Chapter 1

Introduction - Understanding Building Envelopes, their Functions and Types

Chapter Synopsis

This introductory chapter covers an overview of several key topics related to building envelopes.
It includes:

• Types of building envelopes

• Architectural and engineering design issues pertaining to building envelopes
• Types of deficiencies and distress conditions
• Building envelope engineering management
• Role and responsibilities of engineers and architects in inspection, repair and
rehabilitation of building envelopes
• Quality assurance and professional ethics
• Capital development and investment returns on building envelope repair and maintenance

Additionally, an illustrative nomenclature for common terms used in building envelope

inspection and rehabilitation is presented in this chapter.

1.1 Types of Building Envelopes

The term “envelope” refers to the exterior enclosure of a building. While it mainly pertains to the
façade, a building envelope generally also includes the roof. However, in most references, and as
well in this book, both terms, i.e., building envelope and façade, are often used interchangeably.

Building envelopes are made up of a variety of materials. In a broad sense, they can be
categorized as veneer, curtain, and load-bearing walls. However, depending on the building type,
height, architectural design, and function, they can be made from different forms and materials.
The following presents a list of several types:

• Brick masonry: This may be in the form of a veneer or the entire façade may also be a
load-bearing system.
• Prefabricated panels
• Tilt-up panels: Popular in manufacturing and storage facilities.
• Concrete masonry units (CMU): Mainly reinforced and used as a load-bearing system.
• Stone masonry
• Terra cotta blocks
• Other materials: Such as wood panels and weatherboarding, aluminum panels, etc.
• All-concrete walls: Almost always reinforced and used as a load-bearing system.
• Adobe: Made up of clay and similar materials.
• Stucco or render: A material made of plaster applied to façades made up of other
materials.

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 • Exterior insulation and finish system (EIFS)
• Green walls
• Glass panels

Table 1.1 summarizes the characteristics, construction types, and other attributes of these
different types of envelopes. While they may share the three common functions described in Fig.
1.1, each type is distinct in terms of construction, distress conditions, maintenance needs, and
repair techniques, as covered in later chapters of this book.

Table 1.1 Characteristics of various types of building envelopes

Type Composition Characteristics Other attributes
Brick masonry Layer of bricks with Used as veneer or load Veneers require shelf
mortar bearing wall, reinforced angles for support
or unreinforced
Prefabricated panels Concrete Used as curtain walls Require proper
structural support

Tilt-up panels Reinforced concrete Load bearing system Stand-alone system,

applicable to low-rise
buildings
Concrete masonry Layers of hollow cement Mainly used as Low-rise applications,
units (CMU) blocks reinforced load-bearing often form secondary
wall walls behind façade
Stone masonry Layers of stone blocks Used as panels or load- If used as panels, they
bearing blocks require proper
structural anchors for
installation

Terra cotta Layers of hollow blocks Used for the entire Blocks require proper
baked from clay and façade or as ornamental structural anchors for
glazed on surface pieces installation
Wood panels and Usually in the form of Protection against Usually low-rise
weatherboarding planks overlapping each sunlight damage and applications.
other bugs required
Aluminum and Usually in the forms of Often referred to as Usually in low-rise
synthetics panels planks “sided” in industry applications
All-concrete walls Reinforced concrete Load-bearing low May also used as
height walls retaining walls
Adobe Made up of clay and like Suitable for warm dry Application usually in
materials climates. single family units

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 Stucco or render Plaster applied to façades Plaster requires a Application usually in
made up of CMU’s, brick, supporting metal mesh single family units
metal, adobe, etc. or lath
Exterior insulation A layer of thin stucco-like Requires proper sealing Low-rise applications
and finish system material applied over around windows and
(EIFS) insulation (all external) other openings
Green walls Vegetation grown on Requires proper Low-rise applications
stand-alone trellises or irrigation system and with consideration for
directly on brick, concrete periodic trimming aesthetics and energy
or CMU walls conservation

Glass Used as a curtain wall Requires special Popular in many

made up of glass panels detailing to maintain modern low- and high-
stability and prevent rises
damage

1.2 Architectural and Engineering design Issues Pertaining to Building Envelopes

A building envelope is a unique component in a building with a multifunctional nature that

encompasses various areas of architecture and engineering, including aesthetic design, stability
and resiliency, energy control, heat transfer, and protection against the surrounding environment.
Looking more closely at these functions, it is evident that the involvement of various expertise is
crucial in building envelope inspection and rehabilitation.

Figure 1.1 provides an overview of the multiple tasks involved in building envelope
inspection and rehabilitation, as well as the involvement of the three professions in the process.

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Fig. 1.1 Function of a building envelope and involvement of various professions in its inspection
and rehabilitation

Aesthetic design pertains to architecture. In most cases, the building envelope is expected
to preserve its original design, which can be challenging when only a portion of the façade
requires rehabilitation and reconstruction. Any repair and reconstruction must match the rest of
the façade in terms of color, appearance, and aesthetics. Architectural considerations require a
detailed investigation of repair and reconstruction strategies that are feasible and will not impair
the aesthetic design. Decisions such as carefully removing certain elements of the façade and
reusing them in the repair and reconstruction process are not uncommon.

Stability and resiliency pertain to structural engineering, which involves addressing

issues like identifying the strength of various façade elements and replacing load-bearing
members with new ones that meet current loading regimes and governing design codes and
standards. Since the work requires finding structural engineering solutions for existing structural
conditions, identifying proper loading and component strength can be challenging.
Consequently, reliance on load measurements over an extended period may be necessary.
Additionally, determining the strength of materials in structural components may require
sampling and nondestructive testing.

As depicted in Fig. 1.1, the building envelope provides protection against surrounding
environmental conditions such as extreme heat, extreme cold, rainwater, and noise. These
concerns pertain to architectural engineering, with problems such as energy control, heat
transfer, and acoustics posing challenging design issues in building envelope repair,
rehabilitation, and reconstruction.

1.3 Types of Deficiencies and Distress Conditions

The types of deficiencies and distress appear in various kinds of damage in a building envelope.
Examples include cracks in the masonry, mortar washout, in adequate anchors in stone and terra
cotta blocks, veneer walls bulging out, and lintel and shelf angle corrosion. As expected, these
deficiencies and distress conditions depend in most part on the type of building envelope, its
elements, material types, environmental condition, age of the building and the prevalence of
unusual loading. A summary of various, and more common, deficiency and distress condition
pertaining to various kinds of building envelopes is summarized in Table 1.2 along with a brief
description of plausible causes. However, it is emphasized that each case exhibits itself as a
unique situation in building envelope structural condition assessment, which necessitates a
thorough investigation with or without non-destructive evaluations.

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Table 1.2 Typical deficiencies and distress conditions in various kinds of building envelopes

Building Envelope Type Some Common Deficiencies Examples of Causes

Brick masonry Crack in masonry, Weather condition, wear and
missing/damaged bricks, mortar tear, freeze/thaw cycles, rain,
washout, inadequate anchors ice build-up
behind wall, efflorescence

Prefabricated panels Cracks and spalling in concrete, Weather conditions, wear and
inadequate anchors tear, construction/installation
errors

Tilt-up panels Cracks and spalling in concrete, Weather conditions, age,

corrosion of shear connection construction/installation
brackets (attaching adjacent errors, foundation settlement
panels), sealant and joints between
panels worn/damaged

Concrete masonry units (CMU) Crack in masonry, Weather condition, wear and
missing/damaged CMU, mortar tear, freeze/thaw cycles, rain,
washout, inadequate anchors ice build-up, lack of proper
behind walls, efflorescence reinforcement

Stone masonry Crack in masonry, Weather condition, wear and

missing/damaged stone, mortar tear, freeze/thaw cycles, rain,
washout, inadequate anchors for ice build-up, older
securing stone blocks design/construction practice

Terra cotta Crazing (formation of small Weather condition, water,

random cracks in the glaze), improper handling, older
Spalling in glaze and material), design/construction practice
Deterioration of metal anchoring

Wood panels and Wood deterioration, loose planks Periodic wet/dry conditions,
weatherboarding insect infestation, nails
missing/damaged
Aluminum and synthetics panels Deformation, loose panels Age, installation errors

All-concrete walls Crack in concrete (diagonal, Inadequate reinforcement,

vertical, horizontal, or spider-web corrosion of reinforcement,
kinds) settlement, in-plane or out-of-
plane excessive loads, low-
quality aggregates, and
concrete

Adobe Cracks Temperature variation,

external loads, especially
vibrations

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 Stucco or render Plaster damage (peeling, cracked) Damage supporting metal
mesh or lath, age

Exterior insulation and finish Cracking, surface wetting, mold; Moisture penetration, impact,
system (EIFS) attachment deficiencies, sealant inadequate installation, insect
failure infestation

Green walls Overgrown vegetation, wall Lack of proper maintenance,

damage and aesthetic loss excessive moisture,
inappropriate selection of
plant

Glass Crack, distorted frame Material issues, wind load

effect, inadequate installation

1.4 Building Envelope Engineering Management

Building envelope engineering management focuses on all activities needed to maintain the
safety and integrity of the building envelope to ensure it performs its function. These activities
broadly include inspections, engineering analysis and evaluations, remediation planning, and
reconstruction. Figure 1.2 summarizes these activities and outlines specific tasks related to them.

Fig. 1.2 Activities in building envelope engineering management

Inspection activities can range from a cursory review, involving distant observation of
façades on all sides of the building, to a complete close examination using scaffolds, with or
without non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods. NDE methods may require monitoring

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certain distress conditions over an extended period, compiling data on specific parameters related
to these conditions. For example, vibration monitoring and acceleration data compilation might
be conducted for areas on the façade, such as lintels supporting masonry above windows, which
are known to be susceptible to vibrations causing cracks in masonry walls.

The extent and details of an inspection depend on factors such as the type of building, its
occupancy, age, history of distress conditions, building height, location, and the municipality’s
regulations. Requirements for inspection types and frequencies vary across municipalities.
Generally, when a “critical” examination is required, the inspection is more thorough, indicating
a severe situation that needs prompt attention. An “annual” examination usually refers to a less
critical situation, where a cursory distant examination suffices, provided the building undergoes
periodic scheduled inspections as required by the relevant municipality.

1.5 Role and Responsibilities of Engineers and Architects in Inspection, Repair and
Rehabilitation of Building Envelopes

Regardless of the type of inspection – whether critical or cursory – most municipalities require
that the inspection be performed by, or directly under the supervision of, a licensed professional.
This professional could be an architect, a structural engineer, or a person with prior technical
training and proper registration to perform building envelope inspections. The inspector, as the
professional of the record, will be responsible for the entire process and will sign off on all
documents and reports related to the inspection. Because each municipality’s requirements
regarding who should conduct the actual inspection may differ, it is imperative to consult the
specific rules and regulations governing building façade inspections and comply with them
accordingly.

The responsibilities of the professional of the record extend beyond their own expertise.
They need to ensure that all aspects of the building envelope inspection are covered by various
types of expertise. Beyond the three main areas of expertise outlined in Figure 1.1, building
envelope inspection projects may also require the services of additional experts. Therefore, it is
important for the professional of the record to identify the extent and level of external expertise
needed to complete the inspection process and include the associated budget in the proposed cost
for the entire project. It is important to note that these services are specific to the inspection
process and do not involve those needed for fabrication, installation, reconstruction, and repair,
as these are primarily the responsibility of the contractor hired for reconstruction and repair.
Table 1.3 provides a summary of the expertise that may be needed to support the professional of
the record in conducting the inspection process.

To better acquaint the reader with the extent of these services, especially as they pertain
to the structural engineering aspects of building envelope inspection, this section provides
several examples of the analyses and investigations often needed as part of the inspection.

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Additional information regarding the non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods that may be
required as part of the inspection is discussed later in Chapter 8.

Table 1.3 An overview of external services that may often be needed for building envelope
inspection
Expertise Types of Services
Agriculture and botanic Providing consultation with vegetation in green roof and green wall
expert designs

Asbestos Identifying hazardous asbestos situation

consultant/inspector

Asbestos contractor Compiling data needed in areas where asbestos is present

Environmental engineer Compiling data on air samples and molds
Fire protection expert Providing consultation with potential issues with fire hazard of building
envelopes and their effect on the safety of the entire building

Geotechnical engineer Compiling data on soil properties and soil condition

Glass façade expert Providing consultation with potential damage scenarios and requirements
on detailing

Land surveyor Preparing plat of survey and other geodetic information as required by the
municipality

Reserve study expert Conducting an engineering economics and financial study to determine the
engineer capital investment and funds needed to put on reserve for future potential
envelope (and other building components) damage

Material testing Taking samples of materials for identification of mechanical properties

Structural monitoring Installing proper sensors and compiling data on structural parameters
engineer

Structural/mechanical Conducting NDE methods such as petrographic studies, ground

testing engineer penetration radar, thermographic studies

Engineering evaluation and analysis constitute a major portion of the inspection process.
These activities require engineering data on the size and types of various façade components and
information on the mechanical properties of materials. Depending on the geometry and
configuration of the façade, structural elements such as lintels, shelf angles, bond beams, and
cantilevers (found in canopies and awnings) may be present, necessitating detailed load
calculations. Structural analyses for stress, deformation, and vibration computations are then
required. Estimating damage, its growth, and its causes also involves structural analyses by

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simulating loads and load variations over time. For example, when investigating the causes of a
diagonal crack in a brick or CMU masonry wall, the crack could be attributed to either (a) a
severe in-plane lateral load or (b) foundation settlement (see Fig. 1.3). While in a visual
inspection both scenarios appear to be identical, separate analyses would be necessary to
simulate the loading regime and to investigate the real cause, the extent of the damage and the
potential for future damage growth. These analyses are necessary so that a correct remedial
action can be prescribed as a permanent solution. These analyses require specialties, that are
generally outside of the inspector’s own area. The professional of the record is responsible for
making sure proper structural evaluations are conducted by a qualified engineer.

Fig. 1.3 Diagonal crack in masonry wall

When estimating loads, one must consult an appropriate code, such as ASCE-7 (2017),
and obtain information on the densities of materials commonly used in building envelopes. Table
1.4 summarizes information on material densities. The values provided in Table 1.4 are used to
estimate the dead load on façades, walls, their foundations, and other structural components. In
addition, other types of loads must be considered, including live loads and load effects from
wind, earthquakes, snow, ice, and rainwater, which may create ponding on the roof. In green
walls, the effects of rain and snow may also impact the walls (in addition to the roof) as
vegetation gains weight when wet.

In situations where structural monitoring and data compilation on certain parameters

(such as deflections, stress, or accelerations) over an extended period are desired, the structural
analysis may be more involved and require dynamic analysis. This is especially true when the
cause of stress or deflection is a vibration source that may cause steady damage to the façades
and roof in the form of cracks. Structural dynamic analyses will then be useful in identifying the
frequency contents of the input vibration and computing the natural frequency of vibration of an
affected component (e.g., a lintel). Appropriate modifications to the component can then be
made to mitigate the effects of steady vibrations.

Structural design often becomes involved when the replacement of portions or entire
walls, or components such as lintels, shelf angles, anchors, and foundations, is necessary.

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Additionally, there are other structural members that are not necessarily part of the building
envelope but use the envelope for support. Examples of these structures include porches,
canopies, awnings, rooftop water tanks, flag poles, ornamental pieces, stairs, external fire
escapes, and chimneys. In this book, these are referred to as ancillary structures. Although not
considered directly as parts of the building envelope, ancillary structures are still within the
responsibilities of the architect or engineer performing the envelope inspection. It is imperative
that the professional of record note any deficiencies in these ancillary structures and the specific
issues they may impose on the envelope, and bring these to the owner’s attention. The owner
needs to know that the evaluation and design of these systems will require additional manpower,
and these activities should be clearly outlined in the contract so that all parties understand the
scope of work required for ancillary structures.

Table 1.4 Material weights1

Material Weight, lbs Per Material Weight, lbs Per

(kg) (kg)
Aluminum 170 (2,723) Cubic foot (m3) Insulations 2.0 (32) Cubic foot (m3)
Cast iron 450 (7,208) Cubic foot (m3) Limestone 171 (2,767) Cubic foot (m3)
Cement 94 (1,506) Cubic foot (m3) Lumber 35 (561) Cubic foot (m3)
Concrete 150 (2,403) Cubic foot (m3) Masonry (brick/
CMU) wall
Crushed stone 2,500 (1,483) Cubic yard (m3) 4-inch thick 42 (205)
3 8-inch thick 84 (410) Square foot (m2)
Glass 161 (2,579) Cubic foot (m )
12-inch thick 125 (610)
Gravel 2,700 (1,601) Cubic yard (m3)
Gypsum board 50 (804) Cubic foot (m3) Steel 490 (7,849) Cubic foot (m3)
Ice 57 (913) Cubic foot (m3) Terra Cotta2 70 – 120 Cubic foot (m3)
(1,120 –
1,922)
1
Information mainly taken from ASCE (2017) and FRW (2018)
2
Lower value is for unfilled and upper value for filled blocks.

Another responsibility of the professional of record is the preparation of inspection

findings. These findings, along with a remediation plan to address damage to the building
envelope, are presented to the owner in the form of a report. This report provides detailed
information on the types of distress conditions, plausible causes, repair methods, materials to be
used, costs, and the expected lifespan of the repairs. When more than one alternative is identified
for any repair or reconstruction, it is important that the report includes an economic evaluation of

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these alternatives, considering the short-, mid-, and long-term benefits and costs. This is further
explained in Section 1.7 of this chapter.

A complete set of drawings generally accompanies the final report. These drawings are
stamped by the professional of record and prepared in a format acceptable to the municipal
authority for issuing the construction permit. The report and accompanying drawings must be
clear and detailed enough to be readily used by the contractor hired to perform the
reconstruction.

The building envelope repair and reconstruction process often differs from new
construction. Therefore, it is imperative that the professional of record remains actively involved
throughout the process. As the contractor begins reconstruction, new information may become
available, necessitating changes in the design of structural components, repair methods, or the
overall direction of the reconstruction process. Effective communication among all parties – the
contractor, owner, and professional of record – is crucial to avoid mistakes during construction.
This phase of work requires additional tasks from the professional of record, which should be
clearly indicated and outlined in the original contract with the owner to avoid misunderstandings
or confusion among all parties involved in the reconstruction and repair project.

1.6 Quality Assurance and Professional Ethics

In addition to those discussed in Section 1.5, the professional of record is also responsible for
ensuring that the welfare and safety of the public are maintained. Among these responsibilities,
the professional of record is expected to conduct all activities related to the condition assessment
of building envelopes in accordance with established standards of practice and quality of work.
In line with the basic elements of ethical conduct, the professional of record is expected to:

• Recognize the problem, use their knowledge in their area of expertise, and seek
professional services in other areas as needed (as explained in Section 1.5).
• Prepare quality documentation that is accurate, clear, and thoroughly outlines the
procedures or methods used.
• Exercise appropriate judgment based on sound analysis and design rather than merely
complying with external pressures.
• Establish a quality assurance (QA) process to ensure the accuracy and quality of all
analyses and calculations, including those conducted for safety and design.
• Follow the code of ethical conduct prescribed by the professional society within the
professional of record’s area of expertise.

1.7 Capital Development and Investment Returns on Building Envelope Repair and
Maintenance

In many situations, depending on the condition of the building envelope, there may be more than
one option for suggesting remedial actions to the owner. When the condition is critical and poses

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a safety concern, immediate remedial actions must be implemented, at least for certain areas of
the building envelope. However, in areas where deferred maintenance may be an option, it is
crucial for the owner to receive an economic study that highlights and compares options such as
(a) doing nothing, (b) repairing now, or (c) repairing or replacing at a future time. Each option
has its own costs and benefits. Clearly, choosing to do nothing may result in much higher costs
in the future and might not be beneficial at all. Opting for future repair or replacement can give
the owner time to accumulate the necessary funds. In any case, economic studies will highlight
the return on investment and capital development, helping the owner make informed decisions
about the necessary work on the building envelope. Additionally, the owner may benefit from a
reserve study to identify the funds needed to be secured and set aside for unexpected future
expenses. Chapter 9 covers these subjects in more detail.

1.8 Common terminologies used in building envelope inspection

Knowing the terminologies commonly used in building envelope inspection is important to avoid
any confusions and miscommunications with the contractor. The following presents a list of
these terminologies.

Anchor: Bolt and nut system used to attach shelf angles or brackets to masonry.

Afar examination: Inspection conducted using binoculars.

Annual examination: An inspection conducted every year.

Awning: A covering attached to the exterior wall of a building, typically above windows, doors,
or over patios and decks.

Backer rod: A flexible rope-like material used as fillers between joints.

Brick and CMU positions: As illustrated in Fig. 1.4, these positions are referred to as stretcher,
soldier, header, stretcher rowlock, sailor and rowlock.

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 Fig. 1.4 Brick and CMU position (Adopted from BIA, 2009)

Bond beam: A beam made up reinforced concrete, or reinforced masonry blocks, that is built on
masonry walls to provide support for floor joists (see Fig. 1.5)

Fig. 1.5 An example of a reinforced concrete bond beam

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Building corner: For façade inspection purposes, it is at the intersection of two walls.

Canopy: A projecting overhead covering that provides protection, often built over entrances,
windows, or walkways.

Caulk: A low- or intermediate-performance compound used as a sealer mainly in interior

applications. Note: see definition for “sealant,” which is a high-performance compound for
exterior façade applications.

Categories I, II, III and IV buildings: These vary across municipalities and generally refer to
the building types in terms of the occupancy (for façade inspection and safety purposes).

Change order: A request to change a detail that is different from the one on the original
drawing.

Cladding: The material and/or element used as the finish on the exterior of the façade.

Control joint: A cut made into concrete slabs to allow expansion and contraction in concrete –
Note: this is different from an expansion joint.

Close examination: An inspection that requires an architect or engineer to use scaffolds and
conduct a close evaluation of the façade condition.

CMU: Concrete masonry unit.

Coping stone: A piece of stone at the top of a parapet wall (see Fig. 1.6). The types are plain
straight, twice weathered and once weathered.

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 Fig. 1.6 Types of coping stone

Course of brick: One layer of brick in horizontal direction.

Crack meter: A device used to monitor the width and growth of cracks in masonry. Simple ones
are made up of two pieces with markings. Each piece is mounted on one side of the crack. The
two pieces slide over each other providing information on crack growth.

Critical examination: A façade examination that requires close observation of wall condition
using scaffolds and covering the required façade areas per recommendations by the municipality.

Door terminologies: As illustrated in Fig. 1.7, terminologies pertinent to doors are jamb (an
upright of frame on which door is hanging; rabbet (groove or recess at the edge); and threshold.
Doors are often marked with ratings as one-hour, two-hour, etc., which refer to fire protection.

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 Fig. 1.7 Terminologies used in doors

Drone: An unmanned aircraft system (UAS) designed to capture detailed visual data of a
building’s exterior, including hard-to-reach areas, to assess the envelope integrity.

Drop: A vertical area of façade designated for inspection when using moveable scaffolds.

Due diligence inspection: An inspection conducted before sale of the property.

Efflorescence: A crystalline deposit on surfaces of masonry walls.

Envelope: A term used to generally refer to the building enclosure including the roof.

Expansion joint: A vertical gap in walls to allow wall expansion and contraction – note: this is
different from a control joint.

Façade: A term used to generally refer to the building enclosure excluding the roof.

Façade inspection: Evaluation of the building enclosure for safety purposes as mandated by a
local jurisdiction.

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Flashing: A metal or neoprene sheets used to wash water out at areas above windows and doors,
under the coping stone, and between wall and foundation (see for example Fig. 1.6).

Girt: A horizontal beam, usually installed in the mid-height between two floor levels, to help
reduce the bending of the cladding in the vertical direction and protect it from damage due to
wind pressure.

Inspection: See façade inspection.

Lintel: A beam at the top of the window or door frame or other openings.

Ledger beam: A timber beam, usually with a nominal thickness of 2 inches (51 mm) secured to
the wall via anchor bolts to provide supports for hangers used in timber joists (see Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8 Details of a ledger beam

Maintenance: Periodic inspections to make sure the building envelope is safe. This may or may
not involve repair.

Mortar: A cement-based material used in between masonry blocks.

NDE method: A non-destructive, non-invasive evaluation method.

NDT method: A non-destructive, non-invasive test method.

Opening: A façade element (such as a brick) removed for inspection of the condition behind the
wall.

Parapet wall: A short wall extended above the roof.

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Professional of the record: An engineer or architect in charge of façade examination.

Porch: An open structure made up of posts and beams attached to the main building, usually on
the back. Porches are mainly made up of wood or steel and contain external stairs and decks.

Reconstruction: A portion or entire building envelope rebuilt to its original condition.

Rehabilitation: A series of major replacements or changes in a portion or the entire envelope to

maintain the intended function.

Repair: A series of minor replacements or changes in a portion or the entire envelope to

maintain the intended function.

Reserve study: An engineering and financial analysis conducted to determine the capital
investment and funds needed to set aside for the repair, rehabilitation, and replacement of major
components in multi-occupancy buildings. This study is often required by certain jurisdictions to
ensure that adequate reserves are maintained for future maintenance and capital expenditures.

Retrofit: A series of changes that would improve the function of a portion or entire envelope to
bring it to a higher level to meet new demands.

Scaffold: A moveable or stationary temporary structure used for façade repair (see Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.9 An example of a stationary scaffold

Sealant: A compound (often high-performance) used for water proofing in exterior façade
applications. Note: see the definition for “caulk,” which is a lower-performance compound
usually for interior applications.

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Shelf angle: An angle attached to the structure to support a veneer wall.

Spandrel beam: A beam that runs around the edge of each floor and is integrated with the floor
slab.

Stairs: Terminologies used for stairs are illustrated in Fig. 1.9 and are “going,” “nosing,” “rise,”
and “tread.” A landing is a small area when the stair turns.

Fig. 1.9 Stair Terminologies

Steel relief angle: Same as shelf angle

Swing stage: An area where moveable scaffold is installed for façade inspection.

Terra cotta block: A plain or ornamental block made up of baked clay attached to the structure
through metal anchors (see Fig. 1.10).

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 Fig. 1.10 An example of a terra cotta block

Tuckpointing: A repair done on mortar between masonry units.

UAS: Unmanned aircraft system. Also. see the definition for “drone.”

URM: unreinforced masonry.

Walls: Different types of walls are curtain, load bearing, parapet (a wall about 42 inches tall
extending above the roof, veneer, tilt-up, and green walls.

Water test: A test by splashing water over façade usually for about 30 minutes or so to detect
leaks.

Weep hole: A small opening, usually at the mortar joint, to allow moisture out.

Wick: A rope used in weep holes to drain condensation water and moisture out.

Window sill: A horizontal piece of stone or other masonry used below a window frame.

Wythe: A continuous vertical section of a brick or masonry that has one unit in thickness. Note
that a course runs horizontally along the wall, while wythe is vertical.

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Chapter References

ASCE, (2017). Minimum design loads and associated criteria for buildings and other structures,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.

BIA (2009). Technical Note 10, The Brick Industry Association, 12007 Sunrise Valley Drive,
Reston, VA.

FRW (2018). The building estimator reference book, 31st edition, F.R. Walker Company,
Chicago, IL.

Mohammadi, J., Longinow, A., Johnson, D.K. and Iwankiw, N.R. (2022). “Non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) and monitoring methods for façade inspection and conditions assessment,”
Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)SC.1943-
5576.0000712.
Exercises

1.1 A 4-inch thick, 25-foot-tall brick wall is supported by a continuous foundation. Compute the
maximum compressive stress, using psi as the unit (or MPa) on the mortar because of the weight
of the wall. Note: The effective width of this wall is about 5/8 inches (16 mm) less than the
nominal width.

1.2 Following most local codes involving façade inspection requirements, the professional of the
record is

(a) The building owner

(b) The contractor who does the repair

(c) The engineer or architect who conducts the inspection and prepares the report

(d) The property manager

1.3 An inspection report refers to what is called a “swing stage.” What is this report referring to?

(a) Some area in the interior of a commercial building

(b) Some portions of a façade not accessible

(c) An area where moveable scaffold is installed for façade inspection

(d) A façade that has already inspected

1.4 Which of the following statements is most accurate?

(a) Wythe is a term used in brick work referring to a horizontal row

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 (b) Course is a term used in brick work referring to a vertical column

(c) Both wythe and course mean the same thing in a brick or other masonry wall

(d) Course is one layer of brick in horizontal direction; while wythe is a vertical section
with one unit in thickness

1.5 Which of the following statements is not accurate?

(a) A control joint is generally referred to a cut made into concrete slabs to allow
expansion and contraction

(b) An expansion joint is a vertical gap to allow wall expansion and contraction

(c) Steel relief angle is another term used for a shelf angle

(d) A parapet wall is a temporary wall built when repair is being done

1.6 While conducting an inspection of brick façades of a building, you noticed severe rust,
distorted elements and unstable connections in a steel fire escape in the east façade. Which of the
following actions is considered most appropriate on your part?

(a) I will write a section in the report identify the situation as an observed area of safety
concern that needs to be addressed

(b) I will conduct a complete investigation of the condition of the fire escape and make it
a main part of my report

(c) I will ignore the situation, since it was not written in my contract

(d) I will make a brief reference to it in my report without any elaborations

1.7 Which of the following statements is inaccurate?

(a) A core sampling to determine the strength of concrete in a wall is an example of NDT
methods

(b) Measuring the changes in the width of a crack in a wall over several months is an
example of long-term monitoring

(c) Conducting NDT/NDE methods and monitoring often require hiring appropriate
expertise

(d) NDT/NDE methods and/or long-term monitoring are always an integral part of the
façade inspection contract whether or not mentioned in the contract

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1.8 A structural dynamic analysis may become necessary as part of a building inspection project
when

(a) Damage because of vibration of structural components is suspected

(b) Information on the frequency contents of structural members such as lintels is needed

(c) Operation of mechanical systems is suspected of causing resonance

(d) All of the above

1.9 Which of the following best describes the purpose of an engineering economics study as part
of a façade inspection and evaluation?

(a) To indicate the increase in the cost of property after any repair

(b) To offer the owner with information on return on the investment and a comparison of
various options including “do nothing”

(c) To provide the owner with an idea on the cost of items not within your contract

(d) To offer the owner with costs associated with such items as replacing windows and
doors

1.10 Review the situations (i), (ii) and (iii) listed below. Then decide which kind of expertise
would be needed to best address them.

Situation (i) foundation settlement is suspected in causing cracks in a wall.

Situation (ii) a portion of a façade is made up of reinforced concrete and it has signs of concrete
spalling and patchy cracks.

Situation (iii) the façade inspection reveals severe wetness and potential for mold growth on a
wall.

(a) A structural engineer will be needed for all of these situations

(b) A geotechnical engineer for (i), concrete and material specialist for (ii) and structural
engineer for (iii)

(c) A geotechnical engineer for (i) and (ii) and an environmental engineer for (iii)

(d) A geotechnical engineer for (i), material and concrete specialist for (ii) and an
environmental engineer for (iii)

1.11 A façade inspection report refers to the term “weatherboarding” in portions of the façade.
What exactly the report is referring to?

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 (a) Portions of the façade have been repaired by a different material than the original one

(b) Portions of the façade are made up of wood panels

(c) The façade is not accessible for inspection

(d) Portions of the façade is made up of metal cladding

1.12 What kind of façade structural member is a “girt?”

(a) A beam above a window or door opening

(b) A beam intended to sustain wind load and reduce the bending of claddings

(c) A spandrel beam on perimeter of a building

(d) An additional column for shelf angle support

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