeitschrift Wasser und Abwasser-Forschung 19, 182-184 Schallenberg, M., Bums, C.W., 2001. Tests of autotropjh picoplankton as early indicators of nutrient enrich ment in an ultra-oliogorophic lake, Freshwater Biology 46, 27-38. Schelske, C.L., 1984, In situ and natural phytoplankton assemblage bioassays. In: Shubert, L.E. (Ed.). Algae as Ecological Indicators. Academic Press, London, pp. 15-47 Schiefele, S., 1987, Indikationswert benthischer Diatomeen in der Isar zwischen Mittenwald und Landshut, Diplomarbeit Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitit Miinchen, Schiefele, S., Kohmann, F., 1993. Bioindikstion der Trophie in FlieBgewiissern. Bayerisches Landesamt fur Wasserwirtschaft, Forschungsbericht Nr. 10201504 Schindler, D.W., 1974. Eutrophication and recovery in experimental lakes: implications for lake manage- ment, Science 184, 897-899, Schmitt, A., 1998. Trophiebewertung planktondominierter FlieBgewaisser ~ Konzept und erste Erfahrungen Miinchener Beitraige zur Abwasset-. Fischerei-und Flussbiologie 51, 394-411 Schénfelder, 1, 1997, Fine Phosphor-Diatomeen-Relation fiir alkalische Seen und Fltisse Brandenburgs und ihre Anwendung fiir die palgolimnologische Analyse von Auensedimenten der unteren Havel Dissertationes Botanicae 283, §. Cramer, Berlin Schénfelder, 1. 2000, Indikation der Gewaisserbeschaffenheit durch Diatomeen. In: Steinberg, C., Clamano, W.. Klapper. H., Wilken, RD.. (Eds), Handbuch Angewandte Limnologie. 2, VIII-7.2, 9. Erganzungs Lieferung 4/00, Ecomed, Landsberg. Schwoerbel, J., Gaumert, D., Hamm, A., Hansen, P.D., Nusch, E.A., Schilling, N.. Schindele, X., 1991, Akute und chronische Toxizitit von anorganischen Stickstoffverbindungen unter besonderer Beriicksiehtigung des Okosystemschutzes im aquatischen Bereich. In; Hamm, A. (Bd.), Studie iber Wirkungen und Qualititsziele von Nahrstoffen in FlieBgewassern, Academia Verlag, Sankt Augustin, pp. 112-208. Simola, H., Meritiinen, I, Sandman, O., Martilla, V., Karjalainen, H., Kukkonen, M..Julkunen-Tiitto, R., Hakulinen, J., 1996. Palacolimnotogivat analyses as information source for large lake biomonitoring, Hydrobiotogia 322, 283-292. Skulberg, OM., 1964, Algal problems related to the eutrophication of European water supplies, and a bioas- say method to assess fertilizing influences of pollution on inland waters. In: Jackson, D.F. (Ed.), Algae and Man, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 262-299. Stidecek, V., 1973. System of water quality from the biological point of view. Archiv fir Hydrobiologie, Beihefte Frgebnisse der Limnologie 7, 1-218. Slidetek, V. (Ed), 1977, Symposium on Saprobiology. Archiv flir Hydrobiologie, Beihefte Ergebnisse der Limnologie 9. 1-245, Sladevek. V.. 1986, Diatoms as indicators of organic pollution. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologica 14 555-566. Sladeckova, A.. 1979, Periphyton assays in situ, In: Marvan, P., Pribil, S., Lhotsky, ©. (Eds), Algal Assays and Monitoring Entrophication. E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandhung, Stuttgart, pp. 205-209. Srimek-Husek, R.,1956, Zur biologischen Charakterisierung der hiheren Saprobitatsstufen. Archiv fiir Hydrobiologie 51, 376-390. Steinberg. C.. Briiggemann, R., Traunspurger. W. 1999. Oko(toxi)kologische Beurteilung von Gewasserver- unremigungen. In: Frimmel. FH. (Bd.). Wasser und Gewisser. Spektrum Akad. Verlag, Berlin, pp. 447-505 Steinberg, C., Hartmann, H., 1988, Planktische blutenbildende Cyanobakterien (Blaualgen) und die iophierang von Seen und Fliissen, Vom Wasser 70, 1-10. Steinberg, Ch.. Kern, J. Pitzen, G., Traunspurger, W., Geyer, H., 1992. Biomonitoring in Binnengewassern, Grundlagen der biologischen Uberwachung organischer Schadstoffe fiir die Praxis des Gewiisserschutzes, Ecomed, Landsberg.326 M.T. Dokulil C., Rlein, J., Briggemann, R., 1995. Okotoxikologische Testverfahren. Ubersicht iiber heste- hende Testverfahren, Modellierung in der Okotoxikologie. Empfehlungen flir Normung und Forschung, Ecomed, Landsberg. Steinberg, C., Schiefele, S., 1988. Biological indication of wroplyy and pollution of running waters. Zeitschnift fiir Wasser- und Abwasscr-Forschung 2), 227-234. Stuckner, J.G., 1971, Preliminary characterization of lakes in the Experimental Lakes Areas, northwestern Ontario using diatiora occurrence in sediments. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board Canada 28. 265-275. Stockner. 1.G., Callieri, C., Cronberg. G., 2000. Picoplankton and other non-bloom forming cyanobacteria’ in lakes. In: Whiston, B.H,, Potts, M. (Eds), Ecology of Cyanobacteria. Their Diversity in Time and Space. Kluwer Academic, Norwell, pp. (95-231 Strickland, J.D.H., Tethune, L.D.B., 1961. The study of in-situ marine photosynthesis using a large plastic bag. Limnology Oceanography 6, 93-96. Talling, JLF., 1984, Past and contemporary trends and attitudes in work on primary productivity. Journal of Plankton Research 6, 203-217 Tauscher. L., 1999, Planktic and benthic diatom assemblages as indicators of water quality in the flood- plains of the middle area of the River Elbe and lower area of the River Havel (Brandenburg. Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany), Berichte de Instituts fiir Gewaisserdkologie und Binnenfischerei (IGB) 7 (Sonderheft 1), 82-85. Teiling, B., 1955. Some mesotrophic phytoplankton indicators. Verhandiungen der Internationalen Vereinigung fiir Limnologie 12, 212-215 Teubner, K., 1995. A light microscopical investigation and multivariate statistical analysis of heterovalvar cells of Cyclotella-species (Bacillariophyceae) from fakes of the Berlin-Brandenburg region. Diatom Research 10, 191-205. TGL 2785/01, 1982. Fachbereichstandard der DDR. Nutzung und Schutz der Gewiisser. Stehende Binnengewasser. Berlin, DDR, PP. 1-6. Thomann, R.V., 1989. Bioaccumulation model of organic chemical distribution in aquatic food chains. Environmental Science and Technology 23, 699-707 Thomas, E.A., 1953. Zur Bekimpfung des See-Eutrophierung: Empirische und experimentelle Untersuch- ungen zur Kenntnis der Minimunistoffen in 46 Seen der Schweiz und angrenzender Gebiete. Monatsbull. Schweiz. Ver. Gas-Wasserfachm, 33, 25-32, 71-79. Thomas. E.A., 1964. Nahrstoffexperimente in Plankton-Test-Loten. Verhandlungen der Internationalen Vereinigung fiir Limnologie 15, 342-351 Thunmark, S., 1945. Zur Soziologie des Siifwasserplanktons, Eine methodisch-dkologische Studie, Folia Limnologica Scandinavia 3. 1-66. Trainor, F.R., 1984. Indicator algal assays: laboratory and field approaches. In: Shubert, L.E. (Fd), Algae as Ecological Indicators. Academic Press, London, pp. 3-14 Tremel, B.. 1996. Determination of the trophic state by qualitative and quantitative phytoplankton analysis in two gravel pit lakes, Hyclrobiologéa 323, 97-105. Van der Does, J, Klapwijk, S.P.. 1987. Effects of phosphorus removal on the maximal algal growth in bioassay experiments with water from four Dutch lakes. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie 72, 27-39. van der Does. T. Klapwijk, S.P., 1987, Effects of phosphorus removal on the maxima algal geowth in bioassay experiments with water from four Dutch lakes. Int, Revue ges. Hydrobiol. 72, 27-39, ‘an Douk. E. Mur. L.R., Ringelberg, J, 1989, A study of phosphate limitation in Lake Maarsseveen: phosphate uptake kinetics versus bioassays. Hydrobiatogia 188/189, 201-209. Vymazal, I, 1987. Zn uptake by Cladophora glomerata. Hydrobiologia 148, 97101 Watanabe, M., 1983. The modelling of red tide blooms. In: Jargensen, S.E. (Ed), Application of Ecological ‘Modeling in Environmental Management, Part A. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Watanabe, T., Asti, K., Houki, A., 1986. Numerical estimation to organic pollution of flowing water by using the epilithic diatom assemblage index (DAlpo}. Science of the Total Environment $5, 209-218. Weisse, T., 1994. The microbial food web and its sensitivity to eutrophication and eontaminant enrich ment: a cross-system overview. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiotogie 76, 327-337.Algae as ecological pio-indicators —e Weisse, T., 1993. Dynamics of autotrophic picoplankton in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Advances in Microbial Ecology 13, 327-370, Whitmore, T.J., 1989. Florida diatom assemblages as indicators of trophic stage and pH. Limnology Oceanography 34, 882-895 Whitton, B.A., 1979, Plants as indicators of river water quality. In: James, A, and Evison, L. (Eds), Biological Indicators of Water Quality. John Wiley, Chichester, pp. 5-1-5-34, Whitton, B.A.. 1984. Algae as monitors of heavy metals in freshwaters, In: In: Shubert, LB. (Ed.), Algae as Ecological Indicators. Academic Press, London, pp. 257-280. Willen, E.. 2000. Phytoplankton in water quality assessment ~ an indicator concept. In: Heinonen, P.. Ziglio, G., Van der Beken, A. (Eds), Hydrological and Limnological Aspects of Lake Monitoring. John Wiley, Chichester, pp. 58-80. Winter, 1.G., Duthie, H.C., 2000. Epilithic diatoms as indicators of stream total N and total P concentra- tion, Journal of the North-American Benthological Society 19, 32-49. Wunsam, S., Schmidt, R., 1995. A diatom-phosphorus transfer function for Alpine and pre-alpine lakes Memonie dell” Instituto Haliano di Idrobiologia 53, 85-99. Zelinka, M., Marvan, P., 1961. Zur Prizisierung der biologischen Klassifikation der Reinheit fliessender Gewasser. Archiv flir Hydrobiofogie 57, 389-407