Module 4

• Temperature requirement of Protection and Insulation

• Thermocouples and measurement equipment
• Conventional cooling system in market
• Unconventional cooling systems
• General construction of physical electrochemical models of cells
• Boundary conditions
• Integration of materials properties into electrochemical models
• Integration of materials properties into electrochemical models
• Time dependent 1D, 2D and 3D cell modelling-FEM
• Simulation of battery data and correlation with experiment
• Equivalent electric circuit modelling of battery cells
Significance of Battery Modeling
• Battery modeling is a systematic approach that employs
mathematical equations and algorithms to depict the behavior of
batteries across diverse conditions.
• These models replicate the intricate electrochemical processes
and other phenomena taking place within a battery, thereby
enabling the prediction of its performance, lifespan, state of
charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and various other
parameters.
• Battery models can span a spectrum, ranging from basic
equivalent circuit models, which may solely account for electrical
traits, to sophisticated electrochemical models that encompass
intricate aspects such as chemical reactions, thermal influences,
and ion mobility.
• A battery model is used to learn more about the battery's internal
workings without performing any intrusive or harmful tests.
Considering that a battery's internal status cannot be seen directly, this
is very significant.
• Engineers and researchers can use models to anticipate battery
performance, build battery management systems, examine thermal
behavior, and extend battery life.
• Applications of Battery Models
• Battery Management Systems (BMS)
• Renewable Energy Systems
• Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
• Backup UPS Sources
• Electric Aircrafts
• Research and Development
Need for Accurate Battery Models
• Performance Prediction
• It is crucial for both end users and manufacturers to know how a
battery will operate under various circumstances. For instance,
the battery pack's performance has a significant impact on an
electric vehicle's range and acceleration.
• State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH) Estimation
• For safe and dependable battery operation, accurate battery models
are essential for real-time estimation of SOC and SOH. An incorrect
SOC estimate could cause an unanticipated power outage, while an
incorrect SOH estimate could shorten lifespan or even present safety
risks.
• Thermal Management
• Battery safety and performance are significantly impacted by
temperature. Low temperatures can significantly reduce capacity,
while high temperatures have the potential to produce thermal
runaway. In order to forecast how the battery would heat up or cool
down under various circumstances, an accurate thermal model of the
battery is necessary.
• Battery Life Cycle Analysis and Optimization
• For cost savings and long-term reliability, it's critical to comprehend
and optimize a battery's life cycle. Accurate battery models can
replicate the battery's long-term responses to various charging
methods, usage patterns, and environmental factors.
Model Selection Criteria
• Accuracy vs. Complexity
• Accuracy and complexity frequently have an inverse relationship. As
they include more physical events, highly accurate models tend to be
more complex, but this might make them computationally expensive.
• Simple models, on the other hand, are computationally effective but
might not be very accurate. It's critical to evaluate the degree of
precision required for the particular application and select a model in
line with that assessment.
• For example, a less complex model, such as equivalent circuit models,
may be used in real-time control applications due to the need for quick
calculation, but a more sophisticated and accurate model, such as
finite element models, may be utilized for offline simulations to analyze
battery degradation.
• Application-Specific Requirements
• Since different applications have different needs, choosing a
battery model should take these needs into consideration.
• A thermal model should be selected, for instance, if the
application largely includes the analysis of thermal behavior.
• A more appropriate analogous circuit model that accurately
depicts the SOC dynamics would be needed if the application is
focused on SOC estimates for real-time monitoring.
• The environment in which the battery will function and the kinds of
load profiles it will encounter may also have an impact on the
model choice.
Electrochemical Models
• Single Particle Model (SPM)
• The Single-Particle Model (SPM) is a popular electrochemical model for
investigating and simulating lithium-ion battery performance. SPM maintains
fundamental characteristics that are crucial for many applications while
streamlining the intricate electrochemical processes occurring inside a
battery to make simulations computationally efficient.
• Assumptions and Simplifications
• Uniform Electrolyte Concentration: It is assumed in the SPM that the
electrolyte concentration is homogeneous across the cell in terms of space.
This suggests that the electrolyte content simply varies with time and does
not alter in relation to place.
• Spherical Active Material Particles: The model assumes that the active
material particles within the electrodes have a spherical shape. This
simplification helps streamline the geometry for solving complex diffusion
equations, making the mathematical modeling more manageable.
• Single Particle Representation: Instead of considering spatial
variations within the electrodes, the SPM approach represents all
the active material in each electrode (both cathode and anode) as
a single spherical particle.
• This simplification significantly reduces the computational
complexity compared to models that account for spatial variations,
making it a more efficient way to simulate battery behavior.
• Constant Solid Phase Diffusivity: The model assumes that the
diffusion coefficient within the solid phase of the electrode
material remains constant.
• This simplifies the modeling of ion movement within the solid
material and allows for a more straightforward mathematical
treatment.
• In this simplified model, both the anode and cathode are represented
as a single solid particle. It captures the phenomenon of decreasing
Li+ ion concentration as you move away from the center along the "r"
axis of this single solid particle.
Governing Equations
• Solid Phase Diffusion Equation: Fick's second law of diffusion is used
to simulate the movement of lithium ions within the particles of solid
active material. With time and radial position inside the particles, the
concentration of lithium ions in the solid phase changes.
• Overpotential: The extra voltage or energy needed to propel a desired
electrochemical reaction at the battery's electrodes is referred to as
overpotential. It is the difference between the actual applied voltage and
the voltage that would be necessary according to thermodynamics for a
given electrochemical reaction to take place. Overpotential promotes
undesirable battery processes such as lithium plating, where lithium ions
are ejected from the electrolyte and accumulate on the surface of the
anode as a result of charging the cell at a high current, permanently
impairing battery performance. The following is the overpotential
equation:
• Electrode Voltage Equations: The voltage of each electrode depends on
the amount of lithium present in the particles of the active material.
Usually determined empirically and incorporated into the model are the
open-circuit voltage (OCV) relations.

• Overall Cell Voltage: Calculating the overall cell voltage involves

deducting the anode voltage from the cathode voltage in the solid phase
and taking into account overpotentials brought on by reaction kinetics
and ohmic losses in the electrolyte. The total cell voltage is obtained by
converting the electrolyte phase potential into an internal resistance with
the formula:
• Applications and Limitations
• Applications: In terms of applications, the Single Particle Model (SPM)
finds widespread use in examining the fundamental behavior of
lithium-ion batteries, particularly in the context of state of charge
(SOC) estimation. Its simplicity lends itself well to computational
efficiency, rendering it suitable for real-time applications like battery
management systems.
• Limitations: It's also essential to acknowledge its limitations. The
SPM's simplifications lead to the omission of several critical
phenomena, including electrolyte transport, concentration gradients
within the electrolyte, and thermal effects. Consequently, its
applicability may be limited in scenarios demanding high-fidelity
simulations or applications where these omitted factors exert a
substantial influence, such as in-depth thermal runaway analysis or
comprehensive life-cycle assessments.
 Pseudo-Two-Dimensional Model (P2D)
• Regarding the Pseudo-Two-Dimensional Model (P2D), also recognized as the
Newman model, it serves as a widely embraced electrochemical model for
lithium-ion batteries. This model, unlike the SPM takes into consideration
transport phenomena occurring in both the solid and electrolyte phases. It
meticulously accounts for spatial variations spanning from the anode to the
cathode and the radial variations occurring within active material particles.
• Assumptions and Governing Equations
• Spherical Active Material Particles: P2D makes the same assumption as SPM
about the sphericalness of the active material particles.
• Constant Solid Phase Diffusivity: The model presupposes that the solid phase's
diffusion coefficient is constant.
• No Velocity in Electrolyte Phase: P2D makes the assumption that the electrolyte
phase has no velocity, meaning that the only mechanisms by which lithium ions
are transported in the electrolyte are diffusion and migration.
• Isothermal Conditions: Although thermal effects may be added, the model
normally assumes isothermal conditions.
• The single solid particles align themselves within the electrolyte phase,
extending from the cathode to the anode, spanning a distance denoted as
"x" from an arbitrary zero point. In this model, lithium-ion diffusion occurs
along this axis within distinct regions, encompassing the cathode, separator,
and anode. Additionally, diffusion occurs radially from the center point
within each individual solid particle.
 Numerical Solution Techniques
• Discretization: The governing partial differential equations (PDEs) are
typically subjected to discretization using either finite difference or finite
volume methods. This process transforms them into a system of algebraic
equations that can be readily analyzed and solved.
• Time Stepping: Time integration is a crucial step in the modeling process.
It involves employing either explicit or implicit methods to advance the
simulation in time. Implicit methods are often favored for their inherent
stability properties, particularly when dealing with complex dynamic
systems.
• Solvers: To solve the resulting nonlinear algebraic system at each time
step, numerical techniques such as Newton's method or other nonlinear
solvers are employed. These solvers are instrumental in obtaining solutions
that accurately depict the evolving behavior of the system over time.
• Applications and Limitations
• Applications: The P2D model serves as a prevalent choice in the realm
of lithium-ion battery design and optimization. It particularly shines
when a comprehensive understanding of spatial concentration and
potential distributions is essential. Its applications span diverse areas,
encompassing cell design, state-of-charge estimation, thermal analysis,
and degradation modeling.
• Limitations: There are noteworthy limitations to consider. The P2D
model is characterized by its complexity and computational demands,
rendering it unsuitable for real-time applications, such as battery
management systems (BMS), where rapid calculations are imperative.
Furthermore, integrating factors like mechanical stress, aging effects,
and parameters influenced by temperature variations can pose
challenges when incorporating them into the P2D model.
 Advanced Electrochemical Models
• Multiphysics Models
• Multiphysics models, by definition, account for multiple physical phenomena
simultaneously. In the context of batteries, this typically encompasses electrochemical
reactions, heat transfer, mechanical stress, and fluid dynamics.
• Implementation: In terms of implementation, these models amalgamate the governing
equations of various physical domains into a unified mathematical framework. For
instance, a multiphysics model might interconnect electrochemical reactions with
equations governing heat generation and transfer to comprehensively analyze a cell's
thermal behavior.
• These models are often constructed using Finite Element Modeling (FEM) methods,
operating in three-dimensional space, facilitated by Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
software like COMSOL or ANSYS.
• Applications: Regarding their applications, multiphysics models prove invaluable in the
domain of design optimization, particularly in scenarios where the interplay between
different physical phenomena holds paramount importance. Examples include
analyzing thermal runaways, investigating short-circuits within batteries, assessing
mechanical deformation caused by factors like swelling or crash impacts, studying
overplating phenomena, or examining electrolyte flow in flow batteries.
• Thermal-Electrochemical Models
• A specific kind of multiphysics model called a thermal-electrochemical
model focuses on how heat generation and transfer within a battery are
coupled with electrochemical reactions.
• Implementation: By including the energy balance equation to account for
heat generation owing to internal reactions, the Joule heating due to ion
transport, and the exchange of heat with the environment, these models
expand the electrochemical models.
• Applications: The design of thermal management systems for batteries,
forecasting thermal runaway situations, and examining the impact of
operating conditions on temperature distributions within a cell all require
the use of thermal-electrochemical models. The following image shows a
simulation of a thermal-electrochemical battery pack in a 3D
environment:
 Equivalent Circuit Models (ECMs)
• A class of models called equivalent circuit models (ECMs) is used to
simulate the electrical dynamics of batteries.
• ECMs use electrical components like resistors, capacitors, and voltage
sources to simulate the electrical response of the battery, as opposed to
electrochemical models, which are based on chemical reactions and
processes occurring within the battery.
• When compared to electrochemical models, these models are typically
simpler to comprehend, use, and they require a lot less computational
power.
• Typically, a combination of voltage sources, resistors, and capacitors is used
in ECMs to mimic the battery.
 Simple Battery Model
• The Simple Battery Model is one of the most basic and popular ECMs. In this
approach, a series connection between a voltage source and a resistor
represents the battery.
• The potential difference across the battery terminals when there is no
current flowing is represented by the voltage source, often known as the
open-circuit voltage (OCV).
• The series resistor (Ro) measures the internal resistance of the battery and is
responsible for the sudden voltage drop that happens when current begins
to flow through the battery. Due to the internal resistance effect, the Simple
Battery Model only records the open-circuit voltage and the resistive voltage
drop inside the battery.
 Single R-C Pair Thevenin Model
• The Single R-C Pair Thevenin Model is a variation of the Thevenin model, and it
incorporates a single resistor-capacitor (RC) pair connected in series with the open-
circuit voltage (OCV) source.
• Much like the conventional Thevenin model, the OCV source symbolizes the
battery's no-load voltage, while the series resistor (Ro) signifies its internal
resistance.
• In this model, the RC pair, consisting of a capacitor (Cp) and resistor (Rp) is
introduced to capture polarization effects and transient battery behavior.
• Within this model, the voltage across the capacitor in the RC pair undergoes gradual
buildup.
• This behavior symbolizes the slower dynamics observed in batteries, including
phenomena like the recovery effect. Although this model is computationally
efficient and well-suited for real-time applications, it provides a simplified
approximation of battery dynamics.
• Its inherent simplicity can be advantageous in control applications where rapid
computational speed takes precedence over highly detailed modeling, making it a
practical choice for scenarios where computational efficiency is paramount.
 Complex ECMs
• Multiple R-C Pairs Thevenin Model
• As we explore more complex Electrochemical Models (ECMs), one noteworthy approach
involves the incorporation of Multiple R-C Pairs.
• In contrast to the single R-C pair model, which relies on a solitary resistor-capacitor (RC)
network to depict battery dynamics, the multiple R-C pairs model (Cpn and Rpn)
introduces numerous RC networks operating in parallel.
• This methodology takes into account diverse time constants (determined by the product
of Cp and Rp) associated with various electrochemical processes within the battery.
Individual RC networks capture a distinct dynamic behavior, thereby offering a more
comprehensive portrayal of how the battery responds to changes in load and charge.
• In practical implementation, each RC pair in the model signifies a different time-scale of
polarization effects. This strategic configuration ensures that the model can effectively
simulate both rapid and gradual transient phenomena encountered in the battery.
• It's important to note that while the multiple R-C pairs model demands more
computational resources compared to its simpler counterparts, it delivers heightened
accuracy.
Diffusion Models
• Diffusion models are a crucial component of sophisticated ECMs. The
diffusion of lithium ions in the electrodes is a key mass transport
phenomenon within the battery that is primarily represented using
diffusion models. Warburg impedance modeling is a popular method for
modeling diffusion in ECMs:
• One of the RC pairs in this model has a Warburg impedance added to it. The
semi-infinite diffusion of ions through the electrolyte and electrodes is
represented by the Warburg impedance. This component is frequency-
dependent and accounts for the polarization losses resulting from diffusion
that takes place at lower frequencies or over longer periods.
• By integrating diffusion models into Electrochemical Models (ECMs), it
becomes feasible to replicate and analyze the influence of ion diffusion on
the battery's performance, particularly with regard to voltage response and
State of Charge (SOC). This capability facilitates a more accurate prediction
of battery performance across a spectrum of load conditions.
State-Space Representation of ECMs
• Conversion of ECM to State-Space Form
• When modeling a physical system mathematically, the state-space
representation uses a set of first-order differential equations rather than
the system's defining differential equation, which could have multiple
orders and be difficult to handle. Converting ECMs to state-space form in
the context of battery modeling is a potent method for examining the
dynamic behavior of the system.
• One must derive the mathematical relationships that characterize the
interactions between the various components (resistors, capacitors,
voltage sources, etc.) within the circuit in order to transform an ECM into a
state-space representation. The differential equations are commonly
constructed using Kirchhoff's current and voltage rules. The state equations
and the output equation are always present in the state-space
representation.
• The number of energy storage devices (capacitors and inductors)
present in an electronic circuit is equal to the number of state
equations. In our case, there is only one capacitor, and Kirchoff's rules
are used to get the voltage equation for it:
Thermocouples and measurement equipment
Temperature indication methods for Li-ion
batteries
• Key characteristics, such as measurement range, accuracy,
resolution (in temperature, space, time) and costs are important
for a proper sensor selection.
• Moreover, in situ temperature measurements are attractive for
safety and controlling purposes since temperatures in the battery
core are, generally, higher.
• These unequal temperature distributions increase the challenges
in developing and selecting sophisticated temperature sensors for
Li-ion batteries, which can assist the BMS in accurate SoC and
SoH estimation.
Thermo-resistive devices
• Thermistors
• Thermistors are solid semiconductor devices whose electrical resistance
changes rapidly as a function of temperature.
• Types:
• Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC):
• Resistance decreases as temperature increases.
• Nonlinear behavior, making temperature indication somewhat challenging.
• Commonly used for temperature measurements.
• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC):
• Resistance increases as temperature increases.
• Often used as protection devices to reduce electric currents when
temperatures become too high.
Applications and Advantages of Thermistors
• Applications:
• Automotive:
• Toyota Prius and Honda Civic Hybrid use thermistors for battery temperature
measurement.
• Consumer Electronics:
• Used in cellular phones, laptops, and powerbanks to monitor battery
temperature.
• Battery Packs:
• Many Li-ion batteries and battery packs include thermistors for temperature
sensing and protection.
• Advantages:
• Inexpensive compared to other temperature sensors.
• Highly sensitive to temperature changes.
• Operate effectively between -55°C and ∼300°C.
• Available in various forms and can be very small, allowing quick
response to temperature changes.
• Eliminates the need for four-terminal contact, reducing cable space
and cost.
• Modern thermistors have improved stability due to advancements in
manufacturing techniques.
Measurement and Accuracy
• Temperature Measurement:
• A small, well-defined current is applied to the thermistor to avoid self-
heating.
• Voltage measured across the thermistor is used to indicate temperature.
• Conversion methods include lookup tables or equations that approximate
the resistance-temperature curve.
• Linearization techniques can also be applied for more straightforward
conversions.
• Accuracy:
• With specific measurement provisions, errors of less than 1 mK can be
achieved.
• Commercial applications typically result in accuracies of about ± 1°C.
Practical and Research Applications
• Practical Applications:
• Thermistors can be placed on the surface, terminals, or close to batteries.
• In some battery packs, thermistors are placed between adjacent cylindrical
batteries to monitor surface temperature.
• Reducing the number of sensors while maintaining accurate temperature
monitoring can be achieved through extensive experimentation and
modeling.
• Research Applications:
• NTC thermistors with ± 1°C accuracy used for cylindrical 18650 and pouch-
type batteries.
• Used to monitor temperature inside cylindrical 28650 battery mandrels.
• Development of new low-cost PTC thermistors with potential for improved
accuracy through design modifications and calibrations.
Resistance Temperature Detectors
• RTDs are devices with metallic conductors whose electrical resistance
increases with temperature.
• Materials:
• Common metals: copper, silver, nickel, gold, platinum.
• Platinum is most preferred due to its advantages.
• Advantages of Platinum RTDs:
• High accuracy (up to 1 mK, typically ±0.01°C to ±0.2°C in industrial
applications).
• Offers linear resistance-temperature relationship.
• Effective from -260°C to 960°C.
• Available as inner-coiled, outer-wound, or thin-film devices.
Types and Measurement Methods
• Common Platinum RTD Types:
• Pt100: Resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C.
• Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR): 0.00385 Ω/(Ω·°C),
indicating a 0.38% resistance change per °C.
• Measurement Methods:
• Apply a small current (<1 mA) to avoid self-heating.
• Measure voltage drop and convert to temperature.
• Use in a Wheatstone bridge for more precise measurements.
• Connection Types: Four-wire (most accurate), two-wire, and
three-wire connections (prone to errors).
 Practical and Research Applications
• Practical Applications:
• Commonly used in Li-ion battery research for surface
temperature measurement during charging/discharging.
• Example: Pt100 RTD used to control a cryostat apparatus for
differential thermal analysis.
• Research Applications:
• Pt1000 RTD used inside and on the surface of coin-type
batteries.
• Self-heating Li-ion batteries with integrated nickel foil for heating
and temperature measurement.
• Flexible Thin-Film Micro RTDs: Developed for internal battery
temperature measurements with rapid response times.
 Advanced Measurement Techniques
• Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT):
• Technique to measure and visualize cross-sectional conductivity.
• Used for mapping surface and internal temperature profiles of Li-ion
batteries.
• Challenges: Requires metal surfaces, numerous sense electrodes,
and cabling. Influenced by battery state of charge (SoC).
• Advantages: Provides a three-dimensional temperature map of the
battery.
 Thermocouples
• Devices that operate based on the Seebeck effect, discovered by
Thomas Johann Seebeck.
• Seebeck Effect: Generation of an electromotive force (EMF) due to a
temperature gradient across two different (semi)conductors.
• Measurement Principle:
• Two dissimilar metals (Metal A and B) are connected at the
measurement junction.
• The EMF generated is measured due to the temperature difference.
• Reference Junction: Needed to account for additional dissimilar
metal junctions introduced by measurement cables.
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages:
Cost-effective: Low cost and robust.
Size and Range: Small size with a wide temperature range.
Adequate Sensitivity and Response Time: Suitable for most applications.
• Limitations:
Accuracy: Typically within 1 or 2 °C.
Reference Junction Compensation: Required for accurate readings.
Sensitivity to Corrosion: Due to dissimilar metal junctions.
Nonlinear EMF-Temperature Relationship: Complicates accurate readings.
• Standard Types:
Eight types standardized, commonly used: J, T, K, E.
K-type: Most popular due to wide range and low cost.
E-type: Suitable for accurate battery temperature measurements due to high EMF
output.
Practical Applications and Challenges
• Usage:
• Widely used in scientific and industrial applications.
• Common in battery temperature measurements (e.g., K-type and
T-type).
• Challenges:
• Integration into Batteries: Requires special designs or
modifications.
• Sensor Protection: Must be chemically inert and protected (e.g.,
coated with parylene or polyimide).
Advanced Thermocouple Designs
• Flexible Thin-Film Thermocouples:
• Developed for internal battery measurements.
• Integrated into batteries with promising results but require further
testing for durability.
• Thermocouple Matrix:
• Used for spatial internal battery temperature measurements.
• Nickel and copper matrix on Kapton foil with a protective coating.
• Challenges with stability and sensor footprint area impacting
battery capacity.
Fiber Bragg-grating sensors
• Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG) are inscribed along the core of an
optical fiber using UV light.
• Create a permanent change in the refractive index, acting as a
wavelength-selective mirror.
• Bragg Wavelength:
• Specific wavelength reflected back while the rest is transmitted.

• External influences (strain, temperature) shift the Bragg

wavelength, forming the basis for FBG sensors.
• External Influences
• Strain and Temperature Effects:
• Strain: Compression or stretching changes grating spacing, shifting
the Bragg wavelength.
• Temperature: Alters the refractive index, causing a shift in the Bragg
wavelength.
• Key Benefits:
• Small size, lightweight, and passive.
• Immunity to electromagnetic and radio-frequency interference.
• High sensitivity and long-term reliability.
• Capability for multiplexing: multiple FBGs inscribed in a single fiber for
multi-location measurements.
• Temperature Range and Sensitivity
• Material Dependence:
• Optical fiber materials (e.g., silica) and coatings determine
temperature range.
• Typical Ranges: Silica fibers: -273 to 1190°C, Acrylate coating: -
40 to 85°C, Polyimide coating: -190 to 385°C.
• Sensitivity:
• Temperature sensitivity: 10 pm/°C.
• Accuracy: ± 0.2 to ± 0.4°C within 20–60°C range.
• Applications in Li-ion Batteries
• First Investigations:
• FBG sensors applied to measure temperature on Li-ion batteries
showed a linear response within 0 to 60°C.
• Demonstrated adequate thermal response compared to
thermocouples.
• Subsequent Research:
• Measurements on cylindrical and pouch-type batteries showed
effective internal and external temperature sensing.
• High chemical resistivity in battery electrolytes.
• FBG vs Thermocouples:
• FBG sensors demonstrated faster response times (1.2 times faster) and
higher accuracy (± 0.05°C vs ± 1°C) than thermocouples.
• Better suited for real-time monitoring in high C-rate scenarios.
• Battery Packs:
• FBG sensors used in battery packs for enhanced safety, providing
accurate temperature and strain data.
• Monitoring each battery's hot spots improves safety and performance.
• Embedded Sensors:
• Embedding FBG sensors for internal state monitoring in large-format
batteries without compromising seal integrity or capacity retention.
• Accurate SoC and SoH monitoring using strain measurements.
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
• EIS is a non-destructive technique for characterizing electrochemical
systems.
• Impedance is obtained by voltage or current excitations (typically
sinusoidal) and measuring the response.
• Impedance (Z) is the ratio between input (V) and output (I)
• Measurements at various frequencies yield an impedance spectrum.
• Linear Response: The excitation signal must be small to ensure a linear
response and avoid poor Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
• Applications:
• Extracting kinetic and transport properties of electrode materials.
• Aging studies, modeling, and determination of State of Charge (SoC) and State of
Health (SoH).
 Temperature Indication Using EIS
• Internal Temperature Measurement:
• Relating impedance parameters (phase shift, real part, or imaginary part) to temperature.
• Known as impedance-based or sensorless temperature indication.
• Advantages:
• No need for hardware temperature sensors.
• Short thermal measurement delay.
• Measures average/integral temperature of the active material.
• Challenges:
• Dependencies on SoC and aging.
• Sensitivity to interference from (dis)charge currents and crosstalk signals.
• Champlin's Method: Patented a method to determine internal battery temperature using EIS
and time constants of RC-circuits.
• Phase Shift Method:
• Correlation between phase shift and internal temperature.
• Phase shift measurements at 40 Hz show temperature correlation independent of SoC.
• Phase shift used for real-time temperature monitoring.
• Real Part of Impedance:
• Correlation with internal temperature.
• Demonstrated by Schmidt et al. at 10.3 kHz
•Challenges in Implementation:
•High DC (dis)charge currents.
•Interference from electric components.
•SoC and aging dependencies.
•Current Research:
•Most research performed under equilibrium conditions.
•Need for studies under non-equilibrium conditions in real applications.
•Potential in Electric Vehicles (EVs):
•EVs combine disturbing factors like high load currents and varying SoC,
making them ideal for further research.
•Measurement Equipment:
•Common electrochemical equipment unsuitable for on-board applications.
•Development of proof-of-concept PCB and integration into small chips for
on-board measurements.
 Conventional cooling system in market
• Air Cooling and Heating in Electric Vehicles
• Thermal Medium: Utilizes air.
• Intake Sources:
• Direct from the atmosphere or cabin.
• Conditioned air after a heater or air conditioner evaporator.
• Types of Air Systems
• Passive Air System:
• Uses unconditioned air.
• Offers some hundreds of watts cooling or heating power.
• Active Air System:
• Uses conditioned air.
• Provides additional cooling or heating power up to 1 kW.
• Forced Air Systems
• Mechanism: Both passive and active systems use blowers to supply
air.
• Functions:
• Heating: Warms the battery pack.
• Cooling: Cools the battery pack.
• Ventilation: Circulates air through the system.
• Exhaust Air:
• Cannot be returned to the cabin.
• Potential contamination if mixed with intake air.
• Heat Recovery:
• Heat Recovery Unit: Air-air heat exchanger.
• Benefits:
• Recovers heat from exhaust air.
• Prevents mixing of intake and exhaust air.
• Provides additional energy-saving potential.
Liquid Cooling and Heating
• Heat Transfer Fluids
• Dielectric Liquid (Direct-contact): Contacts battery cells directly (e.g.,
mineral oil).
• Conducting Liquid (Indirect-contact): Contacts battery cells indirectly
(e.g., ethylene glycol and water mixture).
• Direct-contact Liquid:
• Batteries submerged in mineral oil.
• Indirect-contact Liquid:
• Jacket around the battery module.
• Discrete tubing around each module.
• Cooling/heating plate under the battery modules.
• Combination with cooling/heating fins and plates.
• Preferred Systems
• Indirect-contact Systems:
• Better isolation between battery modules and surroundings.
• Enhanced safety performance.
• Passive Liquid Systems
• Cooling Mechanism:
• Heat-sink: Radiator.
• No heating capability.
• Heat transfer fluid circulates within a closed system.
• Heat absorbed from battery pack is released via radiator.
• Cooling power depends on temperature difference between ambient air and
battery.
• Fans can improve performance.
• Limitations:
• Ineffective if ambient air temperature is higher than battery temperature or
temperature difference is too small.
• Active Liquid Systems
• System Configuration:
• Two loops: Primary loop and secondary loop.
• Primary Loop: Similar to passive system, with circulating heat transfer
fluid.
• Secondary Loop: Air conditioning loop (A/C loop).
• Cooling Operation:
• Upper heat exchanger acts as an evaporator (EVAP).
• Connects both loops.
• Heating Operation:
• 4-way valve switches configuration.
• Upper heat exchanger acts as a condenser (COND).
• Lower heat exchanger acts as an evaporator.
• Also called heat pump loop.
Unconventional cooling systems
• Direct Refrigerant Cooling and Heating
• Similar to active liquid systems, a direct refrigerant system (DRS)
consists of an A/C loop, but DRS uses refrigerant directly as heat
transfer fluid circulating through battery pack.
 PCM
• During melting, heat is absorbed by PCM and is stored as latent
heat until the latent heat is up to the maximum. The temperature
is kept at melting point for a period and the temperature increase
is delayed.
• Therefore, PCM is used as conductor and buffer in battery thermal
management systems. Figure shows the working mechanism of
PCM on battery cells. Also, a PCM is always combined with air
cooling system or liquid cooling system to manage the battery
temperature.
Thermo-electric Module
• To improve cooling/heating power of passive air systems, there are two
possible upgrades. One is through thermo-electric modules, the other is a heat
pipe.
• Thermo-electric module can convert electric voltage to temperature difference
and viceversa. Here the former effect is adopted. That means it transfers heat
through the module by consuming electricity directly.
• Two fans are installed to improve heat transfer by forced convection. To
combine a passive air system with thermo-electric module, the combined
system is able to cool down the battery even lower than the intake air
temperature, but the power is still limited to around some hundreds of watts
and less than one kW.
• It’s easy to switch between cooling and heating operation. To achieve that, the
poles of electrodes need to be reversed.
Heat Pipe
• Besides thermo-electric modules, a heat pipe is another way to
upgrade passive air systems. The structure of a heat pipe is shown
in Figure.
• The flat copper envelope of the heat pipe was under partial
vacuum. The capillary structure is made of sintered copper
powder.
• The heat pipe uses water as the working fluid. Water on the
evaporator side will absorb heat and become vapour lower 100°C
due to low pressure inside. Water on the condenser will dissipate
heat to the surrounding and become liquid again.