UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION OF THE NATURE OF STATISTICS AND FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS AND GRAPH INTRODUCTION: We live in a world that relies increasingly on numerical information. Day after day, newspapers and magazines, and TV inundate us with quantitative statements. The study of statistics involves math and relies upon calculations of numbers. But it also relies heavily on how the numbers are chosen and how the statistics are interpreted. For example, consider the following three scenarios and the interpretations based upon the presented statistics. You will find that the numbers may be right, but the interpretation may be wrong. Try to identify a major flaw with each interpretation before we describe it LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: 4 distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics; & classify variables and types of data; & identify the collection of data that should be used; and 4 present the data using graphs and tables; INFORMATION/ CONTENT: Descriptive Statistics is the totality of methods and treatments employed in the collection, description, ad analysis of numerical data. The purpose of a descriptive statistics is to tell something about the particular group of observation. Inferential Statistics is the logical process from sample analysis to a generalization or conclusion about a population. Variables and Types of Data ‘There are two major characteristics of data. It can be constant or variable. A constant is a characteristic of data that does not vary. For example, the temperature at which water boils (100 °C) is a constant. A variable is a characteristic of data that can take of different values either in quantity or in quality. Quantitative and Qualitative VariablesVariables can be categorized as quantitative or qualitative. A quantitative variable varies by amount, so it is measured in numeric units. For example, we can measure food intake in calories or we can count the number of hours you sleep in a week. A qualitative variable, on the other hand, varies by class. These variables are often labels for the behavior like the socioeconomic class (working class, middle class, and upper class), seasons (spring, summer, autumn, winter) and sex (female, male). Facto fours which ae numerical or other collected witha define pose ae cad at = pon pee ey Figure 1. Data and Types of Data Continuous and Discrete Variables Variables can be also classified in terms of the mathematical values they may take on within a given interval such as continuous and discrete. A continuous variable is measured along a continuum. So continuous variable are measured at any place beyond the decimal point. For example, weight of dogs, height of students, volume, etc. A discrete variable, on the other hand, is measured in whole units or categories. So discrete variables are not measured along a continuum. For example, the number of siblings, gender, courses in MPC and the number of students enrolled. Scales of Measurement Scales of measurement refer to ways in which variables/numbers are defined and categorized. Each scale of measurement has certain property which in turn determines the appropriateness for use of certain statistical analyses. a, Nominal Scale are measurement in which a number is assigned to represent something or someone; it provides no additional information. Nominal data are discrete variables. Examples: Gender (Male,Female)Civil Status (Single, Married, Separated, Widowed) Seasons (Summer, Spring, Autumn, Winter). b. Ordinal Scale are measurement that conveys only that some value is greater or less than another value. It is used in ranking and considered discrete variables. Examples: Student Grades (1.0, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, etc) Employee Rank (Director, Assistant Director, Manager, etc.) Class Standing (Excellent, Average, Poor) c. Interval Scale are measurements that have no true zero and are distributed in equal units. Examples: Temperature (°C or °F) Calendar Time (Gregorian, Hebrew or Islamic) d. Ratio Scale are measurements that have true zero value and are distributed in equal units. Examples: Weight (in pounds or kilograms) Age (in years or days) Salary (in Philippine peso) Data Collection There are several tools at the disposal for primary data collection. The methods range from traditional and simple, such as a face-to-face interview, to more sophisticated ways to collect and analyze data. Interview Method - it is a face-to-face encounter between the interviewer and the interviewee. It allows open ended questions but sometimes an in- person interview can be worth cost as the interviewer can tailor follow-up questions based on responses in a real-time exchange. Observation Method - Observation involves collecting information without asking questions. This method is more subjective, as it requires the researcher, or observer, to add their judgment to the data. But in some circumstances, the risk of bias is minimal. Documents and records - It is one of the most considerable data without asking anyone anything. Documents-and-records- based research uses existing data for a study. Attendance, minutes of meeting, financial records are just few examples of this type of research. Focus groups - A combination of interviewing, surveying, and observing, a focus group is a data collection method that involves several individuals who have something in common. The purpose of a focus group is to add a collective element to individual data collection. A focus group study can ask participants to watch a presentation, for example, and then discuss the content before answering survey or interview-style questions. Experimental Method - also known as “true experimentation,” uses the scientific method to determine the cause-and-effect relationship betweenvariables. This method uses controls for all of the crucial factors that could potentially affect the phenomena of interest. Questionnaires and surveys -It can be used to ask questions that have closed-ended answers. Data gathered from questionnaires and surveys can be analyzed in many different ways. You can assign numerical values to the data to speed up the analysis. This can be useful if you're collecting a large amount of data from a large population. Organizing Data Frequency Table is an excellent device for making larger collections of data much more intelligible. A frequency table is so named because it lists categories of scores along with their corresponding frequencies. The frequency for a category or class is the number of original scores that fall into that class. The columns of an extended frequency table generate various graphs or charts. Extended frequency tables therefore become important prerequisites for creating graphs and charts used in statistics Steps to Draw Frequency Distribution Table Example: Alex measured the lengths of leaves on the oak tree (to the nearest cm): 9,16,13,7,8,4,18,10,17,18,9,12,5,9,9,16,1,8,17,1,10,5,9,11,15,6,14,9,1,12,5,16,4,16,8,15,14,17 Step 1 — Arrange the raw data in ascending or order. 1,1,1,4,4,5,5,5,6,7,8,8,8,9,9,9,9,9,9,10,10,11,12, 12,13,14,14,15,15,16,16,16,16,17,17,17,18,18 Step 2 - Determine the classes. * Find the highest and lowest value. Highest Value = 18 cm, Lowest Value = 1 cm + Find the range. Range = Highest Value - Lowest Value = 18 - 1 = 17 cm + Determine the number of classes. (2 rule such that 2«> number of observations (n) } Ifk = 6, then 225-64, 64 is greater than the number of observation which is 38 Therefore, the recommended number of classes is 6. * Determine the class interval (or width) Range 17 No.of classes 6 2.83 = Suggested Class Interval = + Set the individual class limits. We need to add the interval (or width) to the lowest length taken as the starting point to obtain the lower limit of the next class. To obtain the upper class limits, we need to subtract one unit to the lower limit of the second class to obtain the upper limit of the first class.‘Clas Limits 1-3 4-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 * Set the class boundaries in each class. To obtain the class boundaries, we need to subtract 0.5 from each lower limit and add 0.5 to each upper class limit. ‘Class Limits Class Boundaries 1-3 05-35 4-6 35-65 7-9 65-95 10-12 95-125 13-15 125-155 16-18 15.5- 18.5 Step 3 - Determine the frequency of each class limits, Class Limits Class Frequency Boundaries 1-3 05-35 3 4-6 35-65 6 7-8 65-95 10 10-12 95-125 5 13-15 125-155 5 16-18 155-185 8 Step 4 - Determine the relative frequency. It can be found by dividing each frequency by the total frequency. Class Class Frequene Relative Limits Boundaries quency Frequency 1-3 05-35 3 3738x100 = 7.89% 4-6 35-65 6 15.79% 7-9 65-95 10 26.32% 10-12 95-125 5 13.16% 13-15 125-155 5 13.16% 16-18 155-185 9 23.68% Step 5 - Determine the cumulative frequency. The cumulative frequency can be found by adding the frequency in each class to the total frequencies of the classes preceding that class. Class Limits | gcKiieg | Freeney | ,cantie one 13 05-35 3] 3938x100= 7.85% 3 46 35-65 6 15.79% 346-9 79 65-95 10 26.32% 9410-19 ro-2 | 95-125 5 33.16% 1945-24 a3-15 | 125-155 5 13.16% 2445-29 16-18__| 155-185 3 23.68% 2949-38Step 6 — Determine the midpoints. The midpoints can be found by getting the average of the upper limit and lower limit in cach class. Fas | cass | Frequency | Relative Frequency | Cumulative Midpoint 1-3 | 05-35 3 ‘338X100 = 7.89% 3 (93)22=2 4-6 | 35-65 6 15.79% 346-9 7-9 | 65-95 10 26.32% 9#10=19 8 10-12 | 95-125 5 13.16% 1945=24 1 13-15 | 125-155 5 13.16% 2445229 14 16-18 | 15.5-18.5 9 23.68% 2949-38 v7 Histograms, Frequency Polygons and Ogives Histograms — The graph that uses bars to represent the frequency of numerical data that are organized into intervals. Since all the intervals are equal and continuous, all the bars have the same width. Steps to Draw Histograms Step 1 - On the vertical axis, place frequencies. Label this axis "Frequency". Step 2 - On the horizontal axis, § 200 place the lower value of each interval. Label this axis with the type of data shown (price of birthday cards, etc.) 150 100 so Counts of observation Step 3 - Draw a bar extending from © , the lower value of each interval to os 7 7s 8 aS the lower value of the next interval. Length of wings (om) The height of each bar should be Histogram equal to the frequency of its corresponding interval. Frequency Polygon - is a graph that displays the data using points which — & are connected by lines. is almost identical to a histogram, which is used to compare sets of data or to display a cumulative frequency distribution. It uses a line graph to represent quantitative data. Frequency Polygon Steps to Draw Frequency Polygon Step 1- Choose the class interval and mark the values on the horizontal axes Step 2- Mark the mid value of each = interval on the horizontal axes. -‘Step 3- Mark the frequency of the class on the vertical axes Step 4- Corresponding to the frequency of each class interval, mark a point at the height in the middle of the class interval Step 5- Connect these points using the line segment. Step 6- The obtained representation is a frequency polygon. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive) - is a graph that displays the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution Steps to Draw Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive) Step 1 - Find the cumulative distribution of the data set. Step 2- Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis. Step 3 - Represent the frequency on the y-axis and the upper class boundaries on the x-axis. Step 4- Connect adjacent points with line segments. Other Types of Graphs Graphs are used for presenting statistical data in an attractive way. They enable us to visualize the whole meaning of complex data at a single glance. Rr ms Bar Graphs Histograms Frequency Table Circle Graph Line Graphs Stemand Leaf Plot Line Plot Box and Whisker Plot =<+ Line Graphs — Linear graphs are used to display the continuous data and it is useful for predicting the future events over time. + Bar Graphs ~ Bar Graph is used to display the category of data and it compares the data using solid bars to represent the quantities. + Line Plot ~ It shows the frequency of data on a given number line. ‘x ‘is placed above a number line each time when that data occurs again. *Circle Graph - Also known as pie chart that shows the relationships of the parts of the whole. The circle is considered with 100% and the categories occupied is represented with that specific percentage like 15%, 56% , ete. +Stem and Leaf Plot - In stem and leaf plot , the data are organized from least value to the greatest value. The digits of the least place values from the leaves and the next place value digit forms the stems. +Box and Whisker Plot - The plot diagram summarizes the data by dividing into four parts. Box and whisker shows the range (spread) and the middle (median) of the data. Statistics in Research The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research, analysing its data and drawing conclusions therefrom. Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be suitably reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be used for further analysis. Clearly the science of statistics cannot be ignored by any research worker, even though he may not have occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and ramifications. Classification and tabulation, as stated earlier, achieve this objective to some extent, but we have to go a step further and develop certain indices or measures to summarize the collected/classified data. Only after this we can adopt the process of generalization from small groups (i.c., samples) to population. Importance of Statistics ‘The field of statistics is the science of learning from data. Statistical knowledge helps you use the proper methods to collect the data, employ the correct analyses, and effectively present the results. Statistics is a crucial process behind how we make discoveries in science, make decisions based on data, and make predictions. Statistics allows you to understand a subject much more deeply.Name: Course, Year & Section: Date Submitted: Contact Number: Instructor: ASSESSMENTS: I. Identify each of the following as either descriptive or inferential statistics. a. The average salary of a random sample of 50 high school teachers in 2010 was P52,400. b. Based on a random sample, it was concluded that the average cost of a hotel room in Chicago was greater than one in Atlanta. c. A study has concluded that the average credit card debt of college graduates has increased from the year 2009 to 2010. d. The average price of tuition fees in Marikina ¢. The political views of the youth in the rural areas with respect to the economic rate in the Philippines during COVID-19 pandemic {. The guard in the SM records the number of shoppers for the past 15 days. g. The effects of SarsCOV2 (Corona Virus) to the death rate worldwid h, The average families in Rizal Province i. The Philippine Regulation Commission (PRC) ranks the result of the Licensure Examination for Teachers in 2019. j. Enrollment record of all colleges and universities in the Philippines in the year 2020. Il. Identify the types of data that researcher’s measure. Complete the table. Continuous | Quantitative/| Scale of Variables [Discrete | Qualitative | Measurement ‘Sex (Male, Female) Number of mistakes Ranking of favorite foods Body type (slim, average, heavy) Score (from 0 to 100) on an exam Time (in seconds) to memorize a list Position standing in line ‘Number of students in class ‘Student number Nationality of certain individualsIll. Construct the frequency table of the following. 1. The food services department of SM Cinema is studying the amount spend by a customer during his visit per day on food and drink. A sample of 40 individuals who visited the cinema yesterday revealed they spent the following amounts. Pi00 [122 [145 [138 [155 [168 | 198 | 200 | 146 [159 123/100 [128 [176 [149 [154 [201 [198 |147 [146 165/193 [120 [174 [196 | 137 | 158 | 164 |109 | 187 193 [160 [176 [160 [135 [164 [147 [160 [168 [149 Class Class | Frequency | Relative | Cumulative | aiapoine Limits_| Boundaries Frequency | Frequency 2. A sales representative for a publishing company recorded the following numbers of client contacts for 36 days that he was on the road in the month of May. a5 19/16 (11 (14 113 118 (19 [23 [26 [34 [35 2612716 ~47/ =~ 10 = 343022 = fay [29 | ae [a1 [a0 [19 [23 [27 [as [as [a6 [18 [14 [16 Class Class Relative ‘Cumulative Limits_| Boundaries | PT°@™°"°Y | Frequency | Frequency | Midpoint IV. Answer the following questions. 1, The frequency distribution of weights (in kg) of 40 persons is given below: Weights (in kg) | 30-35 | 36-40 | 41-45 46-50 | 51-55 Frequency 6 13 4 4 3 (a) What is the lower limit of fourth class interval? (b) What is the class size of each class interval? (c) Which class interval has the highest frequency? (d) Find the class marks of all the class intervals? (c) What is the total number of observation: 10V. Graph the following data. 1. Suppose thirty people live in an apartment building. These are the following ages: 58 30 37 36 34 49 35 40 47 47 39 54 47 48 54 50 35 40 38 47 48 34, 40 46 49 47 35 48 47 46 a. Construct a stem-leaf plot. b. Make a line plot of the ages. 2. The following table represents a survey of people’s favorite ice cream flavor Flavor Number of people Vanilla 21.0% Chocolate 33.0% Strawberry 12.0% Raspberry 4.0% Peach 7.0% Neopolitan 17.0% Other 6.0% a, Plot a pie chart to represent the data. 11b. Construct a bar graph. 3. The data shown for the record of high temperatures for each of the 50 states. Class Boundaries Frequency 99.5-104.5 2 124. 129. a. Construct histogram 8 1 .! 1 119.5-124.5 7 1 1 b. Frequency Polygon 12c. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive) Rubric: Score 10-8 75 5-3 2-1 Inconsistent Data is Collects Collects data partially relevant data. | detailed and Records relevant data Records relevant and Carefully irrelevant or | planned accurate data | records inaceurate | design aces detailed, « | ate Relevant consistent relevant and g : data and organized | annotated 2 | Pispleys | recorded is | manner. data ina 2 | incomel inconsistent | pisptays data | consistent = : 3 cisorganized disorganized | (ha Supports organized 8 Displays analysis and manner 2 data ina interpretation. | Data = manner that highlights is information incomplete that supports or interpretation disorganized of relationships. 13