Chapter 6: Motivation at work

 Motivation
People work for a number of reasons. Most people work
because they need to earn money to survive, while others
work voluntarily for other reasons. Motivation is the reason
why people work, and it drives them to work better.
Therefore, managers try to find out what motivate workers
and use them to encourage workers to work more efficiency.
This results in higher productivity, increased output, and
ultimately higher profits.

 Nowadays, machinery is more common in businesses

which results in increased productivity as well.
However, the amount that a well motivated workforce
can produce must still be recognised, since employees
are a firms greatest assets!
 Motivation theories
People work very hard when they are working for
themselves. When they work for other people, less so.
Managers have been looking into what makes employees
contribute their fullest to the company and these studies
have resulted four main theories of motivation.
F.W. Taylor
 Theory:
 Money is the main motivator.
 If employees are paid more, they work more.
 Work is broken down into simple processes, and more
money is paid which will increase the level of
productivity
 an employee will achieve.
 The extra pay is less than the increased productivity.
  Disadvantages:
 Workers are seen rather like machines, and this theory
does not take into account non-financial motivators.
 Even if you pay more, there is no guarantee of a
productivity rise.
 It is difficult to measure an employee’s output.
Maslow
Maslow created what is known as the hierarchy of needs. In
this diagram, there are 5 different types of motivation:
 Physiological needs: basic requirements for survival.
 Security needs: the need to by physically safe.
 Social needs: the need to belong and have good
relationships with co-workers.
 Esteem needs: the need for self-respect and to be
respected by others.
 Self-actualisation needs: the need to reach your full
potential and be promoted.
Businesses realise that the more levels of motivation are
available to workers, the harder they will work. Maslow also
suggest that each level of motivation must be achieved before
going to the next level. Once one level of motivation is met,
more of that will no longer motivate the employee.

 Disadvantages:
 Some levels are not present in some jobs.
 Some rewards belong to more than one level on
others.
 Managers need to identify the levels of
motivation in any job before using it to motivate
employees.
Herzberg
To Herzberg, humans have hygiene factors, or basic animal
needs of humans. We also have motivational
factors/motivators that are required for the human to grow
psychologically.

 Hygiene factors:

 Status.
 Security.
 Working conditions.
 Company policies and administration.
 Relationship with supervisor.
 Relationship with subordinates.
 Salary.
 Motivational factors:
 Achievement.
 Recognition.
 Personal growth/development.
 Advancement/promotion.
 Job satisfaction.

To Herzberg, if the hygiene factors are not satisfied,

they will act as de-motivators. They are not
motivators, since the motivating effect quickly wears
off after they have been satisfied. True motivators
are Herzberg's motivational factors.
McGregor
McGregor splits his theory into what managers believe. One
type believes in theory X, while the other type believes in
theory Y. Here is the table:
Here are some differences in how an X manager will work
and how a Y manager will work:
 X managers believe that people are naturally lazy, and
has to be pushed with external factors to work harder.
(e.g. higher pay).
 Y managers believe that people want to do a good days
work but need a good environment to do the work. A
better environment is an internal factor.
 X managers will try to provide incentives and
supervision for employees to work hard.
 Y managers will try to provide a favourable
environment so that employees can enjoy their work.
 Theory's like Taylor's theory are X theories, while
others like McGregor's theory are Y theories.
People may say that money is the main motivator,
but studies have shown that many people leave
jobs because other motivational factors are not
available to them.
 Why do people work?

 Here is a summary of why people work:

 Money: to satisfy needs and wants.

 Security: knowing that you are physically safe
and have job security.
 Social needs: to belong to a group, making
friends at work.
 Esteem needs:(self importance): feeling
important, feeling the job you do is important.
 Job satisfaction: enjoyment from the feeling of
having done a good job.
 Motivating factors - financial motivators

 There are three ways to motivate a workforce:

 financial motivators
 non-financial motivators
 ways to increase job satisfaction
 Financial rewards

Pay may be the basic reason why people work, but different
kinds of pay can motivate people differently. Here are the
most common methods of payment:
 Wages

Wages are paid every week, in cash or straight into the bank
account, so that the employee does not have to wait long for
his/her money. People tend to pay wages to manual workers.
Since wages are paid weekly, they must be calculated every
week which takes time and money.
Wages clerks are paid to do this task. Workers get extra pay
for the overtime that they do. There are some ways that
wages could be calculated:
 Time rate: Time rate is payment according to how
many hours an employee has worked. It is used in
businesses where it is difficult to measure the output of a
worker.
+ Easy to calculate the wage of the employee. A time-
sheet must be filled out by the Accounts department to
calculate the wage.

- Both good and bad workers get paid the same

wages. Therefore, more supervisors are needed to
maintain good productivity. A clocking-in system is
needed to know how many hours an employee has
done.
 Here is an example of a wage slip and time-sheet:
They show:

Basic pay + Overtime = Gross Pay

Gross pay - Deductions = Net Pay Deductions include:
 Taxes
 Pension
 Union fees
 National insurance: entitles the payee to short-term
unemployment benefits, sickness benefits and state
pension.
 Piece rate: Piece rates are paid depending on how many
units they have produced. There is usually a base pay
(minimum wage) and the piece rate is calculated as a
bonus on how many units were created. Piece rates are
found in businesses where it is possible to measure a
workers’ productivity.
·
+ Encourages workers to work faster and produce more
goods.
- Workers will often neglect quality, and businesses will
need a quality control system which is expensive.
- Workers who focus on quality will earn less. Tension is
caused when some workers earn more than others.
- If machinery breaks down, employees earn less. That is
why there is a guaranteed minimum pay.
Salaries
Salaries are paid monthly and normally straight into the bank
account. They are usually for white collar workers. A salary is
counted as an amount per year that is divided into 12 monthly
accounts. You do not usually receive overtime.
Managers only need to pay their workers once a month, and
since the amount is transferred by the bank, the manager
loses much less time and money calculate salary.
Salaries are usually a standard rate, but other rewards could
be given to employees:

 Commission: A percentage is paid, usually to sales staff,

depending on the value of goods they have sold. Workers
are encouraged to sell more. However, they could persuade
customers to buy products they don’t really want, making
the company look bad. Just like the piece rate, in a bad
month where there are little sales, worker's pay will fall.
 Profit sharing: Employees receive a percentage of the
profits made. However, they will get nothing if the
business doesn't make a profit. This is often used in the
service sector, where it is hard to find an employee’s
contribution to the company.
 Bonus: A lump sum paid to employees who have done
well. It is usually paid at the end of the year or before
holidays. However, this could cause jealousy between
workers. Giving bonuses to a team works better.
 Performance related pay: Employee pay is linked to the
effectiveness of their work. It is often used in
organisations where it is hard to measure productivity.
It uses the system of appraisal: employees are observed
and their colleagues are interviewed to determine their
effectiveness. Afterwards, the immediate superior of the
employee has a meeting with them to discuss their
effectiveness.
  Share ownership: Employees receive some shares from
the company. They will either benefit from dividends or
sell the shares when their price has risen. They will be
more motivated because they feel like a part of the
company.
 Motivating factors - non-financial motivators
There are other factors that motivate people in a business, and
they are often called perks or fringe benefits. They may be
having free accommodation, free car, etc... However, when
you look at it, it is just money in different forms. Here is a list
of these motivators:
 Children's education.
 Discounts on company products.
 Free Healthcare.
 Company vehicle.
 Free accommodation.
 Share options.
  Expense accounts.
 Pension.
 Free holidays.
 Job satisfaction:
Employees will become more motivated by enjoying the job
they do. Job satisfaction can come in different ways. However,
there are some factors that demotivate employees if they are
not satisfied, and must be satisfied before the motivators can
take effect. Here are some things that make workers' jobs
satisfying:
 Pay.
 Promotion.
 working conditions.
 Fringe benefits.
 Management
  Working hours.
 The nature of the work itself.
 Colleagues, etc...
Herzberg and Maslow stresses that things such as
responsibility recognition is also crucial to provide job
satisfaction. Letting workers contribute to the job would also
help, making jobs less boring and more creative. Here are
some policies to increase job satisfaction:

 Job rotation:

Workers in a production line can now change jobs with each

other and making their jobs not so boring. It helps train the
employee in different aspects of their jobs so that they can
cover for other employees if they do not show up.
 Job enlargement:

Adding tasks of a similar level to a worker's job. Job

enlargement simply gives more variety to employees' work
which makes it more enjoyable.
 Job enrichment:

Adding tasks of a higher level to a worker's job. Workers may

need training, but they will be taking a step closer to their
potential. Workers become more committed to their job which
gives them more satisfaction.
 Autonomous work groups or team working:

This is when group of workers are given total responsibility to

organise themselves and perform a task. This makes the
employees feel more important, as well as giving them a sense
of belonging when they are part of a team. If they organise
themselves differently every time, the team could get job
enlargement and job enrichment too!
Eg. Job enlargement

Eg. Job enrichment

Eg. Autonomous work groups or team working
Leadership

Studies have shown that leadership has a great

impact on worker's motivation. Good managers
have leadership skills that inspire their
workers to work better, as well as directing
them with a common goal. Managers use many
styles of leadership, and they can be
summarised into 3 main styles:
 Autocratic leadership:

 The manager controls all

aspects of their
subordinates' work.
 They keep themselves
separate from employees.
 Employees are expected to
obey every command and
cannot contribute to
decisions.
 Communication is only
top-down.
 Laissez-faire
leadership:
 Objectives are shown to
employees, but the task is
completely delegated to
them.
 Communication can be
difficult since clear
instructions are not given.
 The manager has a limited
role in this type of
leadership.
 Democratic leadership:
 The manager discusses
tasks with his
employees before
making decisions.
 Communication will be
two-way, both top-
down and bottom-up.
  Here is a diagram to summarise the leadership styles:

 The style of leadership used can vary depending on situations where they are
the most effective.
 Formal and informal groups
A formal group is an official group that is formed to do a
specific task in an organisation. An informal group is a group
of people which are formed independently by themselves.
They are not official, but the people in the group have a
common interest or cause. Both of these groups are needed in
business, and let's see why in this example. e.g. a school
might create a football team (formal group) but the players
need to bond together to play effectively (informal group).
 Formal groups in business

Departments within a business are good examples of formal

groups. From time to time different groups might be set up to
cope with different problems or do different tasks.
Sometimes people from different departments could come
together in a group to do a team project.
 Informal groups in business
There are can be many informal groups in a business that can increase the
motivation of workers because they have a true sense of belonging. e.g.
There is a group of factory workers who are interested in basketball, and
they form an informal group, as a result, when they get back into their
formal group they are likely to co-ordinate better with each other.

There are other scenarios where two departments merge to become one,
making them one formal group. However, the people from these former
departments still see themselves as separate from each other. These two
groups of people will refuse to co-operate until they are also merged into
an informal group. Therefore, informal groups should be handled
carefully in business to yield the best results.

Regular meetings, free holidays, sporting events and such things could be
organised to create informal groups and use them in a more positive way
to avoid them getting into the way of business activity.
2.2 Chapter 10: Organization and management
/Organisational Structure

 What is organisational structure?

Organisational structure refers to the levels of management

and division of responsibilities within a business, which
could be presented in an organisational chart.

For simpler businesses in which the owner employs only

himself, there is no need for an organisational structure.
However, if the business expands and employs other people,
an organisational structure is needed. When employing
people, everybody needs a job description.
 These are its main advantages:
 People who apply can see what they are expected to do.
 People who are already employed will know exactly what
to do.
Here is an example of a Job Description taken from the book:

 When there are more than one person in a small business and they all
do different things, it means that they are specialising in different jobs.
 Delegation
Delegation refers to giving a subordinate the responsibility
and authority to do a given task. However, the final
responsibility still lies with the person who delegated the job
to the subordinate. Here are the advantages of delegation for
managers and employees, as well as why some managers
choose not to delegate.

 Advantages for the manager:

 By letting subordinate do smaller tasks, managers have
more time to do more important tasks.
 Managers are less likely to make mistakes if tasks are
done by specialist employees.
 Managers can measure the success of their task more
easily.
 Advantages for the subordinates:
 Work becomes more interesting and rewarding.
 Employees feel important and trusted.
 Helps train workers, giving them better career
opportunities.

 Why some managers don't want to delegate:

 Managers are afraid that their employees will fail.
 Managers want total control.
Managers are scared that the subordinate will do tasks better
than them, making them feel insecure.

 Delegation must mean:

 A reduction in direct control by managers or supervisors.
 An increase in trust of workers by managers or
supervisors.
 Organisational charts
Eventually, when a business grows larger and employs many
people, they will have to create an organisational chart to work
out a clear structure for their company. Here is another
example of an organisational chart from the book:
 Here are the most important features of the chart:

 It is a hierarchy. There are different levels in the

business which has different degrees of authority.
People on the same level have the same degree of
authority.
 It is organised into departments, which has their own
function.
 It shows the chain of command, which is how power
and authority is passed down from the top of the
hierarchy, and span of control, meaning how many
subordinates one person controls, of the business.
 Advantages of an organisational chart:

 The charts shows how everybody is linked

together. Makes employees aware of the
communication channel that will be used for
messages to reach them.
 Employees can see their position and power,
and who they take orders from.
 It shows the relationship between departments.
 Gives people a sense of belonging since they
are always in one particular department.
Chain of command and span of control:

 Here are two organisations, one having a long chain of

command and the other a wide span of control. Therefore,
the longer the chain of command, the taller the business
hierarchy and the narrower the span of control. When it is
short, the business will have a wider span of control.
In recent years, people have began to prefer to have their
business have a wider span of control and shorter chain of
command. In some cases, whole levels of management were
removed. This is called de-layering.
This is because short chains of commands have these
advantages:
 Communication is faster and more accurate. The message has to pass
through less people.
 Managers are closer to all employees so that they can understand the
business better.
 Spans of control will be wider, meaning that the manager would
have to take care of more subordinates, this makes:
o The manager delegate more, and we already know the
advantages of delegation.
o Workers gain more job satisfaction and feel trusted because of
delegation.
However, if the span of control is too wide, managers could lose control. If
the subordinates are poorly trained, many mistakes would be made.
Functional departments
Here is an example of an organisational chart from a larger
business from the book:
 Here are they key features of this graph:

 The business is divided into functional departments.

They use specialists for each job and this creates more
efficiency. However, workers are more loyal to their
department than to the organisation as a whole.
Therefore, conflict can occur between different
departments. Managers working in these departments
are called line managers, who have direct authority and
the power to put their decisions into effect over their
department.
 Not only are there departments, there are also other
regional divisions that take care of outlets that are
situated in other countries. They use the local
knowledge to their advantage.
 There are some departments which do not have a
distinctive function but still employs specialists and report
directly to the CEO/Board of Directors. These departments
are the IT department, and the Economic Forecasting
department. Some say the HR department fits in this
category. These departments give specialist advice and
support to the board of Directors and line managers, and
the managers of these departments are called staff
managers. They are often very highly qualified personnel
who specialises in only their area.

 Here are the pros and cons of employing staff managers:

 Advantages:
 Staff managers help and provide advice for line managers
on things such as computer systems.
 Helps line managers concentrate on their main tasks.
  Disadvantages:
 There may be conflict between the two groups on
important decisions and views.
 Line employees may be confused and do not know who
to take orders form, line or staff managers.
 Decentralisation

Decentralisation refers to a business delegating important

decisions to lower divisions in the business. In a centralised
structure important decisions are taken at the centre, or higher
levels of management.
 Advantages of a decentralised structure:
 Decisions are made by managers who are "closer to the
action".
 Managers feel more trusted and get more job satisfaction
due to delegation.
 Decisions can be made much more quickly.
 The business can adapt to change much more quickly.
 Decentralisation means that:

 Less central control.

 More delegation.
 Decisions taken "lower down" in the organisation.
 Authority given to departments/regions

 Different forms of decentralisation:

 Functional decentralisation: Specialist departments are
given the authority to make decisions. The most common
of these are:
o Human Resources.
o Marketing.
o Finance.
o Production.
 Federal decentralisation: Authority is divided between
different product lines. e.g separate truck/car/bus divisions.
 Regional decentralisation: In multinationals, each base in
each country has authority to make its own decisions.
 Decentralisation by project means: For a certain project,
decision-making authority is given to a team chosen from all
functional departments.

 Is complete decentralisation a good idea?

It is dangerous to let the lower-level management make all the
decisions. Therefore, it is wise for the central management to
decide on major issues, long-term decisions, growth and
business objectives. If these issues are not centralised then
there would be a lack of purpose or direction in the business.
2.3 Chapter 14: Recruitment, Training, and human
resources

The work of the Human Resources department

We all know that recruitment and selection is one of the tasks
that the HR department fulfills. The other tasks will be
discussed below:

 Recruitment and selection: Involves selecting and

attracting the best workers.

 Wages and salaries: Must be enough to motivate or

attract workers.
 Industrial relations: There must be effective
communication between departments.
 Training programmes: Must meet the training needs of
employees and accomplish business objectives.
 Health and safety: Must do things according to the law.
 Redundancy and dismissal: Must obey all laws when
firing workers.
Recruitment and selection
Workers are needed when a business starts up, expands or an
existing employee leaves. Businesses use the recruitment
process to successfully employ the right people. This process
is usually undertaken by the HR department, but in small
business, HR departments do not exist since the businesses
employ too little workers for it to be of much use. Here is a
diagram summarising the recruitment process:

1. Vacancy arises.
2. A job analysis is done, which identifies the
responsibilities and tasks of the job.
3. A job description lists that responsibilities and tasks to the
candidates who apply for the position.
4. A job specification outlines the required qualifications,
expertise and experience a candidate needs so that they can
be accepted.
5. The job is advertised in the appropriate media. (e.g.
newspapers)
6. Candidates fill out application forms, which are short-listed
so that only the best candidates remain.
7. Interviews are held with remaining candidates, and the ones
suitable for the job are selected.
8. Vacancy filled.
 The recruitment process

 Job analysis and description:

When a new employee is needed, a job analysis needs to be

taken to identify the tasks and responsibilities of the position.
This should be easy for a job that needs replacement, but not
so much for a job that has just been created.
Once all the details of the job has been gathered, a job
description needs to be drawn up.
This job description has several functions:
 Given to candidates so they will know what the job will
involve.
 Allows a job specification to be drawn up which will
state the requirements for the job.
 Shows whether an employee carries out the job
effectively or not. It helps solve disputes between
employees and employers about wages, working hours,
etc.
The job description for any business will usually contain:

 The title of the job.

 The department one will work in.
 Who will be in charge of the job-holder?
 Who the job-holder will be in charge for.
 The purpose of the job (job summary).
 The main duties of the job.
Job description sometimes contain information about:

 The conditions of employment – working hours, wages,

pension schemes.
 Training that will be offered.
 Opportunities of promotion.

 Job specification

After the job description has been drawn up, the

qualifications for the job can be identified. They usually
include:
 The level of educational qualifications.
 The amount and type of experience.
Special skills, talents or knowledge.
 Personal characteristics. (e.g. type of personality)
 Advertising the vacancy

The next stage is on how to get people to know that you have a
job to be filled.
 Internal recruitment
The vacancy can be filled by an employee already in the
business. It might be suitable for employees seeking
promotion.

 Advantages of internal recruitment:

 Saves time and money.
 The candidates' reliability, ability and potential are
already known.
 The candidates know the expectations and rules of the
company.
 Motivates other employees to work harder to get
promoted too.
 Disadvantages of internal recruitment

 No new ideas or experience come into the business.

 May create jealousy and rivalry between existing
employees.
 External recruitment

Most vacancies are filled with external recruitment, which

always involves advertising the vacancy. Here are some
suitable media of advertising:

 Local newspaper: Usually for office and manual

workers. These people are plenty since the job does not
require too much skill.
 National newspaper: Used to find workers for senior
positions that requires a lot of skills. It can be read by
people anywhere in the country or overseas.
 Specialist magazines: Used for particular technical
specialists such as physicists. Can be used to hire
people in the home country or abroad.
 Recruitment agencies: Keeps details of qualified
people, and will send the suitable applicants to
interviews when a business asks for a worker. Many
businesses prefer to use recruitment agencies to find
them workers because it is easier. However, it is
expensive since their fee is based on a percentage of the
workers pay.
 Government job centres: Place where businesses can
advertise their vacancies. These vacancies are usually
for unskilled or semi-skilled workers.
 Possible effects of government legislation on the
recruitment process

Many governments pass laws to create equal employment

opportunities. They state that all employees should be treated
equally in the work place and receive the same salary for
doing the same job. People of any sex and people with
disabilities are treated equally. Therefore, businesses need to
be careful when advertising and treating their employees
because they could be prosecuted and fined.
 Job advertisement

This is what a business needs to decide when drawing up an

advertisement:
 What should be included?

 Job description
 Job specification
 Where the ad will be placed.
 (depends on job)
Advertising budget.
 (depends on job)
 Applications forms and CVs/résumés

When a person applies for a job, he will have to fill out an

application form, or write an application letter with a CV
enclosed. CVs are descriptions about one's qualifications and
skills in a set format.

Businesses will use application forms and CVs to see whether

an applicant match the job specifications or not. The closest
matching applicants are invited to interviews in the selection
stage. A short-list is drawn up.
These are what CVs should contain:
 Name
 Address
 Telephone Number
 Date of Birth
 Nationality
 Education and qualifications
 Work experience
 Positions of responsibility
 Interests
 Names and addresses of references.
The letter of application should contain briefly:

 Why the applicant wants the job.

 Why the applicant feels he/she would be suitable.
 Applicant forms ask for the same information as the application letter
and CV, but may ask for other types of information.
 Interviews
Applicants who are invited to interviews will have provided
the names and addresses of their references. These people can
give their opinions on the reliability, honesty and skills of the
applicants and they will be likely to tell the truth because the
applicants will not know what they have said.

Interviews are the most popular form of selection. However,

interviews are not always the most reliable process of
selection. They aim to find out these things:

 The applicant's ability to do the job.

 Personal qualities that are advantageous and
disadvantageous.
 General characteristics – whether they can "fit in"?
 These are the likely questions in an interview:
 Why have you applied for the job?
 What do you know about this company?
 What qualities do you have to offer the company?
 What ambitions do you have?
 What are your hobbies and interests?
 Do you have any questions to ask us?
 Interviews can be one-to-one, two-to-one, or a panel of
people to interview people which is used to select people
for important jobs. Some businesses include tests in their
selection.
 Skill tests: To test the skills of the candidates.
 Aptitude tests: To test how easily candidates can be trained/learn
new things.
 Personality tests: To test for people who have specific personal
qualities which will fit into jobs – e.g. that has a lot of stress;
requires you to work with a team.
 Group situation tests: To test how well applicants work with other
people.
 Rejecting unsuccessful applicants

When applicants fail to get the job, they should be informed

and thanked for applying.

 Training

Training is often needed to do achieve the needs listed below.

These needs can be long-term or short-term.
 Introduce a new process or equipment.
 Improve efficiency.
 Decrease supervision needed.
 Improve the opportunity for internal promotion.
 Decrease the chance of accidents
 Employees should know the benefits of training for them to
take it seriously. Here are some objectives of training:
 Increase skills.
 Increase knowledge.
 Change attitude, raise awareness.

 There are three main types of training:

 Induction training:
 Introducing a new employee to their
business/management/co-workers/facilities.
 Lasts one to several days.

 On-the-job training:
 Employees are trained by watching professionals do
a job.
 Only suitable for unskilled and semi-skilled jobs.
 Cuts travel costs.
 The trainee may do some work.
 The trainer's productiveness is decreased because he
has to show things to the trainee.
 The trainer's bad habits can be passed to the trainee.

 Off-the-job training:

 Workers go to another place for training (e.g. school).

 Methods are varied and usually more complex.
 Usually classroom training.
 Employees still work during the day.
 Employees can learn many skills.
 Workforce planning
A business will need to forecast the type and number of
employees needed in the future. This depends on the firm's
growth and objectives. The forecast can be done by:

 Finding out the skills of all current employees.

 Counting out people who are leaving soon (e.g.
retirement).
 Talk to staff about who would want to retrain for new
jobs.
 Provide a recruitment plan. (how many new staff are
needed, and how they should be recruited, internal or
external)
 Dismissal and Redundancy
There are some situations when businesses need to reduce the
number of employees they have. This can be done in two
ways:
Dismissal:
 A worker is fired for unsatisfactory work or
behaviour.
 Fault of the employee.
 Redundancy:
 Employees are no longer needed.
 Not the fault of the employee.
Some reasons are:
 A business is closing down a factory.
 A business wants to cut costs by reducing the
number of employees.
 A business has merged/taken over another and there are
too many staff in certain departments
 New machinery replaces workers.

 Employees are given some money to compensate for their

lost job.
 The money is often negotiated with trade unions.
 Some government have laws that makes businesses pay
for their workers this way.

 If only some employees are to be made redundant, trade

unions will agree with the fairest way to see who goes.
These terms are negotiated with the HR department.
Sometimes there will be voluntary redundancy by
members.
 Older workers.
 There may be some who wants to leave because they
have other ideas.
2.3.1 Chapter 15: Employee and employer
associations
In smaller businesses, if employees have any problems they
can talk directly to their employer. However, in larger
businesses that employs many people, it becomes extremely
hard to do so. It is also hard for the Human Resources
department to make decisions when they have about 500
employees (e.g. who will get a pay rise?). It becomes much
easier if decisions are negotiated with a trade union, and
employee association that represents them. This saves the
management a lot of time because they do not have to see
individual employees to discuss problems.

Employees might not be treated fairly at work. They may be

overworked and underpaid. Trade unions has the role of
bargaining with the HR department for better working
conditions, conditions of employment and better pay.
 Trade Unions

Employees with similar interests (higher pay) form a trade

union. Trade unions are a form of pressure group with has the
ability to influence business activity. There are four main
types of trade unions:

 Craft union: For workers skilled at a particular

job.
 General union: For unskilled and semi-skilled
workers from different industries.
 Industrial union: For all types of workers in an
industry.
 White-collar union: For non-manual or office
workers.
 Why do workers join a trade union?

Unions have a shop steward, who is an unpaid representative

of the union. When someone is new to a job they may ask if
they may want to join. If the person joins, they will have to
pay an annual subscription. This money will be use for
employing union officials who will represent the views of the
employees.

 Advantages of a union

 Strength in numbers.
 Improved conditions of employment.
 Improved working conditions.
 Improved sickness benefits, pensions, and retrenchment
benefits.
 Improved job satisfaction and encourage training.
 Advice/Financial support if a worker is dismissed
unfairly/made redundant or is asked to do
something not part of their job.
 Improved fringe benefits.
 Employment where there is a closed shop, which is
when all employees in a business must belong to
the same union.

 Trade unions need to:

 Put forward their views in the media to influence

government decisions on pay, employment, etc…
 Improve communications between workers and
managers.
 Closed shop
A closed shop is when all employees must join one union in
order to be employed. It is because its members feel that the
union is doing nothing when non-members receive the same
pay rises as them. They think it is unfair. Trade unions also
gain greater strength if all the employees are members of the
union. However, many people think that it is unfair since
they are forced to join – they should be able to make their
own decisions.
 Single union agreement
Some companies have a single union agreement, when a
business only agrees to deal with a single union. Any
employees who want to join a union can join this union. It is
becoming more popular nowadays because many employees
are becoming multi- skilled, and do not know which union
to join.
Advantages to the employee:
 Discussions are clearer if there is only one union to deal
with.
 The union has greater power.
 No disagreements between different unions.
 A better working relationship should develop between the
union and the management.
 Disputes are solved more quickly.

Advantages to the employer:

 Discussions are clearer.
 A better working relationship should develop, meaning
that there would be less industrial disputes, benefiting
both employees and employers.
 Disputes are solved more quickly.
 It is easier to agree to changes.
 The structure of a trade union
The structure of different unions vary, but most elect a
President or General Secretary to work full-time for and get
paid by the union. They work at the union's headquarters. If
the union is large, there will be union officials to take cared
of members in different branches. Each branch represents its
members in one work site, one factory, or one employer. Each
branch has a representative. Unions are usually democratic
and their union officers are voted up by the members.
 Employer associations
Employers join what are called employer associations/
employer federations/trade associations. Like trade unions,
employer associations are made up of businesses and
employers and who all pay annual fees for their benefits.
 Advantages of joining an employer association:

 They negotiate with trade unions on behalf of their

members.

 They give advice on employment laws, health and safety,
taxation laws etc…

Strength in numbers, they want to influence government
decisions.
 They can share ideas and research facilities.
 They can organise bulk buying for members and get
discounts.
 Employer associations and the government.
Employer associations represent similar wants of businesses,
and will try to influence the governments to give better
conditions for businesses to prosper:

 They want the government to control things such as

inflation, law and order, health and safety, and education
for the workforce.

 Lower taxes.
 More freedom for businesses.
 Fair competition.
 Good transport infrastructure.
 Access to overseas markets.
 Reliable source of power.
Collective bargaining
This is when representatives of different interest groups
negotiate and a collective agreement is made. The bargaining
can be with businesses or with the government. Collective
bargaining in businesses usually means that the
representatives of one or more trade unions negotiate with
one or more employers or employer associations to come up
with a mutually acceptable agreement on conditions of
employment .
 Why trade unions want wage increases:

 Inflation:
 It is difficult to recruit qualified workers (so pay them
more!).
 Pay differentials need to be maintained (everybody's wages
should rise when the minimum wage rises).
 Changes in the workplace, e.g. new machinery.
 If there are increased productivity, wages should increase
too. There are productivity agreements, when managers
and trade unions agree to raise prices for increased
productivity.

 Often agreements take place and the "middle path" is

taken. However, this does not always happen and if the
workers and unsatisfied with the agreements, they will use
industrial action.
 Industrial action
There are various forms of industrial action that try to
influence the decisions of employers. Here are some of their
most comment forms.
 Strikes
Strikes are when workers stop working and leave the
workplace to protest against things.
 Token strike: Stoppage for an hour, a few hours or half a
day to show strong feelings.
 Selective strike: Only a few workers go on strike. They
are chosen by the union to cause as much disruption as
possible.
 All out strike: All union members stop working and
wait until a dispute has been settled.
 Unions have to pay their members out of strike funds as
long as the strike has been approved by the union. All
members vote to see if the strike is favourable or not.

 Picketing
This is when workers stand outside the factory holding signs
to protest and stop any people going in and out as well as
goods. This can halt the production process. The strikers gain
publicity and gives the firm a bad image. This puts pressure
on the firm to settle the dispute.
 Work to rule
This is when workers stick rigidly to every rule and
regulation in the business so that it slows down the
production process. They still get paid since they are
technically doing nothing wrong, but this still causes a lot of
disruption in the workplace.

 Go slow
All workers deliberately do things very slowly.

 Non-cooperative
Workers refuse to work with any new rules or follow any new
practices they do not approve of.

 Overtime ban
Workers refuse to do any overtime. This might damage the
business if they need to complete some orders quickly.
 Possible harmful consequences of industrial
action:
 For employers:
 Loss of output.
 Loss of profit.
 Loss of customers.
 Poor reputation.
 Bad image.

 For employees:
 Loss of wages.
 They might lose their jobs if the company suffers low
profits.
 For customers:
 They need to find another supplier which might cost
more (production is stopped)
 Shortage of products.
 Deliveries not made.
 For other businesses:
 May lose income.
 May not have materials to produce goods.

 For the economy:

 Workers have less money to spend.
 Less tax revenue.
 Country gain bad reputation for late deliveries.
 Workers may be made redundant.
 Exports may be lost and imports increased.
 Employer's powers
However, employers can do something about the situation.
Usually, they will sign a no-strike agreement with the union
which also involves pay rises. The pay rises are determined
by an arbitrator, an independent person who represents both
sides and decides on the best decisions possible. Again, he
will most likely choose the "middle path".
 Nevertheless, if strikes do happen, here are some things
employers can do:
 Dismiss all workers: This leave the company in a very
terrible position since they can't produce goods or deliver
goods.
 Lock-out the workers: Stop workers from coming to
work or get paid. Used to counter work to rule and go
slow strategies.
 Institute a pay freeze: Used if employees are refusing
to follow new rules, practices or operate new machinery.
 Worker participation:
The management needs to let everyone feel that they are part
of the business. This means that managers will let workers
participate in business decisions. There are several ways of
doing this:

 Worker directors: Some workers become directors, but they

are not allowed to attend all board meetings.

 Works councils: These are where representatives of

employees get together and discuss matters that affect
employees with managers. Works councils are called
European committees in Europe, and are becoming more
common there. Multinationals with more than 1000 workers
or 100 workers per branch will have to create a works
council and will have to always consult it when making
decisions affecting employees.
 Quality circles: This is often used in Japanese companies,
where workers regularly debate on how to improve quality
and efficiency.
 Using a democratic style of leadership: Workers are
delegated tasks and are consulted in business decisions.

 Advantages of worker participation

 It increases the flow of information and improve

relationships between the employer and the employee.
 It increases motivation.
 It increases job satisfaction.
 It benefits the company since it can use knowledge from
experienced workers.
 Disadvantages of worker participation
 It is time consuming.
Workers may lack necessary technical knowledge.
 If representation is done via trade unions, non union
members won't be affected.
 There could be conflict of interests.

End of Chapter 15
2.4 Chapter 12: Communication in Business
 What is effective communication and why
is it necessary?
Communication is when a message transferred from one
person to another and is understood by the latter. We
communicate everyday (by talking, by chatting, by texting,
etc.) but we need to learn how to communicate effectively.
Effective communication means that:

"The information or message being sent is received, understood

and acted upon in the way intended."
In business, ineffective communication or communication
failure could result in serious problems.
Why do people within business need to
communicate with each other?

In business, if we do not communicate, we would be working

as individuals with no co-ordination with anybody else in the
business. The management, whose tasks are guiding,
instructing and commanding subordinates, could not be done
because they cannot communicate with them. Here are some
common messages found in the workplace:
 No Smoking (sign)
 You are fired because you are always late (letter)
 Do not touch (sign)
 There will be a fire drill 11:00 today (notice board)
 There are many more things that are communicated.
Consequences would be severe if these matters are not
communicated effectively.
The process of effective communication:
Effective communication involves four features:

 The transmitter/sender who sends the message. He has

to choose the next two features carefully for effective
communication.
 The medium of communication. It is the method of
communication, e.g. notice board, letter, etc...
 The receiver who receives the message.
 Feedback means that the receiver has received the
message and responds to it. This confirms that the
message has been understood and acted upon if
necessary.
One-way and two-way communication
There are two types of communication. One-way
communication is when there is no feedback required for the
message, or the receiver is not allowed to reply. This might be
the sign that says "No smoking", or your boss saying: "give me
a biscuit". The other is two-way communication, when
feedback is required. Therefore, both people are now involved
in the communication process. This could lead to better and
clearer information.

 Advantages of two-way communication:

 The sender can now know whether the receiver has
understood and acted upon the message or not. If they have
not, the message might have to be sent again or made
clearer. Effective communication takes place only if the
message is understood by the receiver.
 Both people are involved in the communication process.
This makes the receiver feel more important which might
motivate them to make better contributions to the topic
discussed.
Internal and external communication
 Internal communication is messages sent between people
inside a business. For example:
 The boss talking to his subordinates.
 A report sent to the CEO.
 External communication refers to messages sent to people or
organisations outside the business. For example:
 Orders for goods from suppliers.
 Talking to customers.
 Advertising to the public.
 Both types of communication is almost the same, the only
difference is who is being communicated with.
 Why external communication has to work well
External communication can greatly affect the efficiency and
image of a business. Imagine if the wrong information is sent
to a supplier and a customer. The supplier would send wrong
materials while the customer might buy products from another
company. Here are some cases which ineffective external
communication might turn out to be very dangerous:

 The Finance Manager writes to the tax office inquiring

about the amount of tax that must be paid this year.
 The Sales Manager receives an order of 330 goods to be
delivered on Wednesday.
 The business must contact thousands of customers
because a product turned out to be dangerous. An add
must be put into the newspaper so that customers can
return the product for a refund.
Different ways of communicating: the
communication media
Information can be transmitted in several ways:

 Verbal: Involves the sender speaking to the receiver.

 Written: The message is written to the receiver.
 Visual: Using charts, videos, images or diagrams to
communicate a message.

 There is no best method of communication, so the

appropriate medium of communication must be selected
depending on the situation. First the sender also has to
analyse the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
communication.
 Verbal communication
Verbal/Oral communication might be:
 One-to-one talks.
 Telephone conversations.
 Video conferencing.
 Meetings.
 Advantages:

 Information is transferred quickly. This is an efficient

way to communicate in meeting to lots of people.
 There is opportunity for immediate feedback which
results in two-way communication.
 The message might be enforced by seeing the speaker.
Here the body language and facial expression could
make the message easily understood.
 Disadvantages:
 In big meetings, we do not know if everybody is
listening or has understood the message.
 It can take longer for verbal feedback to occur than
written feedback.
 Verbal communication is inappropriate for storing
accurate and permanent information if a message. (e.g.
warning to a worker)

 Written communication including electronic communication

Here are some written forms of communication:
 Letters: Used for both external and internal
communication. Follows a set structure.
 Memos: Used only for internal communication.
 Reports: Detailed documents about any problem. They
are done by specialists who send them to managers to
analyse before meetings. These reports are often so
detailed that they cannot be understood by all
employees.
 Notices: Pinned to notice boards that offer information
to everyone. However, there is no certainty on whether
they are read or not.
 Faxes: Written messages sent to other offices via
telephone lines.
 E-mails: Messages sent between people with the same
computing facilities. The message is printed if a hard
copy is needed.

 Intranet: A network inside a business which lets all

employees with a computer message each other.
 Internet: The global network for messaging anyone.
(e.g. customers, suppliers)
 Advantages:
 There is hard evidence of the message which can be
referred to and help solve disputes in the future over the
content of the message.
 It is needed when detailed information is transferred: it
could be easily misunderstood. Some countries the law
states that businesses need to put safety notices up
because people could forget them.
 The written message can be copied and sent to many
people.
 Electronic communication is a quick and cheap way to
get to many people.
 Disadvantages:
 Direct feedback is not always possible, unless electronic
communication is used. However, this could result in too
many emails sent (information overload). Direct
feedback via other means of written communication is
hard.
 It is not as easy to check whether the message has been
understood or acted upon.
 The language used might be difficult to understand. The
message might be too long and disinterest the reader.
 There is no opportunity for body language to be used to
enforce the message.
 Visual communication

Here are some forms of visual communication:

 Films, videos, and PowerPoint displays: often to help
train new staff or inform sales people about new
products.
 Posters: can be used to explain a simple but important
message. (e.g. propaganda poster)
 Charts and diagrams: Can be used in letters or reports to
simplify and classify complicated data. Computer
technology could help in the design of these charts or
diagrams. A printed copy might be needed for hard data
to add to reports and documents.
Advantages:
 Present information in an appealing and attractive way
that encourages people to look at it.
 They can be used to make a written message clearer by
adding a picture or a chart to illustrate the point being
made.
Disadvantages:
 No feedback is possible. People need to check via verbal
or written communication to check that they have
understood the message.
 Charts and graphs might be difficult for some people to
understand. The message might be misunderstood if the
receiver does not know how to interpret a technical
diagram.
 Formal and informal communication
Formal communication is the channel of
communication that is recognised by the business, such as
notices on boards, emails and memos. Formal means of
communication is important. It shows that the information
given is true.

Informal communication might be communication

between friends and co-workers. There is no set structure and
the information transferred is not recognised by the business.
This channel of communication could be used by the manager
to try out new ideas, before publicly announcing it to the rest
of a company. However, informal communication can result in
gossip can rumor, and managers have no way to remove these
informal links from people.
 Communication nets
There are many groups of people in any organisation, and
each of them communicate in different ways. People have
connections with each other, and these links form
communication nets. There are three standard types of
communication nets:

 Chain network:
+ Can be used to transfer important messages
from higher management levels to lower levels.
-This often leads to one way communication.
-The message could become altered as it passes
through different management levels.
 Wheel network:

+The central management can pass messages to all departments

quickly.
-The departments cannot communicate directly between
themselves.
 Connected network:

+ This is used to create or discuss new ideas.

+ It specialises in two-way communication.
-Can be time-consuming.
-There is no clear leader or sender of messages.
Which network works best?
There is again, no best network. A company is likely to use
different network at different times or for different groups.

 The chain network is for communicating important

business policies.
 The wheel network is used for sending different
messages to different departments.
 The connected network is used to generate new ideas or
solutions to problems where group discussion is the
most effective.
The direction of communications
Here is an organisation
chart from the book
explaining the direction
of communications
within the business.
The arrows are labeled
A, B and C which shows
the direction of communication:
 Arrow A (downwards communication):
o Used by managers to send important messages to subordinates.
o Does not allow feedback.
o The message might be altered after passing different levels.
 Arrow B (upwards communication):
o Used by subordinate send feedback to managers.
o Feedback from subordinates ensures that there is effective communication.
o Feedback results in higher morale and new ideas contributed to the
business.
 Arrow C (horizontal/lateral communication):
o People at the same level of management communicate with each other.
o Information and ideas can be exchanged both formally and informally.
o Can cause conflict between departments. (e.g. Production department asks
the Finance department for a budget to hire new staff but is rejected)

Barriers to effective communication

As we already know, the four parts of effective communication
includes the sender, medium, receiver and feedback. However,
communication may fail if there are problems with one of
these four features. If one part fails, it becomes a barrier to
effective communication which might cause a breakdown in
communication resulting in serious consequences to the
business. Here are some common barriers to effective
communication and how to overcome them.
Problems with sender:
 Problem: Language is too difficult to understand. Technical
jargon may not be understood.
 Solution: The sender should ensure that the receiver can
understand the message.
 Problem: There are problems with verbal means of
communication. (e.g speaking too quickly)
 Solution: The sender should make the message as clear as
possible and ask for feedback.
 Problem: The sender sends the wrong message to the wrong
receiver.
 Solution: The sender must ensure that the right person is
receiving the right message.
 Problem: The message is too long with too much detail
which prevents the main points from being understood.
 Solution: The message should be brief so that the main
points are understood.
 Problems with the medium:
 Problem: The message may be lost.
 Solution: Check for feedback. Send the message again!
 Problem: The wrong channel has been used.
 Solution: Ensure the appropriate channel is selected.
 Problem: Message could be distorted after moving down
a long chain of command.
 Solution: The shortest channel should be used to avoid this
problem.
 Problem: No feedback is received.
 Solution: Ask for it! Use different methods of
communication (e.g. meeting)
 Problem: Breakdown of the medium.
 Solution: Use other forms of communication.
 Problems with the receiver:
 Problem: They might not be listening or paying attention.
 Solution: The importance of the message should be emphasised. Request
feedback.
 Problem: The receiver might not like or trust the sender, and may be
unwilling to act upon the message.
 Solution: Trust is needed for effective communication. Use another
sender to communicate the message.
Problems with the feedback:
 Problem: There is no feedback.
 Solution: Ask for feedback. Use a different method of communication
which allows feedback.
 Problem: The feedback is received too slowly and may be distorted.
 Solution: Direct lines of communication should be available between the
subordinate and the manager.
 Note: The forms of communication are: verbal, written and visual . The
methods of communication can be: telephone, e- mail, meeting, etc...
Woohoo! Chapter 12 finished !
Unit 2 also finished!
In this unit we covered Chapter
13,14,15 &12
Unit 3 ,Chapter 16 coming soon!
From 16-22.