INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH

A. Dani et al., Vol.14, No.1, March, 2024

Wind Energy Conversion Technologies and Control

Strategies: A Review

Abdelfattah Dani*‡ , Mohamed Benlamlih* , Zineb Mekrini* , Mhamed El Mrabet* , Mohammed

Boulaala*

*Industrial Systems Engineering and Energy Conversion Team, FSTT, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
([email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])

‡ Corresponding Author; Abdelfattah Dani, FSTT, BP: 416, Tangier, Morocco, Tel: +212 539 393954,
[email protected]

Received: 05.06.2023 Accepted:02.07.2023

Abstract- Renewable energy sources are becoming increasingly popular, especially wind power. According to many criteria,
the Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) can be categorized into various types. As part of their application, in the small
and standalone Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT), most of the generators utilized in these technologies are Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Generators (PMSGs) because of their low weight and high efficiency regarding their cost. This study
compares and presents the advantages and limitations of various Wind Turbine (WT) types. In addition, a comparison between
the PMSG and doubly fed induction generator has been presented. On the other hand, this paper reviews and analyzed the main
control strategies applied in WECS. Based on the available studies in the literature, maximum power point tracking control
strategies are widely used to harvest the maximum power from wind energy. This control is divided into indirect power control
and direct power control. While the pitch angle control strategies can be classified as traditional collective pitch angle control
and individual pitch angle control, which is applied to adjust the rotation speed of WT blades. Nevertheless, machine-side
converter and grid-side converter control strategies are among the widely used methods for improving power quality. The
conventional control strategies reveal many drawbacks and challenges. However, to reduce and even overcome this issue,
combining conventional with robust and intelligent controllers may be a good solution.
Keywords Wind Turbine; Doubly Fed Induction Generator; Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator; Pitch Angle Control;
Maximum Power Point Tracking; Machine-Side Converter and Grid-Side Converter control.

1. Introduction

With the tangible environmental problems, the request increase of 12,4% from 2020 [2]. Power electronics device
of renewable energy production is becoming increasingly advancements enable wind energy generation and ensure
high. Meanwhile, air pollution from fossil fuel-based electricity quality. However, it is necessary to continue
generating appears to be a serious issue these days. Wind research on various types of electric generators to satisfy the
energy is a natural, renewable, and sustainable energy future needs for the wind energy industry [3]. In the same
source. At the same time, it is an effective solution for context, Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) and
reducing the global warming impacts and the energy gap Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators (PMSG) are
between supply and demand [1]. Wind energy has seen rapid becoming increasingly popular in variable-speed wind
expansion in the world. In 2021, the newly installed wind system technologies [4,5,6]. Several commercial-technical
power capacity totalled 93.6 GW, as mentioned by the global features of Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) have
wind energy council in 2022 report. This growth brings the been the focus of several studies in the literature review
total installed wind capacity to 837 GW, representing an [7,8,9]. Moreover, significant developments in wind energy
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technology have driven research efforts in this field intending power electronic system used as a converter, and an electrical
to develop more advanced components and robust control transformer linked to the grid are the primary parts utilized in
strategies, to optimize the wind energy generation and its a conventional WECS as represented in Fig.1 [31,32]. The
transmission to the grid [10]. It is observed in the literature WT blades harvest and convert kinetic energy from the wind
studies that several control strategies are suggested to into mechanical energy. Then, that mechanical energy
accomplish this objective [11]. Pitch angle control is a generates electricity through rotating a generator.
technique applied to adjust both the angle of blades and
turbine rotation [12], [13]. In order to improve the
performance of pitch angle control many solutions are
proposed: Fuzzy logic control in the case of the nonlinearity
of the system parameters [14], model predictive control is an
efficient method in terms of extracting the maximum output
power [15], Feedforward/ Feedback control which is an
adaptive technique adjusts the response to wind speed
fluctuations [16], and sliding mode control which is a robust Fig.1. The typical configuration of a conventional WECS.
control can compensate the WT model uncertainties [17].
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is another method 2.2. Classification of WECS
implemented to adjust the rotor speed to specific values aims
to extract the maximum available power from the wind [18]. Wind power system technologies can be classified into
Indirect power control is a simple and efficient algorithm, it
several sections, according to different criteria as depicted in
has a quick response, but it requires prior knowledge of the Fig.2: Based on the rotational speed of the electrical
system and also the measurement of the wind speed [19,20]. generator, there are a Variable-Speed Wind Turbine (VSWT)
However, no prior system knowledge and wind speed and a Fixed-Speed Wind Turbine (FSWT) [32,33].
measurement are required in direct power control, which is a Depending on the electrical power produced, there are small
simple and moderate efficiency MPPT algorithm (50W-15kW), medium (100W-1MW), and (1MW-3MW)
[21,22,23,24]. In addition, MPPT algorithms based on large wind turbines [34,35,36]. Regarding how to exploit
artificial intelligence, such as fuzzy logic control [25] and wind power, it can be categorized into three categories:
neural networks control [26] are highly efficient and complex stand-alone system which is a WT that can be used for
methods, which require prior knowledge of the system, as generating electrical energy in rural areas [37,38,39]. The
well as wind speed measurements. Furthermore, Machine- hybrid system means a renewable energy system consisting
Side Converter and Grid-Side Converter (MSC–GSC) of more than one renewable energy source instead of just
controls deal with the optimal production and quality of one, such as a photovoltaic-wind energy system and wind
extracted power [27]. Field-oriented control and direct torque farm [40,41], which is a collection of WTs that are
control are the two conventional MSC, while voltage- assembled and placed together in one place known as a wind
oriented control and direct power control are the two
park. In which the WTs are used to produce electricity
conventional GSC [20,28,29]. In addition, backstepping is an collectively [5,42,43]. By the position of the rotational axis,
efficient MSC-GSC strategy for nonlinear control that can be WTs are categorized into two groups as represented in Fig.3.
useful for nonlinear systems [30]. The first one a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT),
This present study is a comparative review of generators which is usually consists a gearbox, an electric generator,
and control strategies applied in WECS. It is intended to power electronics, and control systems are arranged in the
provide a general overview of wind energy systems and to nacelle, which is placed on top of a large tower [44,45]. The
serve as a general reference in this topic. The present paper is second one is known as the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
divided into five main sections structured as follows: Section (VAWT), in general except for the blades, all its devices are
2 is a short comprehensive paragraph, in which we present fixed at the ground [46,47,48]. The VAWT-based power
the primary constituents of a WECS, and the types of wind system can be further subdivided into three forms (Darrieus
turbine systems according to various criteria. Section 3 model, Savonius model, and H-rotor) [34,44]. In addition to
presents a brief review of the types of generators. Moreover, these classifications, there are onshore, nearshore, and
this section discusses separately and also compares PMSG offshore wind systems. When the turbines are installed on
versus DFIG. Section 4 covers the control strategies applied land, they are referred to as onshore wind systems. Unlike
to the Wind Turbines (WTs). Finally, the last section offshore wind systems [49], which are located on the seas
provides a conclusion, where we summarize the paper. and oceans, thus making them difficult to build and maintain.
While nearshore wind systems refer to those built in an area
2. Wind Energy Conversion System considered close to the coast [50]. Furthermore, due to the
increasing demand for higher towers holding more oversized
2.1. Typical Structure of WECS rotors, it is crucial to investigate and develop the design of
the WT tower foundations [51].
The wind turbine blades, a gearbox (which can be
avoided in some other systems), an electric generator, a

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Fig.2. Classification of WECS.

Fig.3.Shematic diagram of different types WT:

(a) Savonius; (b) Darrieus; (c) H-Rotor; (d) HAWT [44].

The foundations of WTs are the support structures and locations in the seas and particular geological seafloor
units on which the turbines are built and which ensure their conditions [45,52]. In addition, the fixed substructures which
strength. There are various kinds forms of foundations for are applicable in shallow water, as well as offshore place
onshore wind turbines. While the supports structures for with adequate geological conditions [45,49,53]. There are
offshore WTs can be classified into two basics forms. The also several specific shapes for both floating and fixed
floating substructures, which are appropriate for deep water turbine foundations, which are illustrate in Fig 4.

Fig.4. Wind turbine foundation technologies [52,53,54,55].

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2.3. Comparison of Different WECS Types

Table 1 provides a concise overview of the primary other hand, it has some challenges to overcome, such as high
benefits and limitations of the different kinds of WECS, maintenance costs and design complexity. Furthermore,
based on various features: FSWT versus VSWT, VAWT despite their difficulty and maintenance costs, offshore wind
versus HAWT, and onshore versus offshore. Considering the farms are becoming competitive technologies compared to
control strategy development, variable speed HAWT is more onshore wind farms. Thus due to less impact on humans, the
suitable for onshore and offshore WECS due to its major large installation area, and more constant wind speed.
advantages, such as efficiency and power quality. But on the

Table 1. A comparison of various kinds of WECS [32,44,45,47,48,53].

Wind turbine types Advantages Drawbacks

- Low power extraction capability.
- Simple structure, usually reliable.
FSWT - Fatigue loads problem.
- Low maintenance/ installation costs.
- Low quality of electricity.
- High efficiency.
-High cost due to converter systems.
VSWT - More stable and high-quality electricity.
- Complex control.
- Minimal mechanical fatigue loading.
- Installation in urban areas.
- All wind directions are available.
- Less space requirement. - Lower power coefficient.
VAWT - Relatively simple design. Low noise - Fatigue loads problem.
and low cut-in wind speed level. - Not economically attractive.
- Easy, safe, and low cost of
maintenance/ construction.
-Higher power coefficient. - Difficult, unsafe, and high cost of
- Widely used in wind farms maintenance/ construction
HAWT (onshore/offshore). - Problem of noise level.
- Most economical. - Design complexity. Visual effect.
- Need yaw mechanism.
- Proximity to power grid. - Loss of biodiversity, bird deaths.
- Low cost of maintenance and - Landscape encroachment.
Onshore WT
construction. - Problem of noise level.
- Simple foundation construction. - Human intervention
- Difficult, unsafe, and high cost of
- More efficiently (20% -40% more than maintenance/ construction.
onshore WT). - Stability problems due of high center of
- Less impact to humans. gravity.
Offshore WT
- Huge wind farms. - Induce big waves, negative impact for
- More constant and higher wind speed. fisheries.
- Grid connection complexity.
- Loss of biodiversity, bird deaths

3. Generator Structures

The essential objective of the continuous advancements Figure 5 depicts the most common generator configurations
in WECS is to provide effective methods for reducing the used in WECS.
cost of electrical energy generation. In this order, the main
contribution of the electrical generator, as one of the
components of the WTs, is manifested in transforming the
mechanical input power of the blades into electric output
power, hence lowering the cost of electricity [56]. The
FSWT with a Squirrel Cage Induction Generators (SCIG)
and multistage gearbox has been the first type of WECS
directly linked to the electrical grid [57]. Depending on the
generator design, WT can be classified into several types.
Fig.5. Classification of generator structures used in WECS.

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3.1. Induction Generators

Induction generators are distinguished by their highly electrical grid through an AC-DC power electronic converter,
developed technology, minimal maintenance requirements, followed by a DC-AC power conversion system, and also a
cheap operating expenses, and simple control and operation. transformer [9], as represented in the block diagram in Fig.7.
They are very robustly built and offer natural short-circuit
protection [58]. In addition to SCIG, Doubly Fed Induction
Generators are induction generators used in WECS. They
both have the same operating principle. Typically, SCIG has
a squirrel-cage rotor and the DFIG rotor includes windings
like the stator transfer power between the shaft and the
electrical system. The most popular generator used in wind
generation power systems with variable speeds is DFIG. In
contrast to the rotor windings, which are linked to the grid Fig.7. PMSG - based wind turbine.
via an electrical converter, the stator and the electrical
network are connected directly via a transformer, thus
3.3. Comparison Between PMSG and DFIG
avoiding any electrical power converter [59] as illustrate in
Fig.6.
Considering the characteristics of the PMSG and DFIG,
as shown in Table 2, PMSG is often the favoured choice for
standalone and small WECS because of its reliability and
high efficiency. Alternatively, it is directly linked to the
turbine, eliminating the need for a gearbox. This
configuration offers the benefits of reducing system size,
complexity, and maintenance expenses.
Table 2. Features comparison of PMSG versus DFIG
[56,57,58,59,60,61].

Generator DFIG PMSG

Fig.6. DFIG - based wind turbine. - Variable speed. - High efficiency and
- Low construction reliability.
cost - Full speed range
Advantages

- Medium- High - Brushless self-excited

3.2. Synchronous Generators efficiency. SG
- High robustness - No winding in rotor
Direct-drive wind energy conversion systems are and stable response - Gearless generator
typically synchronous generator-based systems. In this case, - Complete control of - Low Maintenance.
the generators stators sections have three-phase windings; reactive/active - Complete control of
depending on the model, they either feature a rotor winding power reactive/active power
powered by direct current from another electrical circuit, this - Brushes and slip - Cost of permanent
Drawbacks

type known as Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator rings problems. magnet.

(WRSG), or permanents magnets fixed in the rotor and this - Gearbox problems. - Demagnetization of
type known as a permanent magnet synchronous generator. - High Maintenance. the PM.
The rotor of the turbine blades drives these machines - Cogging torque effect.
directly. As a result, they can be linked to the turbine without
using a gearbox [60]. Day by day, besides DFIG the PMSG
is increasingly used, particularly in systems involving small
wind turbines, because of their high efficiency, high torque,
and low maintenance cost [9,61]. PMSG is considered a 4. Control strategies applied for WECS
brushless self-excited synchronous generator. Generally,
such machines can be divided into two categories according Day by day, besides the materials developed in the field
to how used the permanent magnets of the rotor [58]: The of wind power, researchers are working to identify and
first category is surface mount permanent magnets, that is, develop different control strategies to enhance the
the magnets are affixed to the rotor surface. To avoid any performance of the wind energy conversion process: such as
possibility of magnet separation at high speeds, this category Pitch Angle Control (PAC), MPPT control, sensorless
is suggested for low-speed WTs. The second is the PMSG control, and MSC–GSC control. In the following chart
with built-in magnets, which are suitable for high-speed wind illustrates in Fig.8, we regroup control strategies as
turbines; in this instance, the magnets are inserted into the categories that may serve for future research in WECS.
rotor body. A typical PMSG-based WECS is coupled to the

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Fig.8.Classification of control strategies applied in WECS.

4.1. Pitch Angle Control (PAC) an appropriate technique because of the difficulty to
tracking the wind speed precisely.
The blade pitch actuator is a subsystem of the WT
system; it is utilized to adjust the blade pitch in order to ➢ The generator speed, as indicated in Fig.9(b). There are
rotate it around its own longitudinal axis according to contrasts between the reference and regulating rotor
requirement. The actuator acts as a safety brake for the entire speeds. Thus the PI controller first receives the error
system, which can slow down or stop the turbine in case of signal before producing the pitch angle reference value.
strong wind or malfunction [62]. In order to overcome the
➢ The Generator power, as illustrated in Fig.9(c). After
need for pitch angle control, many researchers are proposing
receiving the generator power error signal, a
and developing different pitch angle control strategies. These
proportional integral controller creates the reference
strategies reduce the mechanical stress on the WT while
pitch angle.
providing optimal power in high wind conditions. Individual
Pitch Control (IPC) and Collective Pitch Control (CPC) are
the two pitch control approaches adopted for wind turbines
[62]. Each of these two control techniques can be achieved
through an electric or hydraulic control system [63]. CPC is
the traditional technique of pitch control. It is widely applied
in commercial turbines. WT blades get the required pitch
collectively, meanwhile implementing the same control
action in each blade [62,64]. As the name indicates, IPC
regulates each WT blade independently by utilizing extra
sensors. This strategy is the most significant advance in
PAC, which has been extensively studied in recent years but
has not yet been completely integrated into commercial WTs.
The results of ongoing research in this area are expected to
be validated primarily in future WTs with large and much
more flexible blades [62,65].
4.1.1. Conventional PI/PID Control Fig.9. Block diagram of pitch control [63]: (a) wind
speed as input value; (b) generator speed as input value; (c)
The conventional control strategies used for adjusting generator power as input value.
the blade pitch angle are usually grouped according to the
following three input values [63]: 4.1.2. Control Based on the Lookup Table Technique
➢ The Wind speed, as presented in Fig.9(a). The pitch A way of controlling the PMSG-based WECS that is
angle reference can be determined from the pitch angle based on speed reduction instead of mechanical torque has
versus the wind speed curve. In this instance, it allows been established in the reference [66] to minimize
measuring the wind speed directly. However, it is not mechanical stress under a variety of wind speeds. The lookup

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table-based suggested control can prevent an unexpected cut- are then converted back into the rotating frame. The
off from the electrical network during strong wind individual pitch signal is then added to the collective pitch
conditions. Moreover, the WECS can continue to produce signal to regulate the pitch actuators.
energy even if the area is a subject of typhoons, but the wind
speeds should be limited to 35 m\s.
4.1.3. Sliding Mode Control
To regulate and fix the rotor speed at its nominal value;
in the presence of various uncertainties in the WT model, a
sliding mode control approach is proposed in reference
[17,67]. Using an approximation of the power coefficient, the
WT model has been rendered affine concerning the pitch
angle.
4.1.4. Model Predictive Control
Fig. 10.The block diagram of CPC and IPC [69].
In order to mitigate the loading effects on the WTs, the
study in reference [15] suggests a robust fuzzy-based model
predictive controller, to limit the rotor speed and power 4.1.8. Artificial Neural Network Control
output to its nominal value. In this method, the predictive
and the fuzzy controllers are each given input data as a In the study [70], the authors use a neural network fitting
power output and a rotor speed. tool of Matlab to identify the relationship between the
actuator input angle and the exact pitch angle. It is a method
4.1.5. Fuzzy Logic Control for developing a system that controls the pitch angle of small
The authors of the work in reference [14] combine fuzzy WTs at wind speeds above its rated speed.
logic with the Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
controller to develop a specific type of pitch angle control for
small-size WTS. This approach is suggested to compensate 4.1.9. Feedforward/Feedback Control
for the nonlinearity of the pitch blade angle and the wind In order to mitigate the fluctuation of generator speed
velocity. and blade root load of a wind turbine, an intelligent pitch
4.1.6. LMI-Based Control control method based on Linear Active Disturbance
Rejection controller (LADRC) and Light detection and
A robust pitch controller is proposed in reference [68] to ranging (LIDAR) is developed in reference [16]. The
adjust the generator speed when the wind system operates in feedforward technique using LIDAR-based wind
zone 3. On the one hand, the Linear Matrix Inequality (LMI) measurement can intelligently and adaptively adjust the
technique is used to design a collective pitch controller to response to wind speed fluctuations. In addition, it can
obtain the rated electrical power. However, this controller is reduce the blade root loading moment. As represented in
combined with an individual pitch controller, to reduce Fig.11, the relationship between the pitch angle and the
mechanical fatigue loads. Furthermore, the performance of observation bandwidth of the extended state observer is
the proposed controller is compared to that of the traditional derived by evaluating the pole and zero distribution of the
collective pitch PI controller. closed-loop transfer function for various wind speeds, which
4.1.7. H∞ Based Control improves the adaptability of the LADRC feedback controller.

To develop a robust control strategy in which the

performance of the IPC system with multiple inputs and
outputs is designed by using H∞ norms in reference [69].
This is a proposed robust control method to reduce the effect
of periodic loads under all wind conditions in region 3. Thus,
the influence of wind disturbances on the blade flap loads is
reduced. The objective of using the CPC is to control the
generator speed, which generates the collective signal, while
the primary purpose of using IPC is to mitigate the periodic
loads. As illustrate in Fig.10, using the Multi-Blade
Coordinate Transformation (MBC), the blade root moments
Fig.11.The composite method to intelligent pitch control
(M1, M2, and M3) in the fixed frame are converted into yaw
[16].
and tilt moments (M,yaw and M,tilt). The yaw and pitch
angles (β,yaw and β,tilt), which are direct outputs of the IPC,
4.1.10. Features of different PAC techniques suitable PAC strategy for a given WT power system is not
only related to what is required of it but also depends on the
Table 3 presents and illustrates the results of our study
input parameter. Furthermore, the selected PAC method to
on pitch angle controls and groups them according to
achieve maximum power must be coupled with the
references. These results show that the selection of the
protection of the turbine from the effects of loads.

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Table 3. Summary of the different pitch angle controls.

Software/
Control Input
Reference Year Validation Results
Methodology parameter
tool
-Wind speed The case in which generator power
Matlab/ -Rotor speed used as input parameter:
[63] 2014 PI Control
Simulink -Generator -Rapid pitch angle response.
power -Minimal power ripples.
In zone 4, although the wind speed is
Rotational MATLAB/Si
wind above 25 m/s, the power generation
[66] 2017 speed based mPower
velocity remains continuous through the
pitch control Systems
proposed method.
Better performance with regard to
Sliding mode
[17] 2019 FAST pitch angle tracking nominal power in the case of
control
several uncertainties in the WT model.
-Adjusted and limited rotor speed and
Fuzzy based - Output
MATLAB/ power output to their nominal values.
[15] 2020 predictive power
Simulink -Efficiency in terms of extracting the
control - rotor speed
maximum output power.
Fuzzy-PID MATLAB/ -Wind speed - Less oscillation.
[14] 2020 control Simulink -Generator - Even at low wind speeds, the power
power output remains stable.
Arduino Mega
Neural
board -wind The neural network fitting function
network fitting
[70] 2021 MATLAB/ velocity offers an appropriate and efficient
function based
Simulink - pitch angle control action.
pitch control
LMI based
-wind - Decreased fatigue load fluctuation
[68] 2012 pitch control FAST
velocity - Improved speed regulation.
-Tilt pitch - Significant mitigation of the effects
H∞ based MATLAB/
2019 angle of periodic load.
[69] pitch control Simulink
- Yaw pitch - Reduction of fatigue over a wide
FAST
angle operating range.
-Wind speed
-Reduction of the pitch angle overshoots.
-Generator
Feedforward/ MATLAB/ -Remarkable reduction of the power
power
[16] 2021 Feedback Simulink and generator speed fluctuation.
- Rated
Control FAST -The pitch angle rapidly follows the
speed
stable-target value.

4.2. MPPT Controller for WECS against structural overloads, the WT is stopped above the
cut-off speed. The main objective of using MPPT algorithms
According to wind speed, the WT operation is divided
in WECS during the operating range is to track and extract
into four zones [71], as shown in Fig.12: In the first one,
the maximum power from the wind power generation [72].
which is known as the low-speed region the WT stops and
At the same time, the power coefficient referred to as Cp
disconnects from the electrical grid to avoid being operated
must be maintained at its maximum value Cpmax for any
by the generator instead the wind velocity. In addition, the
wind speed within the operating zone. While Cp is a
second zone is characterized by a moderate wind speed. In
nonlinear function that depends on the tip speed ratio and the
this case, the turbine starts to operate at the cut-in speed to
blade pitch angle [73]. MPPT algorithms are widely
produce the rated power when the wind reaches its rated
implemented in WECS, which can be divided as Direct
speed. In order to accomplish this goal and extract the
Power Controllers (DPC), Indirect Power Controllers (IPC),
available power from wind energy, MPPT control strategies
sensorless controllers, and soft computing programs known
have been applied to WECS. Moreover, when the wind speed
as intelligent MPPT controllers, which can be used in
exceeds its nominal value (zone 3), the wind turbine is
combination with other controllers to improve their
controlled with a pitch regulator to restrict mechanical
robustness and performance.
energy production. In zone 4, to avoid damage and protect

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Fig.15. Block diagram of PSF-based MPPT control [19].

Fig.12. Power curve of a VSWT [71].

4.2.1. Conventional IPC- Based MPPT Controls 4.2.2. Conventional DPC-Based MPPT Controls
➢ Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) control ➢ Incremental Conductance Control (INC)
This method seeks to control the generator rotor speed The purpose of the INC-based MPPT control strategy is
ωg such that TSR remains constant at the optimal value to locate the maximum power point by considering the
independently of wind speed to ensure maximum harvested output power variation. In this case, the turbine output power
power by the WT [19]. Fig.13 depicts the TSR control block can be expressed as a function of DC-link voltage [21]. It can
diagram, which compares the optimal TSR with the actual determine the optimum DC-link voltage so as the maximum
value and transmits the difference to the controller. To generator output power by analyzing the DC-link voltage and
reduce this error, this control adjusts the value of ωg. After current changes. Figure 16 represents the block diagram
identifying theoretically or empirically the optimal value of scheme of this method. This sensorless method eliminates
TSR, it is saved as a reference. requirements on wind turbine and generator specifications,
which results in a decrease in the cost with improving the
➢ Optimal Torque Control (OTC) system reliability [24].
The OTC is an indirect control strategy widely
implemented in commercial WTs. The purpose of this ➢ Optimal Relation-Based Control (ORB)
control is to adjust the generator torque following a reference The ORB control is a sensorless method that depends on
torque where the WT provides the maximum power at a the pre-obtained optimum relationship between different
given wind speed [20]. As illustrated in Fig.14, an error WECS parameters [21], such as wind speed versus turbine
signal is created and delivered to the controller when the rotor power, electromagnetic torque versus power [22],
reference and actual torques are compared in order to power versus dc-link voltage, and current versus voltage of
maintain the optimum torque value. dc-link [20,28]. Additionally, this MPPT control strategy is
simple to implement due to using the DC voltage, current,
➢ Power Signal Feedback (PSF) Control and power as inputs [74]. This control is widely utilized in
Instead of applying the torque directly, PSF employs a commercial wind power installation systems, because of their
power control loop. In this MPPT strategy, it is essential to simple operation and reasonable cost. However, the need for
know the reference optimum power curve that can be high memory space is a big challenge [28]. Figure 17
determined through the experimental results [19]. The illustrates the scheme of ORB-based MPPT control.
maximum power values with the corresponding WT speed
are listed in a lookup table. An error signal is generated and ➢ Perturb and Observe-Based Algorithm (P&O)
transmitted to the controller after comparing the optimum A common numerical optimization technique in WECS
and the actual powers, as represented in Fig.15. is the P&O MPPT algorithm. Several control variables,
including DC-link circuit voltage and rotor speed, are
perturbed using the P&O algorithm in order to look for the
most suitable point position that optimizes the power
extracted [19,75]. The scheme of this MPPT control is shown
in Fig18. The main objective of the conventional perturb and
observe (CPO) MPPT algorithm is to observe the resulting
variations in the power generation as a small-step disturbed
Fig.13. Block diagram of TSR-based MPPT control [19]. control variable. As shown in Fig.19, the CPO controller
increases the value of the rotor reference speed to move the
operating point toward the MPP when it is located to the left
of the peak point, and conversely when it is located to the
right of the peak point [76].

Fig.14. Block diagram of OTC-based MPPT control [19].

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Fig.16. INC-based MPPT control [24].

Fig.19. P&O-based MPPT algorithm with fixed step-size

[19].

4.2.3. Artificial Intelligence Controls

Many limitations and obstacles appear when controlling
wind power systems using MPPT control strategies based on
DPC or IPC approaches. To overcome these problems,
several methods have been proposed as soft computing
Fig.17. ORB-based MPPT control [24]. methods: Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) [25], Artificial
Neural Network Controller(ANNC) [26], and hybrid
controller that combine two or more techniques by exploiting
the advantages of each of them to minimize their
disadvantages [20].

4.2.4. Comparison of Different MPPT Controllers

Table 4 can provide insights into the different MPPT
approaches with their various features used to improve the
power output of WECS. This knowledge can help to
Fig.18. P&O-based MPPT control [24]. determine the most appropriate strategy for a particular
application.

Table 4. Comparison of different features MPPT algorithms [19,20,21,24].

Tolerance
MPPT Memory Convergence Prior
Cost Efficiency Complexity Sensitivity to rapid Anemometer
techniques requirement speed knowledge
variation

TSR Very Very Not Moderate

Simple No Fast Required Required
high high Required - high
PSF Moderate Moderate Simple Required Yes Fast Moderate Required Required
OTC Moderate- Not Moderate Not
Moderate Simple Yes Fast Required
high Required - high Required
INC Not Not Not
Moderate Low Simple No Low Moderate
Required Required Required
ORB Moderate- Not Not
Moderate Simple Required Yes Medium Moderate
high Required Required
P&O Not Not Not
Moderate Low Simple No Low Moderate
Required Required Required
FLC Very
High High High Required Depends Medium Depends Required
high
ANNC Very
High High High Required Depends Medium Depends Required
high
Hybrid Very Not Not
Moderate Medium No Fast Moderate No
high Required Required

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4.3. MSC-GSC Control An overview of the foremost prevalent BSC

enhancement techniques for controlling the PMSG-based
Wind turbine connection with grid power systems WECS was presented in reference [30]. The goal of
creates significant challenges to the stability and quality of backstepping is to convert the overall nonlinear system into
the electrical power grid system because of wind fluctuation small linear subsystems. In which case, the outputs of each
[28]. Regarding power quality, it is important to take into subsystem act as control inputs for the subsequent subsystem
consideration the voltage variation of short duration (the [81]. During the design of the controller, the Lyapunov
flicker) in the electrical grid. In addition, maintaining the theory was used to improve the stability of the system [30].
electrical network's nominal frequency despite changes in the
demand for electrical load is necessary for power stability 4.3.1. Backstepping Control for the MSC
[77]. The MSC control acts on the angular speed of the rotor
to maintain the optimum value. Thus, it leads to achieving Due to the coupling between the generator speed and the
maximum energy and also ensures the stability of the system electric currents, the PMSG model is strongly nonlinear.
[78]. Field-Oriented Control (FOC) and Direct Torque Consequently, it requires controlling the nonlinear system
Control (DTC) are the two conventional techniques used in through two separate successive steps in order to obtain an
this control strategy. The first method consists of dual loop optimum electromagnetic torque and adjust the generator
regulators; an outer loop control needs continuous speed [82]. The first step is backstepping speed controller;
information on the rotor speed and position to produce aim to conceal the speed tracking error by using the
reference current. Moreover, a synchronous or natural Lyapunov function. The second step is backstepping the
reference frame is used for the inner loop control [28]. By electrical current controller, in which quadratic and direct
using the minimum amount of stator current in this current components act as virtual inputs of the subsystem.
technique, the electromagnetic torque achieves its maximum The primary goal of this step is to maintain system stability
value. FOC controls the electromagnetic torque through the by using the Lyapunov function [82].
quadrature axis stator current component, while the direct
axis stator current should be forced to zero [20]. Conversely, 4.3.2. Backstepping Control for the GSC
in the second method, DTC controls the electromagnetic
torque and power independently and directly. This solution The main idea for controlling the GSC is maintaining the
cancels the use of a dual loop by eliminating the transition DC-bus tension and ensuring that the generated power is
between the reference frames and also removing the inner transmitted to the electrical network with high efficiency
control loop [29]. The GSC control aims to stabilize the DC- [81]. Backstepping control (BSC) is one of the various
side bus voltage and also guarantee the system's ability to control strategies that can achieve these objectives.
deliver high-quality power to the grid [79]. Voltage-Oriented Moreover, at the grid level, power is related to both the direct
Control (VOC) and Direct Power Control (DPC) are two and quadrature components of the grid current in the coupled
groups of GSC control strategies. On the same approach as form [82]. In this case, the following steps can be used to
FOC, the VOC method comprises two control loops: the design the backstepping controller: Initially, defining the grid
inner control loop, which is utilized to inject active power to current errors in the (d, q) reference frame, then expressing
the grid at the Unity Power Factor (UPF), and the outer the current-error dynamics. According to the grid current
control loop, which is utilized to maintain the DC link errors, the Lyapunov function can be defined to ensure
voltage at its reference value [80]. UPF operation in VOC is system stability by making this Lyapunov derivative function
achievable by setting the q-axis current reference to zero. negative. As a result, it must select reference voltages [82].
Following a similar idea as DTC, by using a Switching Table By setting the direct component of reference-current to zero,
(ST), a conventional DPC strategy for GSC directly controls it can ensure that the system operates with UPF. However,
the active and reactive powers [29]. In this case, both a PWM the quadrature reference-current component is determined
modulator block and an inner current control loop are based on the bus regulator [81].
removed. The UPF operation is achieved by setting the
reactive-power reference to zero [20]. 4.3.3. Comparison of Different MSC-GSC Controls
Many researchers have recently become attracted by the
recursive methods used to design controllers for nonlinear Concerning response time, robustness, and tracking
systems. Backstepping can be related to a general class of error, the results summarized in Table 5 indicate that the
complex systems, making it a useful and efficient strategy for appropriate method for MSC and GSC is the backstepping
nonlinear control plans [30,81,82]. control.

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Table 5. Advantages and drawbacks of different MSC-GSC controls.

Control Controlled
Reference Year Advantages Drawbacks
Methodology Parameter
- High efficiency - Long response time
[29] 2014 -Electromagnetic - Better power quality - Rotor position sensor
FOC [28] 2015 torque and stator - Less tracking error requirement
[20] 2016 current - Less current / torque - Complex
ripples implementation
- Electromagnetic - Simple implementation - High torque/flux /
[29] 2014 torque and stator - Fast response time current ripples
DTC
[28] 2015 flux - No rotor position sensor - Poor power quality
[20] 2016 - High tracking error
- Better power quality
[29] 2014 - Less tracking error - Long response time
VOC [28] 2015 Active and -Less power/current torque - Complex
[20] 2016 reactive power ripples implementation
- Less voltage dc-Link ripple
- High voltage dc-Link
[29] 2014 - Simple implementation ripple
[28] 2015 Active and - Fast response time - High power / current
DPC
[20] 2016 reactive power ripples
- Poor power quality
- High tracking error
- Perfect tracking error
[81] 2016 - Stator current - High robustness
BSC [82] 2020 - Active and - Short response time - Explosion of terms
[30] 2022 reactive power - Insensitivity to parametric - Limited applicability
variations

5. Conclusion
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