Physics Lesson 1: Units of Measurement

Units of Measurements
-Physical Quantities
-Conversion of Units
-Scientific Notation

Physical Quantities
-Physicists like other scientists, make observation and
ask basic questions. For example, how big is an
object? How much mass does it have? How far did it
travel? To answer these questions, they make Nature of physical quantities
measurements with various instruments (e.g., meter
stick, balance, stopwatch, etc. ).
Example: mass, time, length, speed, force

-The measurements of physical quantities are

expressed in terms of units, which are standardized
values. For example, the length of a race, which is a
physical quantity, can be expressed in meters (for
sprinters) or kilometers (for long distance runners)…
Example: Kilogram, Second, Ampere, Kelvin,
Candela
Nature of physical quantities
BASE /

Try Conversion

Units Conversion
-When units are not consistent, converting to
appropriate ones is needed
-In unit conversion, units can be treated as algebraic
quantities that can cancel each other out

Types of Unit Conversion Scientific Notations

-Scientific notation is a way of writing very large or
very small numbers.
Physics Lesson 2: Scientific Notations and Significant Figure Rules
Significant Figures 1. Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
Scientific Notations 2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
-Scientific notation is a way of writing very large or 606 m 3 significant figures
very small numbers. 3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are
not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
4. If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros
to the right of the decimal point are
significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
5. If whole numbers have zeros to the right with
NO DECIMAL then all zeros to the right are
NOT significant
560 mg 2 significant figures
6. If a number is less than 1, then only the
zeros that are at the end and in the middle of
the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures

Count the number of Significant Figures

Significant Figures
-Significant figures reflect the accuracy of a result or
measurement.

We need:
to determine the correct number of significant figures
(sig figs) to record in a measurement Operations with Significant Figures
to count the number of sig figs in a recorded value
to determine the number of sig figs that should be Addition or Subtraction
retained in a calculation. The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the
decimal point than any of the original numbers.
-The number of digits used to express a measured or
calculated quantity.
By using significant figures, we can show how precise
a number is. If we express a number beyond the
place to which we have actually measured (and are
therefore certain of), we compromise the integrity of Multiplication or Division
what this number is representing. The number of significant figures in the result is set by
the original number that has the smallest number of
significant figures
Operations with Significant Figures

Mixed Operations with Significant Figures

Physics Lesson 3: Errors, Accuracy, and
Precision Accuracy and Precision
Example: Four students performed an experiment to
Measurements measure the density of aluminum (2.7 g/mL). Which
-quantity that has both a number and a unit data is accurate but not precise?
-fundamental to experimental science so must be able
take and evaluate them

What is it?
Science is based on experimentation that requires
good measurements. Measurement and
experimentation are fundamental to physics. To test
whether the recognized patterns are consistent,
physicists perform experiments with numerous
measurements, leading to new ways of understanding
observable phenomena in nature. The validity of a
measurement can be described in terms of its
accuracy and precision.

Evaluating measurements

Accuracy
-measure of how close a measurement comes to the
actual or true value of whatever is measured.

Precision
-Is how well repeated measurements of something
generate the same or similar results.

Errors

Random Errors and Systematic Errors

Random Errors
-Random errors in experimental measurements are
caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in the
experiment.
-They are unpredictable and can’t be replicated by
repeating the experiment again.

Random Errors
1. Noise from an electronic device
2. Temperature variation during volume of gas
measurement
3. Uncontrollable presence of wind at
determination of the simple pendulum’s
period.
]
Systematic Errors Evaluating Measurements
-Systematic error (also called systematic bias) is To determine Error:
consistent, repeatable error associated with faulty -The accepted value is the correct value based on
equipment or a flawed experiment design. reliable references.
-Usually come from the measuring instrument or in -The experimental value is the value measured in
the design of the experiment itself. These errors limit the lab.
the accuracy of the results. -The difference between the experimental value and
the accepted value is called the error.

To determine Percent Error:

-The percent error is the absolute value of the error
divided by the accepted value, multiplied by 100%.

Practice: error and percent error

Percent Difference
-Percent difference is a measure of how far apart the
different measured values are from each other and is
therefore and indication of precision. Percent
difference is given by the equation:

Variance
-Variance, which is derived from the word vary,
measures the squared deviation of each number in
the set from the mean. This statistical measurement is
another way to estimate errors from multiple
measurements of a physical quantity.

- If the calculated variance results to zero, it means

that all measurements are identical. If the variance is
Estimating Errors so small, it means that the values are close to one
Often, we are experimentally determining a value in another, and they are said to be precise.
the lab that is already known.
-When we do this, we must calculate error in order to
see how accurate and precise our results are

In lab reports, you will be required to determine your

error and percent error.
Standard Deviation
-Is a measure of how diverse or spread out a set of
measurements is from their mean or average. A small
SD means that the measurement are close to their
average, while a large SD signifies that the
measurements are diverse.

Making connections: Real-World

connections-Fevers or Chills
- Uncertainty is a critical piece of information, both in
physics and in many other real-world applications.
Imagine you are caring for a sick child. You suspect
the child has a fever, so you check his or her
temperature with a thermometer. What if the
uncertainty of the thermometer were 3.0ºC? If the
child’s temperature reading was 37.0ºC (which is
normal body temperature), the “true” temperature
could be anywhere from a hypothermic 34.0ºC to a
dangerously high 40.0ºC. A thermometer with an
uncertainty of 3.0ºC would be useless.

Accuracy
Closeness to true value

Precision
Closeness of a set of data points to one another
Uncertainty
-It is not possible to make exact measurements, and
all measures have uncertainty.
Physics Lesson 4: Vectors Vectors
Vectors are represented by drawing arrows

Vector quantities can be identified by bold type with

an arrow above the symbol.

Graphical representation of Vectors

-Vectors are drawn as arrows. An arrow has both a
magnitude (how long it is) and a
direction (the direction in which it points). The starting
point of a vector is known as
the tail and the end point is known as the head.
-Another common method of expressing directions is
to use the points of a compass: North, South, East,
and West. If a vector does not point exactly in one of
the compass directions, then we use an angle.

Method: Drawing Vectors

1. Decide upon a scale and write it down.
2. Decide on a reference direction
3. Determine the length of the arrow
representing the vector, by using the scale.
4. Draw the vector as an arrow. Make sure that
you fill in the arrowhead.
5. Fill in the magnitude of the vector.

Vector Addition
1. Parallel Vectors
2. Non-Parallel Vectors

Parallel Vectors
Parallel vectors behave like numbers on a number
line.
- Add the magnitudes of vectors in the same
direction.
- Subtract the magnitudes of vectors in
Vectors and its representation opposite directions.
Here are some simple examples adding vectors that
are in same direction or 180 degrees of the same
direction (negative).
Non-Parallel Vectors Parallelogram Method
1.Consider an object being pulled by two forces
simultaneously. Find the resultant vector.

Vector Addition

2.Find the resultant of the following vectors:

A= 120N, 30deg NE
B= 80N, 45deg NW
Parallelogram Method
The parallelogram method can be used to add three
3.Find the resultant of the following two
or more vectors. The process starts with the first two
displacements: 2m at 30° and 4m at 120 °. The
vectors to determine the resultant vector. The first
angles are taken relative to the x-axis.
resultant vector will be added to the third vector to
obtain the next resultant vector.
The process continues until all the vectors are added.

Two vectors, A and B, are used for this method.

1. Use a scale and draw the vectors (as
arrows) from a common point. (a)
2. Make a parallelogram using the two vectors
as sides. (b)
3. Draw a diagonal line from the common
points. (c) This line is the resultant vector.
4. Measure the length of the resultant vector
using the scale that was initially used.
This is the magnitude of the resultant.
5. With the use of a protractor, determine the
direction.
Polygon Method
This method is also called head-to-tail method. This is
more convenient to use if you are adding three or
more vectors. All vectors to be added are still
represented
by arrows.

1. Starting from the origin, draw the first vector

on Cartesian Coordinate System, with its
proper direction.
2. Connect the tail of the second vector to the
head of the first vector. Then, connect the tail
of the third vector to the head of the second
vector. Continue connecting the vectors
following the process up to the last vector.
3. The resultant vector will close the figure
formed by the vectors. The resultant is
drawn from the tail of the first vector to the
head of the last vector.
4. The magnitude of the resultant is measured
using the scale that was initially used.
5. With the aid of a protractor, the direction of
the resultant can be determined.
Physics Lesson 5: Addition of Vectors

Vector Addition

Numerical Analysis Method

-Law of Sines
-Law of Cosines

Numerical Method
For the analytical method of vector addition and
subtraction, we use some simple geometry and
trigonometry, instead of using a ruler and protractor
as we did for graphical methods. However, the
graphical method will still come in handy to visualize
the problem by drawing vectors using the head-to-tail
method. The analytical method is more accurate than
the graphical method, which is limited by the precision
of the drawing.
Vector Addition

Component Method
Vectors can be described in terms of their scalar
components. A vector in two dimensions has two
scalar components, one along the x-axis and one
along the y-axis.
 Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how
far out of place an object is"; it is the object's overall
change in position.

Physics Lesson 6: Kinematics: Motion along a

Straight Line

Branch of Physics
A typical physics course concerns itself with a variety
of broad topics. One such topic is mechanics - the
study of the motion of objects.

Kinematics is the science of describing the motion of

objects using words, diagrams, numbers, graphs, and
equations. The goal of any study of kinematics is to
develop sophisticated mental models that serve to
describe (and ultimately, explain) the motion of
real-world objects.

Distance, Displacement, Speed, Velocity, and

Acceleration

Distance and Displacement

Distance and displacement are two quantities that
may seem to mean the same thing yet have distinctly
different definitions and meanings.

Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much

ground an object has covered" during its motion.

Speed and Velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast an
object is moving." Speed can be thought of as the rate
at which an object covers distance.

Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at

which an object changes its position."

The skier has an average speed of

(420 m) / (3 min) = 140 m/min
and an average velocity of
(140 m, right) / (3 min) = 46.7 m/min, right

What is the coach's average speed and average

velocity?

The coach has an average speed of

(95 yd) / (10 min) = 9.5 yd/min
and an average velocity of
(55 yd, left) / (10 min) = 5.5 yd/min, left

Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the
Calculating Average Speed and Average Velocity
rate at which an object changes its velocity. An object
The average speed during the course of a motion is
is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.
often computed using the following formula:
A person can be moving very fast and still not be
accelerating.
In contrast, the average velocity is often computed
Is it accelerating?
using this formula:
The velocity is
changing over the
course of time. In fact,
Q: While on vacation, Lisa Carr traveled a total the velocity is
distance of 440 miles. Her trip took 8 hours. What was changing by a constant
her average speed? amount - 10 m/s - in
each second of time.

Use the diagram to determine the average speed and

the average velocity of the skier during these three
minutes.
Constant Acceleration
The velocity is
changing by a
constant amount each second. An object with a m/s/s, mi/hr/s, km/hr/s, m/s2
constant acceleration should not be confused with an
object with a constant velocity. Since acceleration is a velocity change over a time,
the units on acceleration are velocity units divided by
time units - thus (m/s)/s or (mi/hr)/s.

Am I accelerating?

Sample Problems
The data tables above depict motions of objects with
a constant acceleration and a changing acceleration.
Note that each object has a changing velocity.

Average Acceleration
The average acceleration (a) of any object over a
given interval of time (t) can be calculated using the
equation

The velocity-time data

in the table shows that
the object has an
acceleration of 10
m/s/s.

Acceleration
Acceleration values are expressed in units of
velocity/time. Typical acceleration units include the
following: