PH505 – Introduction to Nuclear

and Particle Physics

v Nuclear Size

Ø There are various ways one can determine the radius of the nucleus.

Ø Isotopes method is one of them.

Ø For hydrogen-like atom, the potential energy is given by

1 𝑍𝑒 "
𝑈 𝑟 =−
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟

Ø Schrodinger Equation: 𝐻𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓

ℏ" " 𝑍𝑒 "

𝐻=− ∇ − 𝑚 mass of the electron
2𝑚 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟

Ø Let us look at the ground state wave function

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v Nuclear Size

Ø Ground state wave function for Hydrogen-like atom

𝑧 $ %(&' 𝑎! : Bohr radius

𝜓#!! 𝑟 = $𝑒
!
𝜋𝑎! 𝑎! = 0.5 Å = 0.5×10%#! 𝑚

Ø Very interesting observation: at 𝑟 = 0, 𝜓#!! ≠ 0

Ø Nucleus is an extended object ⇒ Electron has finite existence inside the nucleus

Ø Depending on the size of the nucleus, the ground state energy will be different

Ø Let us do the calculation

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v Nuclear Size
Ø Assumption: Spherical nucleus of radius 𝑅 and uniform charge density

𝑄 = 𝑧𝑒
𝑄 𝑧𝑒
𝑅 𝜌= =
4@ 𝜋𝑅$ 4@ 𝜋𝑅$
3 3

𝑧𝑒
Ø Outside the sphere, i.e., 𝑟 > 𝑅, Potential: 𝑉 𝑟 = Like a point particle
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟
Ø Inside the sphere, i.e., 𝑟 < 𝑅, the potential is different.

𝑄)* 𝑧𝑒𝑟
E 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑎 = ⇒𝐸 𝑟 =
𝜖! 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑅$

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v Nuclear Size
Ø Assumption: Spherical nucleus of radius 𝑅 and uniform charge density

Ø Inside the sphere, i.e., 𝑟 < 𝑅, the electric field

𝑧𝑒𝑟
⇒𝐸 𝑟 =
𝑅 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑅$

Ø Potential difference between the point 𝑟 (𝑟 < 𝑅) and the surface (𝑅)
' '
𝑧𝑒 𝑟
𝑉 𝑟 − 𝑉 𝑅 = − I 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑟 = − I $ 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑅
+ +

𝑧𝑒 𝑟 " − 𝑅" 𝑧𝑒
⇒𝑉 𝑟 =𝑉 𝑅 − ∵𝑉 𝑅 =
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑅$ 2 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑅
𝑧𝑒 𝑟"
⇒𝑉 𝑟 = 3− "
8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅

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v Nuclear Size
Ø Assumption: Spherical nucleus of radius 𝑅 and uniform charge density

Ø Potential inside the nucleus of radius 𝑅

𝑧𝑒 𝑟"
𝑉 𝑟 = 3− "
𝑅 8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅

Ø Potential energy of the electron inside the nucleus due to the extended nucleus

𝑧𝑒 " 𝑟"
𝑈 𝑟 =− 3− "
8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅
ℏ" " 𝑧𝑒 "
Ø Hamiltonian for point nucleus: 𝐻! = − ∇ −
2𝑚 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟
ℏ" " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑟"
Ø Hamiltonian for extended nucleus: 𝐻 = − ∇ − 3− "
2𝑚 8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅

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v Nuclear Size
Ø Assumption: Spherical nucleus of radius 𝑅 and uniform charge density

ℏ" " 𝑧𝑒 "

Ø Hamiltonian for point nucleus: 𝐻! = − ∇ −
2𝑚 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟

𝑅 Ø Hamiltonian for extended nucleus:

ℏ" " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑟"
𝐻=− ∇ − 3− "
2𝑚 8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅

ℏ" " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑟"

⇒𝐻=− ∇ − + − 3− "
2𝑚 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟 8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅
⇒ 𝐻 = 𝐻! + 𝐻#

&) " &) " '"

Where 𝐻# = − 3− treated as perturbation.
,-.! ' /-.! + +"
This 𝐻# = 0 on the surface of the nucleus, i.e., 𝑟 = 𝑅

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v Nuclear Size
Ø Because of the small perturbation term, the 1s state energy eigen value will be
modified.

Ø Using perturbation theory

∆𝐸 = 𝜓#0 𝐻# 𝜓#0 = I 𝜓!∗ 𝐻# 𝜓! 𝑑 $ 𝑟

𝑧𝑒 " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑟" 𝑧 $ %(&'

Ø We have 𝐻# = − 3− " 𝜓#0 𝑟 = $𝑒
!
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟 8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅 𝜋𝑎!

+ - "-
𝑧$ "&'
%(
∆𝐸 = I 𝑒 ! 𝐻# 𝑟 " 𝑑𝑟 I sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 I 𝑑𝜑
𝜋𝑎!$
! ! !

Ø Here 𝑟 < 𝑅 ~10%#2 𝑚, 𝑎! ~0.5×10%#! 𝑚 ⇒ 𝑟/𝑎! ≈ 10%2

"&'
%(
Ø Ignoring higher orders, we can simply write 𝑒 ! ≈1

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v Nuclear Size
𝑧𝑒 " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑟" 𝑧 $ %(&'
𝐻# = − 3− 𝜓#0 𝑟 = $𝑒
!
Ø We have 𝜋𝑎!
4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟 8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅"
+ - "-
𝑧$ "&'
%(
∆𝐸 = I 𝑒 ! 𝐻# 𝑟 " 𝑑𝑟 I sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 I 𝑑𝜑
𝜋𝑎!$
! ! !
+
𝑧$ 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑧𝑒 " 𝑟"
= $ 4𝜋 I − 3− " 𝑟 " 𝑑𝑟
𝜋𝑎! 4𝜋𝜖! 𝑟 8𝜋𝜖! 𝑅 𝑅
!

𝑧 ,𝑒 "𝑅"
∆𝐸 = 1s state energy is shifted by this amount
10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$

345*6 345*6 𝑧 ,𝑒 "𝑅"

𝐸#0 = 𝐸#0 + ∆𝐸 = 𝐸#0 +
10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$

Ø How do we measure it?

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v Nuclear Size
345*6 𝑧 ,𝑒 "𝑅"
𝐸#0 = 𝐸#0 +
10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$

Ø Through the measurement of 𝐾7 X-rays of isotopes

2𝑝 345*6 345*6 𝑧 ,𝑒 "𝑅"

𝐸8# = 𝐸"3 − 𝐸#0 = 𝐸"3 − 𝐸#0 −
10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$
1𝑠
Ø Let us take different mass numbers of same Isotope

𝑧 , 𝑒 " 𝑅#" 𝑧 , 𝑒 " 𝑅"" 𝑧 ,𝑒 " " "

∆𝐸8 7 = 𝐸8# 𝐴# − 𝐸8# 𝐴" =− + = 𝑅 − 𝑅
10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$ 10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$ 10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$ " #

" "
$
𝑧 , 𝑒 " 𝑅!"
Ø Taking 𝑅 = 𝑅! 𝐴 , we get
%
∆𝐸8# = 𝐴$
− 𝐴$
10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$ " #

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v Nuclear Size
" "
𝑧 , 𝑒 " 𝑅!" $ − 𝐴$
Ø Let us look at the experimental results of 𝐻𝑔 isotope ∆𝐸8# = 𝐴
10𝜋𝜖! 𝑎!$ " #

• Mercury isotopes

#9/
/!𝐻𝑔##/
"!!
/!𝐻𝑔#"! Lying on one line
"!"
Even-even nuclei
/!𝐻𝑔#""
"!,
/!𝐻𝑔#",

#99
/!𝐻𝑔##9
Lying on another line
Data from P.L. Lee et al., Phys. Rev. C 17, 1859 (1978)
"!# Even-odd nuclei
/!𝐻𝑔#",
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v Nuclear Size
Ø Optical isotope shifts in Hg isotopes from 198 to 205

Ø Experimental uncertainties are

about ±1 %

Data taken from J. Bonn et al., Z. Phys. A 276, 203 (1976)

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v Nuclear Size: Determination of 𝑅! from mirror nuclei

Ø Study the Coulomb energy differences of mirror nuclei

• Consider: $#𝐻" , $"𝐻𝑒#

Ø Strong evidence that the nuclear force is charge independent

Ø This implies that the energy of three nucleonic system will not change.
However, the Coulombic part will change as in one there are 2 protons.

Ø Therefore, the energy difference between 3He and 3H is a measure of the

Coulomb energy of the second proton, and the usual formula for the
Coulomb repulsion energy can be used to calculate the distance between
the protons and thus the size of the nucleus

Ø Complex nucleus, such as "$/

9"𝑈#,: , is not used for this calculation

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v Nuclear Size: Determination of 𝑅! from mirror nuclei

Ø Consider the mirror nuclei: $#𝐻" , $"𝐻𝑒# ; #$ #$

;𝑁: , :𝐶; ; $9 $9
"!𝐶𝑎#9 , #9𝐾"!

Ø For these the shell will not change. We will not face any complicacy.

Ø The Coulomb energy of a uniformly charged sphere of radius 𝑅

1 3𝑄"
𝐸< =
4𝜋𝜖! 5𝑅

# $& " ) "

Ø For mirror nuclei with z-protons, 𝐸< =
,-.! 2+

# $ &%# " ) "

Ø For mirror nuclei with (z-1)-protons, 𝐸< =
,-.! 2+

# $) "
Ø Change in Coulomb energy: ∆𝐸< = 2𝑧 − 1
,-.! 2+

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v Nuclear Size: Determination of 𝑅! from mirror nuclei
# $) "
Ø Change in Coulomb energy: ∆𝐸< = 2𝑧 − 1
,-.! 2+

Ø Say, z is the number of protons for nucleus A

"𝑋 "
! "#! , !#$𝑌"#(!#$)

Ø Number of neutrons of X + Number of neutrons of Y = Mass Number

𝐴 − 𝑧 + 𝐴 − 𝑧 − 1 = 𝐴 ⇒ 2𝑧 − 1 = 𝐴

# $) " 1 3𝑒 "
Ø Change in Coulomb energy: ∆𝐸< = 𝐴 ⇒ ∆𝐸< = #𝐴
,-.! 2+ 4𝜋𝜖!
5𝑅! 𝐴$

1 3𝑒 " "
⇒ ∆𝐸< = 𝐴$
4𝜋𝜖! 5𝑅!

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v Nuclear Size: Determination of 𝑅! from mirror nuclei
# $) " "
Ø Change in Coulomb energy: ∆𝐸< = 𝐴%
,-.! 2+!

Ø How do we detect this energy?

Ø Through 𝛽-decay by measuring the energy of 𝑒 =/𝑒 %

𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 # + 𝜈'
𝑝 → 𝑛 + 𝑒 ( + 𝜈'
Ø Another way to measure ∆𝐸<
through the nuclear reactions

𝑝 + $$)𝐵* → $$
*𝐶) +𝑛

Ø Minimum K.E. of proton to proceed the

reaction is the energy difference between
11B and 11C

Data from P.L. Lee et al., Phys. Rev. C 17, 1859 (1978)
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v Nuclear Size – STAR Experiment
𝜌+
𝜌 𝑟 = -#.! ,
1+𝑒 !"

𝑧#

Electron data
H. De Vries et al.,
“Nuclear charge-density-distribution
parameters from elastic electron scattering,”
Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables 36, 495 (1987)

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