Topics to be covered

❖Introduction to waves
❖Characteristics of wave motion
❖Types of waves
❖The wave equation
❖Differential equation of wave motion
❖Concept of interference of light
❖Interacting waves and principle of superposition
❖Interference
❖Coherent sources of light
❖Types of interference based on the production of effective coherent sources
❖Conditions of interference
❖Analytical treatment of interference
✓Intensity distribution curve
✓ Whether the ‘law of conservation of energy’ is satisfied in interference or not?
 What is a wave 

A disturbance or variation that transfers energy progressively from one

place to another in a medium that may take the form of elastic
deformation or variation of pressure/electric field/magnetic field
intensity/electric potential/temperature etc.
 Waves

Cooperative motion of the particles of the medium producing a wave.

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Waves in a string

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Pulsed Sound Wave
Summing up the characteristics of wave motion…………

❖ It is the disturbance produced in a medium due to repeated periodic motion

of the particles of the medium.

❖ In the wave motion, wave travels in the forward direction while particles of the
medium vibrate about their mean position.

❖ There is a regular phase difference between the particles of the medium.

❖ The velocity of the wave is different from the velocity of the particle. The
velocity of the wave is uniform while the velocity of the particle is different at
different positions.
Contd…………
Contd…………
 Types of Waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

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 Comparison between Transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

➢ Particles of the medium vibrate ➢ Particles of the medium vibrate about
about their mean position in a their mean position in a direction
direction perpendicular to the parallel to the direction of the wave.
direction of motion of the wave.
➢ Made up of crests and troughs ➢ Made up of compressions and
rarefactions
➢ Electromagnetic waves and waves ➢ Sound waves and seismic waves are
on the surface of water are longitudinal waves.
transverse waves.
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Wave expression

Consider the displacement of a particle at a point ‘P’ showing simple harmonic

oscillation is given by,
…………………………………………...(1)

Let there be another particle at ‘Q’ at a distance ‘x’ from ‘P’ and the wave is
travelling with a velocity ‘v’ from P to Q, then the displacement of the particle at ‘Q’
may be given as,
….…………………………………………(2)

Where is the phase difference between the particles ‘P’ and ‘Q’.

……………………………………………...(3)
Contd….
By definition of angular frequency,
……………..……………………………….(4)

Substituting equations (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get

……..……………………………(5)

…..………………………………(6)

Equation (6) represents the equation of displacement of a particle when the

wave is travelling in + x direction. If the wave is travelling in –x direction such
that the particle at Q is at a distance x in the negative direction, then the
equation of displacement will be , …………………….(7)
Differential Equation of wave motion
Let the wave is travelling in +x direction, and can be represented as:
..…………………………………….(6)
Differentiating it w.r.t. time, we get
..…………………………………….(8)

………………………………………(9)

Again differentiating equation (6) wrt distance x,

.…………………………………….(10)

.…………………………………….(11)
Comparing equations (9) and (11), we get, ………..…………………….(12)
Equation (12) represents the general differential wave equation in one dimension
Summary
• We have discussed about waves, types of waves with examples.
• We have derived the differential equation of wave motion.
• We have also solved few sample numerical problems.

Next Class
• We shall discuss about principle of superposition, concept of interference
and its use in day to day life, conditions for interference and types of
interferences with examples.
• We shall also discuss about coherent sources, production of coherent
sources from a single source.
Principle of superposition
The resultant displacement of a particle of a medium when acted upon by two or
more waves simultaneously is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the same
particle due to individual waves in the absence of others.

Constructive Superposition Destructive Superposition

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Superposition of waves

Pulsed Waves

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Superposition of waves

Two waves in same direction with slightly different frequencies

Wave 1

Wave 2

Resultant Wave
“Beats”

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Superposition of waves
Harmonic waves in opposite directions

Incident Wave

Reflected Wave

Resultant Wave
(Standing Wave)

Animations courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

How these beautiful colored patterns are formed

It is due to
interference of
light waves
 Interference of light waves
#Interference: When two or more waves of the same
frequency travel in approximately the same direction and
maintain a phase difference that remains constant with
time, then the resultant intensity of light is not distributed
uniformly in space. This non-uniform distribution of light
intensity due to superposition of two or more waves is
called interference.
#Constructive Interference:

#Destructive Interference:

Figure has taken from –

Follow the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PCYv0_qPk-4 https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/Interference-of-Waves
 Coherent sources of light
❖ Two or more sources of light are said to be coherent if there relative phases do
not change with time.
❖ The phase difference between the sources remain constant :
• the phase of each source remains constant in time
• the phase of each source changes by the same amount
❖ Ordinary sources/completely independent sources of light ( such as sun, star,
electric bulb, candle, glowing solid etc.) are incoherent
❖ It is always possible to obtain two effectively coherent sources from a single
incoherent source by reflection, refraction or other suitable process.
• A narrow beam of light split into two components by one of the above
mentioned process
• These two beams are allowed to travel different optical path lengths
• The two beams then superpose in a region to produce interference
 Types of interferences based on production of coherent sources

❖Young’s double slit experiment ❖Newton’s ring

❖Fresnel’s biprism ❖Michelson’s Interferometer
❖Lloyd’s single and bimirror
 Conditions of interference

#For sustained interference:

❖ Interfering waves must be coherent.
❖ Frequency of the waves must be same.
❖ Waves must be in the same state of polarization.

For better contrast of fringes: For clear observation of fringes:

❖ Amplitude of the waves must be ❖Distance between the sources and
equal or nearly equal (though this is not screen must be large
a necessary condition) ❖ Distance between the sources
❖ Light source must be Monochromatic must be small.
❖ Narrow source of light is preferred ❖ Background must be dark.
 Analytical treatment of interference

Fig. (a) Schematic diagram showing two slit interference. Slits S1 and S2 behave
as coherent sources of light which produce an interference pattern on the screen;
(b) enlarged view of the center of fringe pattern on the screen.
Contd……..
➢ Two coherent sources S1 and S2 , separated by a
distance ‘d’ emit light waves of same angular frequency ‘ω’
and a constant phase difference ‘δ’.
➢ y1 and y2 be the displacements produced by the
individual waves at any point P on the screen, then
..………………..(1)
………………….(2)
where and are the amplitudes of the wave fronts from S1
and S2 respectively.

If ‘y’ be the resultant displacement at the point ‘P’ due to

the waves from S1 and S2, then by the principle of
superposition of waves, …………………...(3)
 Contd……..
Using equation (1) and (2) in equation (3),
………………(4)
.................(5)

Now let ………………(6)

………………(7)
Where is the amplitude of the resultant wave due to the superposition of the two
waves. Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (5) we get,
…................(8)
.……..………(9)
 Contd……..
To find out the value of , we have to square and add equations (6) and (7).
………………(10)
 ……….........(11)

 …….…………(12)

[keeping the constant of proportionality to be 1]

The resultant intensity ‘I’ at the point ‘P’ can be obtained as:

.…………….(14) [utilizing equation (11)]

Contd…
Expressing ‘I’ in terms of individual intensities I1 and I2,
……….………(15)

Where and [taking the constant of proportionality to be 1]

Now let us find the conditions of maxima and minima and resultant intensity
under those conditions.
Case I: (Constructive interference/Maxima/Bright fringes)
‘I’ will maximum (Imax) when
for

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Contd……..
The corresponding path difference between the interfering waves will be,
Path difference
The maximum intensity, …………(16)

Case II (Destructive interference/Minima/Dark fringes) :

‘I’ will maximum (Imin) when
for
Path difference
The minimum intensity, ……..…(17)
 Intensity distribution curve

For For
Can energy be conserved in interference

So far it is known that after interference occurs, we observe a distribution of bright

(maxima) and dark (minima) regions rather than uniform illumination. If we find
out the average intensity post interference, we get,

……………..(18)

Substituting equation (15) in (18),

………………(19)
Contd….

 .………...(20)

The total intensity of the wave fronts before interference occurs is also

 ‘Law of Conservation of Energy’ is satisfied in the phenomena of interference.

whatever energy apparently disappears at the minima, appears at the maxima.

 Take Home

❖ We discussed about waves with some practical examples; their

characteristics; transverse and longitudinal waves; and the differential wave
equation.
❖ Next topic of interest was the phenomenon of interference and its real life
applications; conditions of interference.

❖ We also had an idea upon the analytical treatment of interference by

considering the two slit pattern.
❖ Further, the intensity distribution was elaborated along with the verification
of law of conservation of energy in interference.