NUCLEAR RE ACTO R

ENGINEERING
REACTOR DESIGN BASICs

FOUR TH ED |TION VOLUME ONE

SAMUEL GLA SSTONE &

ALEXANDER SESON SKE

CBS
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pt. Ltd.
New Delhi " Bengaluru Chennai" Kochi Kolkata " Mumbai
Hyderabad "Uttarakhand Nagpur Patna " Pune Jharkhand
 Contents

PREFACE

CHAPTER 1 ENERGY FROM NUCLEAR FISSION 1

INTRODUCTION 1

NUCLEAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTALS 2

Atomic Structure and Isotopes, 2; Nuclear Binding
Energy, 5; Nuclear Stability, 8; Radioactivity, 10;
Neutron Reactions, 12.
NUCLEAR FIsSION 14
The Fission Process, 14; Fission Energy, 16; Critical
Mass, 19.
NUCLEAR FIsSION REACTORS 20
General Features, 20; Reactor Types, 21; History of
Reactor Development, 23; Role of the Computer, 25;
Computer Code Maintenance, 25; Code Aailability,
25.
 vi Contents
Consent

CHAPTER 2 NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND 96: Cross Sections for Reactor Calculations, 97;
RADIATIONS Thermal-Neutron Cross Sections, 98.
28
THE FIsSION PROCESS 99
INTRODUCTION 28 Mechanism of Nuclear Fission, 99,; Fission Cross
RADIOACTIVITY 28
Sections, 102; Fission Rate and Reactor Power, 103;
Radioactive Nuclides, 28; Rate of Radioactive Decay, Fission Neutrons, 106; Prompt Neutrons, 108;
29; Radioactive Equilibrium, 32; Radioactive Units, Delayed Neutrons, 110; Fission Gamma Rays, 112;
36: Gamma Rays, 37; Bremsstrahlung, 40. Fission Products, 113; Amounts and Activities of
Fission Products, 115; Fission-Product Activity after
INTERACTION OF ALPHA AND BETA PARTICLES Shutdown, 120; Fission-Product Activity Data Base,
WITH MATTER 40 122; Heat Generation after Shutdown, 122.
lonizing Radiations, 40; Absorption of Alpha
Particles, 42; Absorption of Beta Particles, 44; CHAPTER 3 NEUTRON TRANSPORT BEHAVIOR 128
erenkov Radiation, 48.
INTERACTION OF GAMMA RAYS wITH MATTER 48 NEUTRON TRANSPORT CONCEPTS 128
Introduction, 48; Photoelectric Effect, 49; Compton
Effect, 50; Pair Production, 52; Attenuation of NEUTRON DIFFUSION THEORY 130
Gamma Rays, 53; Atenuation Coefficient and One-Speed Neutron Conservation, 130; Calculation of
Gamma-Ray Energy, 54. Neutron Leakage, 130; The Diffusion Equation, 132;
INTERACTION OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER 59 The Diffusion Coefficient and Diffusion Length, 134;
The Production of Neutrons, 59; Neutron Reactions: Solution of the Diffusion Equation: Boundary
Absorption, 60; Radiative Capture Reactions, 62; Conditions, 135; The Linear Extrapolation Distance,
Emission of Alpha Particles, 62; Reactions with Fast 136; The Difusion Equation in Nonmultiplying
Neutrons, 63; Inelastic Scattering, 64; Elastic Media, 139; Diffusion of One-Speed Neutrons from a
Scattering, 66; The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution, Point Source, 139; Infinite Plane Source and a
67; Departure from Maxwellian Distribution, 69; Medium of Finite Thickness, 143; The Thermal
Structural Changes Caused by Neutron Interactions, Diffusion Length, 146.
71. DIFFUSION IN MULTIPLYING SYSTEMS 149
CROSS SECTIONS FOR NEUTRON REACTIONS 72
Infinite and Effective Multiplication Factors, 149;
Geometric Buckling and the Spatial Flux Distribution,
Significance of Cross Sections, 72; Macroscopic Cross 152; The Nonleakage Probability, 157; The
Section, 73; Cross-Section Determination by the
Transmission Method, 75; Rates of Neutron
One-Group Critical Equation for aBare Reactor, 157.
Reactions, 77; Cross-Section Determination by the THE SLOWING DoWN OF NEUTRONS 161
Activation Method, 78; Mean Free Path, 79; Introduction, 161; Elastic Scattering, l62; Energy
Polyenergetic Neutron Systems, 80; Thermal Neutron Change in Scattering, 165; Empirical Scattering Law,
Systems, 82. 166; The Average Logarithmic Energy Decrement,
167; Lethargy, 170.
VARIATION OF CROSS SECTIONS WITH NEUTRON ENERGY 85
Experimental Results, 85; Resonance Absorption: SLOWING DoWN IN INFINITE MEDIA 171
Theoretical Interpretation, 88; The Breit- Wigner Neutron Moderation without Absorption, 171;
Formula, 89; The Doppler Effect, 91; Scattering Cross Neutron Moderation with Absorption, 174; Resonance
Sections, 92; Cross Sections at High Neutron Lnergies.
 Contents
CoRten

Absorphon in Heterogeneous Systems, 178; The

Thermalization of Neutrons, 180. DIffusion Theory Approximation, 231, The Discrete
Ordinates Method, 233: The Monte Carlo Method,
SrAIAL DIsTRIBUTION OF SLOWED-DowN NEUTRONs
181 234
Fermi Age (Continuous Slowing-Down) Model, 181;
Slowing Down and Migration Lengths, 184. CHAPTER S NUCLEAR REACTOR KINETICS 2.30
AND CONTROL
CRITICAL EQUATIONS BASED ON DIFFUSION THEORY 185
Two-Group Critical Equation, 185, Reflected 238
INTRODUCTION
Reactors, 188, The Four-Factor Formula, 189.
CRITICALITY MEASUREMENTS 239
192 REACTOR KINETICS
The Critical Assembly, 192; The Exponential 239;
Experiment, 193; Integral Experiments, 195; Critical One-Group Model for Bare Reactor,
Prompt-Neutron Lifetime, 242; Step Change in
Fuel Loading, 195. One
Reactivity, 243, Stable Reactor Period, 244:
Group of
Group of Delayed Neutrons, 245; One Reactivity
Delayed Neutrons: Negative Reaztivity, 251;
Reactivity and
CHAPTER 4 NUCLEAR DESIGN BASICS 198 and Period Positive Reactivities, 254,
256; Neutron Flx after
Period: Negative Reactivities,Formula,
INTRODUCTION Shutdown, 257; The Inhour 258, The
198
Calculation Modules, 199. Prompt-Critical Condition, 260
263
MULTIGROUP DIFFUSION THEORY 201 FissION-PRODUCT PorsONING
General Principles, 201; The Group Diffusion Xenon
Effects of Poisons on Reactivity, 263,; 265;
Equation, 201; Strategy for Solving Multigroup Poisoning during Reactor Operation, Xenon
Equations, 203; Generation of Group Constants, 205; Poisoning after Shutdown, 269; Xenon Spatial
The Group Fission Source Term, 207; Many-Group Oscillations, 272; Samarium Poisoning, 274; Other
Calculations, 208; Few-Group (Macrogroup) Poisons Produced by Fission, 275.
Constants, 211; Heterogeneous Systems, 212; EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON REACTIVITY
276
Space-Dependent Group Fluxes, 214; The General Considerations, 276; Thermnal Reactors, 277;
Multiplication Eigenvalue, 215; Solving the Prompt (Fuel) Temperature Coefficient, 279; Delayed
Few-Group Diffusion Equations, 217: Simplified (Moderator) Temperature Coefficient, 279;
Diffusion Theory Approximation, 218; Fast Reactors, Temperature Coefficients in Thermal Reactors, 282,
220.
Power Coefficient of Reactivity and Power Defect,
FUEL DEPLETION CALcULATIONS 221 283; Coefficient Changes during Operation, 283; Void
General Principles, 221; Simplifying Fuel Depletion Effects and Boiling, 284; Fast Reactors: Doppler
Calculations, 223; Fuel Depletion Isotopic Behavior, Effect, 285, Prompt Temperature Coefficient in Fast
225; Fine Mesh Depletion Calculations, 226; Nodal Reactors, 285; Delayed Temperature Coefficients n
Methods, 226. Fast Reactors, 286.
REACTOR STABILITY ANALYSIS 287
THE NEUTRON TRANSPORT EQUATION AND ITS
APPROXIMATION 227 Reactivity Feedback, 287: Laplace Transform
Represenuation, 289; Fuel-Moderator Time Constant,
Statement of the Transport Equation, 227;
Approximating the Transport Equation, 229; The 290; Transfer Functions, 292; Large lncrease in
Reactivisy, 296.
 ComtenT
ConsenN

RADIATION ATENUATION CALCULATIONS 362

GENERAL FEATURES OF REACTOR CONTROL
362, Radiation
Introduction, 300,: Methods of Control, 301; Control 300 The Point- Kernel Technique, Plane Source, 364: The
Loops, 02: Effectiveness of Control Rods, 303. The Attenuation from aUniform
Factors, 367,
Water-Gap Effect, 305; Control Materials, 306; Exponential Point Kernel, 365: Buildup
Control Svstem Functions. 308; Range of the Control Line Source, 371,
Radiation Aenuation from a Plane Source. 373.
System, 314: Control-Rod Worth Evaluation, 315; Radiation Attenuation from a 376.
Danger Coefficient and Ple Oscillator, 317. Volume- Distributed Source with Self Absorption,
Neutron
REACTIVITY CoNTROL INSTRUMENTATION Polyenergetic Gamma-Ray Sources, 379;
Relaration
Removal Cross Sections, 380; The
318 Length, 384
REACTOR OPERATIONS 384
319 REACTOR SHIELD ANAL YSIS
Introduction, 384: Comparison of the Transport
in
CHAPTER 6 RADIATION PROTECTION AND Problems in Core and Shield, 386, Simplifications
Shield
Shield Analysis, 387; General Approaches to
SHIELDING Ducts
322 Analysis, 388; Secondary Gamma Rays, 389,
395,
INTRODUCTION and Voids, 392, Experimental Measurements,
322 Shielding Calculation Results, 396.
HEALTH PHYSIcs AcTIVITIES HEATING IN SHIELDS
396
Effects of Differenu Types of Radiation, 323; External 323
Introduction, 396; Heating by Gamma Rays, 399;
and Internal Radiation Sources, 325. Heating by Neutrons, 401.
RADIATION UNITS
The Roentgen and the Rad, 327; Photon Flux 327
and HAPTER 7 REACTOR MATERIALS 406
Radiation Dose, 328; Dose Rate and Radioactive
Source Strength, 329; Radiation Dose from
Source, 333; The Rem, 336. Internal INTRODUCTION
406

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION 339

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 407

Introduction, 339; Somatic Effects of Stress- Strain Relationships, 407; Ductile and Briutle
Genetic Effects of Radiation, 342: TheRadiation,
Radiation
340;
Fracture, 409; Ductile to Brittle Transition, 410;
Background, 343; Radiation Dose from Nuclear Fracture Mechanics, 411; Fatigue Failure, 41l;
Power Operations, 345. Creep, 413.
RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS 345
STRESS ANALYSIS 414

Introduction, 345,; Stochastic Effects, 346; ALARA Introduction, 414; Stress Iniensity, 415; Thermal
Program, 347; Standards for Stress, 417; Thermal Sress in Hollow Cylinder with
Individuals, 347; Standards forOccupationally
the General
Exposed No Heat Generation, 421; Thermal Stress in Hollow
Population, 348; Radiation Monitoring, 348. Cylinder with Exponential Heat Source, 423; Factors
Affecting Thermal Stress, 424.
RADIATION SHIELDING PRINCIPLES 348
Introduction, 348; Shield Design, RADIATION EFFECTS IN MATERIALS 425
from Reactor Systems, 352; Fission349; Radiations
Product Gamma General Principles, 425; Atomic DisplacemenLs, 426.
Radiation, 355, Thermal and Biological Shields, 355; Indirect Alomic Displacements, 430; Mechanisms of
Reactor Shielding Requirements, 356; Shielding Radiaion Damage, 431; General Irradiation Effects in
Materials, 359.
 Contents

Metals, 432: Temperature-Dependent Swelling, 434:

Helium Embritlement, 435; Induced Radioactivity,
436.

CORROSION OF METALS
Electrochemical and Chemical Corrosion, 437; 437
Preface
Erosion and Fretting Corrosion, 438; Stress-Corrosion
Cracking, 438; PWR Steam Generator Corrosion, 439.
Hydride Embrittlement, 439; Mass-Transfer
Corrosion, 440; Corrosion Products, 440.
STRUCTURAL AND CLADDING MATERIALS
General Requirements, 441; Stainless Steels, 442: 441
Low-Alloy Carbon Steels, 446; Nickel Alloys, 448:
Zirconium Alloy Fuel Cladding, 449.
MoDERATOR AND REFLECTOR MATERIALS
Introduction, 454; Graphite, 455; 454
459; Heavy Water, 459; Radiation Ordinary Water, of
Decomposition
Water, 460; Zirconium Hydride, 461.
FUEL MATERIALS
Introduction, 462; Uranium Dioxide, 464; Plutonium 462.
Fvels, 469; Thorium Fuel Materials, 469; Coated
Particle Fuels for Gas-Cooled Reactors, 470.
editions of this
senior author of the previous
Dr. Samuel Glasstone, the ninetieth birthday, but passed away in
APPENDIX >ook, was anxious to live until his
milestore. I am grateful for the many
473 1986, a few months short of this preparing this
/ears ofstimulation received during our association, and in
approach.
INDEX dition have attempted to maintain his to serve as a text for students
I-1 Previous editions of this book were intended
and a reference for practicing engineers. Emphasis was given to the broad
Derspective, particularly for topics important to reactor design and oper
ation, with basic coverage provided in such supporting areas as neutronics,
hermal-hydraulics, and materials. This, the Fourth Edition, was prepared
past three
with these same general objectives in mind. However, during the
Jecades, the nuclear industry and university educational programs have
natured considerably, presenting some challenges in meeting the objec
ives of this book.
Nuclear power reactors have become much more complex, with an ac
>ompanying growth in supporting technology. University programs now
offer separate courses covering such basic topics as reactor physics, thermal
1ydraulics, and materials. Finally, the general availability of inexpensiv
 CHAPTER 1

EnergyFrom Nuclear
Fission

INTRODUCTION

1.1, Nuclear fission, when discovered in 1939, showed great promise as

anew sourceof energy that could be converted into inexpensive electricity.
Based on knowledge gained during war-related research, serious devel
opment of nuclear power plants began in the 1950s. Electricity from com
mercial nuclear power plants now is an important contributor to meeting
needs throughout the world. Although it has proven to be not inexpensive,
the cost is competitive with that from other energy sources.
1.2. On the road to the present state of maturity of the nuclear power
industry, it became clear that plants had to be designed and operated
carefully to be both economical and safe. Also, a sophisticated level of
engineering is required. However, a public sensitivity to the hazards of
radiation has arisen which has slowed the growth of the industry and led
to a high level of design conservatism.
1.3. Our goal in this book continues to be the presentation of the en
gineering fundamentals required for the design of nuclear power plants
based on the fission process. The book is divided into two volumes to
 2 Energy From Nuclear Fission Nuclear Energy Fundamennal1

provide a convenient package and user flexibility. The

siders basic topics such as those lecading tothe nuclear first of of the species
design the con-
core as well as radiation protection, shielding, and materials.
volume mass number is the
integer nearest to the atomic weight
volume, we cover the engincering of the reactor system, which In the reactor
second
the consideration.
under
composition of anucleus is
determined by the numbers
Z,
of
respectively
is, by Z and A -by its atomicand
safety, involves
energy transport from the fuel, fuel management, reactor 1.8. The
it contains, thatnucleus
protons and neutronscomposition defined
are and op-
erational matters. Also, some of the newer reactor designs of a is
describe an atomic
examined. In otherwords, the term nuclide is commonly used to a nuclide
mass numbers. The composition; that is to say,Can
NUCLEAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTALS whose nuclei have a specified numbers. Nuclides differ
species given atomic and mass mass num
is a species having having different atomic numbers, different
Atomic Structure and Isotopes from one another by
bers, or both.
the number of protons in the nucleus,
1.4. Although some reader familiarity with modern physics is L.9. The atomic number, i.e., is so because the
a brief review of those topics relevant to asSUmed of an element. This
nuclear energy is presented as a determines the chemical nature (orbital) electrons surrounding the nu
convenience. In a nuclear reactor, most of the nuclear fission chemical properties depend on the protons, since the
pears as heat, which is generally utilized to produce steam for the energypener.ap and their number must be equal to the number of with nuclei
cleus, neutral. Consequently, atomsatomic num
ation of electricity. This final step is similar to that used in a
fossil-fueled atom as a whole is electrically protons, i.c. , with the same
power plant. However, to examine the fission energy production containing the same numbers of chemically,
must first consider the basic concepts of atomic and nuclear step, we different mass numbers, are essentially identical
structure. ber, but with are often markedly different. Such
1.5. An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus although their nuclear characteristics mass numbers, are
negatively charged electrons, so that the atom as a wholesurrounded by number but different
is nuclides, having the same atomic indistinguishable chemically, but have
neutral. Atomic nuclei are composed of two kinds of fundamentalelectrically called isotopes. They are, in general,
namely, protons and neutrons. The proton carries a single unitparticles. different atomic (isotopic) weights.
positive clement is identified by including
charge equal in magnitude to the electronic charge, and is in fact identical 1.10 A particular isotope of a given the element. For example,
with the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, i.e., a hydrogen atom minus its
single the mass number with the name or symbol of mass number of 16, i.e., 8
the common isotope of oxygen, which has a
electron. The neutron is very slightly heavier than the proton (81.12) and, represcented as oxygen
as its name implies, it is an electrically neutral particle. All atomic neutrons and 8 protons in the nucleus, is variously although not necessary,
with the exception of those of ordinary hydrogen, contain one ornucei, 16, 0-16 or l0. In some instances it is convenient,
more atomic number; this is then added to the symbol as a sub
neutrons in addition to protons. to include the
1.6. For a given element, the number of protons script, thus 0.
nucleus (which is the same as the number of positivepresent
in the atomic 1.11. The element oxygen, which prior to 1962 served as the basis of
charges
called the atomic number of the element and is represented by itthe carries) is the atomic weight scale, occurs in nature as three isotopes, namely, O,
Z. It is also equal to the ordinaB number of the symbol "0, and MO, the two latter being present in relatively small proportions.
element in the familiar This situation resulted in the development of two different systems for the
periodic table of the elements. Thus, the atomic
of helium 2, of lithium 3, and so on, up to 92 for number hydrogen is 1, representation of atomic weights. On the chemical atomic weight scale, a
of
uranium, the element of value of exactly 16.000O was assigned to the average (weighted) mass of
highest atomic weight existing in nature to any
heavier elements have been made artificially;ofappreciable extent. Several
these, plutonium, atomic
the atoms of the three isotopes of oxygen in the proportions present in the
atmosphere. However, another scale, sometimes called the physical atomic
number 94, is important in connection with the release of nuclear
1.7. The total number of nucleons, i.e., of protons and energy. weight scale, was based on the assignment of a mass of exactly 16.0000 to
atomic nucleus is called the mass number of the species and is neutrons, in an the atom of the oxygen-16 isotope. Atomic masses on this scale were thus
A. The number of protons is Z, as stated denoted by about 0.028 percent larger than the corresponding conventional atomic
above, and so
neutrons in the atomic nucleus is A - Z. The masses of boththe number of weights. As of January 1, 1962, all atomic (or isotopic) weights have been
neutron and expresed on a single scale which assigns a value of exactly 12.0000 to the
proton are close to unity on the conventional atomic mass scale; hence, common isotope of carbon, C.
 Nuclear Energy Fundamentals
Energy From Nuclear Fission

are expressed in terms of

1.12. Masses of individual atoms exactly one-twelfth of
the thhe
Nuclear Binding Energy
mass unit (abbreviation u), which is atomic
mass of the by means
the atomic mass unit in kilograms is 1.15. The direct determination of nuclear (or isotopic) masses,
1C atom. The equivalent of mass
in the following manner. sameThe mole is defined as the amount of
number of elementary entities,, any
obtasiinnedgle of the mass spectrograph and in other ways, has shown that
the masses of the constituent
the actual
nucleons. The
substance containing the
atoms in 12 x 10-3 kg of 12C;1 e.g., atoms, isalways less than the sum of is related to the energy binding
nuclei, or molecules, as there are this number difference, called the mass defect, which
other words,,
6.022x 1023 per mole. In determined in the following manner.
called the Avogadro number, NA, is x the particles in the nucleus, can bemust contain Z electrons outside the
12 10-7N, kg; hence, the For electrical neutrality, an atom and A Z neutrons in the nucleus.
the mass of asingle Catom is 10-27 kg. The mass of atomic mass
unit (u) is 10-NA, i.e., 1.661 x a
single nucleus, in addition to the Z protons neutron, and electron,
1.673 x 10-" kg, whereas that of the neutron is 1 proton the masses of the proton,
If m,,m,, and m, representthe
is 1.007276 u, i.e.,
i.e.. 1.675 x 10-27 kg. The electron mass is only 0.000549 uor
the mass of an atom due 9.11x
1.008665 respectively, the sum of masses of the constituents
observed mass
of an atom is
of the atom is
10- kg, so that nearly the whole of to the Zm, + Zm, + (A - Z)m, Suppose the
protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
1.13. At the present time, uranium is the most important element for
M; then

It exists in nature in at least thr Mass defect = [Z(m, + m,) + (A - Z)m] - M (1.1)
the release of nuclear energy by fission.
isotopic forms, with mass numbers 234, 235, and 238, respectively. Th = Zmy + (A - Z)m, - M,
together wik
proportions in which these isotopes occur in natural uranium,
is hy f where m, t m has been replaced by m, the massdefect of the hydrogen atom.
their masses, are given in Table 1.1. It is seen that uranium-238 1.008665 u, the mass can be evaluated
always present a little over 07 is 1.007825 and m, is
the most abundant isotope, but there is Since mu
from experiment.
percent of uranium-235. Both of these isotopes are significant for the nro for any nuclide for which the isotopic mass is known
1.16. According to the concept of the equivalence of mass and energy.
duction of nuclear energy, although, as will be seen in due course, it is
chiefly the latter isotope that can be utilized directly for the release
of based on the special theory of relativity, the mass defect is a measure of
of the three isotopes given in the table, namely. the energy which would be released if the individual Z protons and A -
fission energy. The lightest it Z neutrons combined to form a nucleus. Conversely, it is numerically
uranium-234, occurs in such small proportions in uranium minerals that
can be ignored for all practical purposes. equal to the energy which would have to be supplied to break apart the
1.14. The other element which is important from the nuclear energy nucleus intoits constituent nucleons. Thus, the energy equivalent of the
standpoint, thorium, has the atomic number 90. It occurs in nature almost mass defect is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
entirely as a single nuclear species, with mass number 232. There are traces 1.17. From the theory of relativity, the energy equivalent E of a particle
of other isotopic forms, but their proportions are negligible. moving with a speed v is given by the Einstein equation as
E = mge? = mc', (1.2)
(1 - eye
where m, is the rest mass of the particle, i.e., its mass when at rest (v
TABLE i.1. Isotopic Composition of Natural 0), and c is the velocity of light; m is the effective (or relativistic) mass of
Uranium the moving particle, defined by
Isotopic
Mass Atom Mass mo
Number Percent (u) (1 - vy
234 0.(0055 234.0410
235 0.720 235.0439 *The Z electrons contribute a small amount of binding
38 99,274 38.0508 for in the replacement of m, + m, by my energy, but this is largely allowed
in equation (1.1).
 From Nuclear Fission Nuclear Energy Fundamentals
Energy

as the speed of a particle approaches mean binding energy per nucleon; it

is the
It follows, therefore, that tends towards infinity. The speeds the speed A more useful quantity is thedivided by the number of nucleons in the
of light, the effective mass of
of interest in nuclear reactor engineering are almost invariably small inparticles total binding energy (B.E.)
nucleus, ie., by the mass number A. The
general practice in the past has
comparison with the speed of light. Hence, vle is small and may usually per nucleon; hence, from equa
be neglected relativeto unity. In this book, therefore, min equation (1.2) been to express B.E./A in terms of MeV
may be taken to be the same as the conventional (or rest) mass of a partice tions (1.1) and (1.5),

rather than its relativistic mas.

1.18. For the present purpose, equation (1.2) may be modified to rep-
B.E. 931
1.007825 Z+ I.008665(A -Z) - M].
A A
mass rather than the actual values; thus, it
resent changes in energy and the neutron given in
ispermissible to write using the (rest) masses of the hydrogen atom and obtained upon mul
$1.15. The corresponding value in pJ per nucleon is
E= mc',
(1.3) tiplying by 0. 1602.
the conventional
where E is the energy change equivalent to a change m inenergy equivalent Example I.1. Determine the binding energy per nucleon in (a) tin
mass in a particular process. If m is expressed in kg, the 120 for which M is 119.9022 u and (b) uranium-235.
in joules (J) is
(a) The atomic number of tin is 50; hence, for the nuclide of mass
E(J) = m(kg) x (2.998 x 10)? number 120,
= m(kg) x 8.988 x 1016, B.E. 931
((1.007825 x 50) + (1.008665 x 70) - 119.9022]
A 120
$1.12, 1u is 1.61
since the velocity of light is 2.998 x 10 m/s. As seen in = 8.50 MeV (1.36 pJ) per nucleon.
x 10-" kg; hence, it follows that

E(J) = m(u) x 1.492 x 10- 10 (b) The atomic number of uranium is 92; the isotopic mass of uranium
235 is given in Table 1.1 as 235.0439; consequently,
or
B.E. 931
(1.4) A 235 (1.007825 x 92) + (1.008665 x 143) - 235.0439)
E(pJ) = m(u) x 149.2,
=7.59 MeV (1.21 pJ) per nucleon.
where 1 pJ (picojoule) is 10-12J. Anenergy unit that has energy been commonly
used in the nuclear field is the electron volt or eV; this is the acquired 1.20. Values of the binding energy in MeV per nucleon in various nu
a potential
by a unit (electronic) charge which has been accelerated through
hence, 1eVis
clides, obtained in the manner just described, are plotted in Fig. 1.1l as a
of 1volt. The electronic charge is 1.602 x 10-19 coulomb; function of the mass number. Most of the points are seen to fall on or
equivalent to 1.602 x 10-19 J, and 1 million electron volts (or 1 MeV) 5 close to a single curve. This curve shows that the binding energy per nucleon
equivalent to 1.602 x 10-1 J or 0.1602 pJ. It follows, therefore, from is relatively low for nuclei of small mass number but increases, with in
equation (1.4), that creasing mass number, to a broad maximum at about 8 MeV in the mass
(1.5) region of roughly 50 to 75; subsequently the binding energy per nucleon
E(MeV) = m(u) x 931.3. decreases steadily. It can be readily shown (see $1.43) that a process in
is er which a nucleus (or nuclei) of lower binding energy per nucleon, i.e., less
1.19. If the mass defect of a nucleus as given by equation (1.1)
obtained stable, is converted into others of higher binding energy, i.e., more
pressedin atomic mass units, the corresponding binding energy is must be accompanied by the release of energy. Hence, it is apparentstable.
from
in pJ upon multiplying by 149.2 and in MeV upon multiplying by 99l
 Fission
Energy From Nuclear
Nuclear Energy Fundamentals

MeV
NUCLEON,
140
32
-160
12C - 128

PER
ENERGY
BINDING 4He 120

100
(A-Z)

NEUTRONS

100 125 150 175 200 225 250

25
MASS NUMBER OF
with mass number. NUMBER
Fig. 1.1. Variation of binding energy per nucleon

(or fusion)
Fig. 1.1that energy should be obtainable by the combinationthose of high mass
of the lightest nuclei or by the splitting (or fission) of
number. 40
20

Nuclear Stability
known
1.21. If the number of neutrons in each nucleus of the 270 or so
stable nuclides is plotted as ordinate against the corresponding number1.2.of 20

protons as abscissa, a series of points is obtained, as shown in Fig.

Points on the diagonal line in the figure represent equal numbers of neu
trons and protons. It is seen that, in many stable nuclei of low mass number,In --l2
the numbers of neutrons and protons are equal or approximately so. 20
other words, the neutron/proton ratio is exactly or slightly larger than unity.
40 60 80 100
NUMBER OF PROTONS (Z)
With increasing mass (or atomic) number, however, a nucleus is stable
only if it contains more neutrons than protons. Thus, for the heaviest stabie Fig. 1.2. Numbers of neutrons and protons in stable
indicate magic numbers of neutrons and nuclei. (Tbe short dashed lines
nuclei, with atomic numbers of 80 or more, the neutron/proton rato nas protons.)
increased to about 1.5.
1.22. Before attempting an interpretation of the foregoing resuls,so- that tin, which has 50 protons in its
nucleus, exists in ten stable isotopic
should be noted that certain nuclei exhibit exceptional stability. These forms.
called magic nuclei contain the magic numbers of 2, 8, 20, 50, or 82 protots 1.23. The special stability of the mnagic
or 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, or 126 neutrons, as indicated by the dashed linesin ence of completed (or closed) shells of nuclei is attributed to the pres
Fig. 1.2. Nuclei having magic numbers of both protons and neutrons as the inert elements helium, neutrons or protons (or both). Just
said to be "doubly magic'"; examples are g0, Ca, and Pb. In illustra- of electrons, have great neon, argon, etc., which contain closed
shells
bers of nucleons exhibit chemical stability, so the species with magic num
noted
tion of the stability associated with the magic numbers, it may be unusual nuclear stability. In addition to the
magic
 Nuclear Fission
Energy From Nuclear Energy Fundamentals

represented closed main shells, there are

numbers, which
and 28, which correspond to one or more
bers, e.g., 6, 14, subshell. The isotopes of the abundant semiclmoagisedc shelnu.l charged alpha particles, which are identical with
of two protons and two neutrons, or negatively
helium nuclei and consist
charged beta particles, which
plus a completed
Apart from
category.
and silicon fallin this details associated with
the magic
elements carbon
numbers,
are the same as ordinary electrons. The nucleus itself does not contain
electrons, and in radioactive beta decay the electron arises from the
electron; thus
spon
1.24. be accounted for by the al taneous conversion of a neutron into a proton and an
character of Fig. 1.2can postulating
nucleons. First, there are attractive
that
twoof tygener
pes of
forces exist between
equal magnitude amnong the
nucleons. i.e., forces approx
protons Neutron ’ Proton + Electron (Beta particle) + Neutrino.
imately neutrons, and protons attract
protons, neutrons attract characteristic
attractto other
neutrons
the same extent. These
are intranuclear
the order of 10- 1s m only. One
forces operativeabotover The additional neutral particle, with essentially zero mass, called a neu
very short distances, on trino,* carries off some of the energy liberated in the radioactive trans
the short range is that the total attractive force in a consequence
nucleus is roughly of
formation.
proportional to the number of nucleons present: This is the basic 1.27. It follows from the foregoing considerations that the product (or
for the approximate constancy of
the binding energy per
1.1). In nucleon reason
Over a daughter) nucleus of alpha decay has two protons and two neutrons less
large range of mass pumbers (Fig. addition to the short-tange than the parent nucleus, so that its mass number is four units less. On the
conventional
(attractive) forces, there are the electrostatic:(or coulomb) other hand, in beta decay the daughter nucleus has one neutron less and
repulsive forces between the positively charged protons that are capable one proton more than its parent, but the mass number is unchanged.
of acting over relatively large distances. The total electrostatic repulsive 1.28. Radioactivity can arise from a cause other than high atomic num
force between allthe protons in the nucleus is proportional to the sous ber. It is seen that the points representing stable nuclei in Fig. 1.2 fall
of their number, i.e., to Z². There are other repulsive forces amone dh within a narrow range of neutron/proton ratios. Any nuclide having a
nucleons, but these are not significant for the present purpose. composition outside this range is radioactive. If the nucleus lies above the
stability range, i.e., there are too many neutrons for stability, for the given
Radioactivity atomic number, the nuclide exhibits beta activity, similar to that described
above. A neutron is replaced in the nucleus by a proton so that the neutron/
1.25. Provided the atomic (or mass) number is low. the repulsive force proton ratio decreases; the daughter nucleus will be more stable than its
among the protons is small. Hence. since the proton-proton, neutron parent, although not necessarily completely stable.
neutron. and proton-neutron forces are roughly equal, a neutron/proton 1.29. In the event that a nuclide contains too few neutrons to yield a
ratio close to unity is to be expected for stability. But with increasing atomic stable nucleus with a given number of protons, it could become
by emitting an alpha particle, thereby increasing the more stable
number the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, which varies a8
Z', becomes more and more important. In order to maintain stability. the However, this rarely occurs with unstable nuclides of neutron/proton ratio.
nuclei must now contain an increased proportion of neutrons. so that the mass number; with but few exceptions. alpha decay islow and intermediate
attractive neutron-neutron and neutron-proton forces can compensate for the heaviest nuclides. One alternative is for the observed only with
the rapidly growing repulsive forces between the protons. There is alimil. electron which then combines with a proton nucleus to capture an orbital
to form a neutron (plus a
however, to the excess of neutrons over protons which a nucleus can contain neutrino); the net result is an increase in the
and still remain stable: consequently. the elements of atomic number neutron/proton
commonly, however, positive beta decay occurs, i.e., the ratio. More
positive electron (or positron) as a result emission of a
or(uranium)
larger have no stable isotopes. The elements 84 (polonium) through
exist in nature, but they are unstable and exhibit the phenon
of the transformation
enon of radioactivity. Proton ’ Neutron
1.26. Radioactive nuclides undergo definite + Positive electron +
change at a Neutrino.
rate which varies withthe spontaneous
nature of the nuclide. The unstable nucleusemits
a characteristic particle (or radiation) and is thereby transformedinto *Strictly speaking. this particle is an
Nucides
different nucleus, which may (or may not) also be radioactive. positiveh here antineutrino, but the distinction is of no consequence
which owe their instability to their
high mass numbers emit either
12 Energy From Nuclear Fusson
Nuclear Energy Fundamentals 13
which exhibit positive
Many radioactive species are known beta
they are not
quently, such
encountered
radionuclides
in the
will not
operation
be
of nuclear
discussed further in this reactors.decay,
but
Conse- in the medium through which
the neutrons move, they can lose
slow neutrons, with energies of an
much of
electron
1.30. In many cases, although not always, radioactive decay is
book. their kinetic energy and become
kinetic energy can be reduced to such an
extent
with the emission of gamma rays, in addition to an alpha or beta associated volt or less. Ultimately, the
as that of the atoms (or molecules)
that the average is much the same kinetic energy then depends on the
of
Gamma rays are penetrating electromagnetic radiations of
essentially identical with xrays. Infact, the only difference between gamma
high part icle.
energy, the medium. Since the value of
the
Neutrons whose energies have
temperature, it is called the thermal energy. tem
rays and x rays is that the former originate from an atomic nucleus called thermal neutrons. At ordinary
whereas been reduced to this extent are neutrons is less than 0.04 eV.
such
the latter are produced by processes outside the nucleus. Gamma rav peratures, the average energy of of elastic scattering, the first stage in a
ocur in aradioactive change when the daughter nucleus is formed in what L.33. Except for most instances absorption of the neutron by the
is called an excited state, i.e., a state in which it has a higher internal neutron-nucleus interaction is usually the state. In
energy in an excited (high-energy) expels
than the normal (or ground) state of that nucleus. The excess energy is nucleus to form acompound nucleusnucleus almost immediately a
then released almost instantaneously as gamma radiation. Gamma rays inelastic scattering, the compound excited state of the original nucleus.
also accompany other nuclear processes in which nuclei are produced in neutron of lower energy, leaving ancompound nucleus formed by the ab
excited states. Instead of expelling a neutron, a other ways. For example, the excited
sorption of a neutron can change in radiation: this
nucleus can emit its excess energy as gamma
Neutron Reactions compound as capture. The
capture or, in brief,
process is referred to as radiative neutron, is thus an isotope of the
1.31. Although neutrons generally occur bound in nuclei, it is possible residual nucleus, having an additional mass number. Radiative capture
in
to obtain them in the free state ($2.70 et seq.). Such free neutrons can original nucleus but one unit higher and almost
symbol (n, y), are very common
interact in various ways with nuclei. The neutron-nuclei reactions of present processes, represented by the
slow than with fast neutrons.
interest fall mainly into three general categories, namely, scattering, cap invariably occur more readily with
capture reactions are of importance in connec
ture, and fission. In scatering reactions the net result is the exchange of 1.34. Several radiative and two of immediate interest
nuclear reactors,
energy between a neutron and a nucleus. The term "scattering" is used to tion with the operation of the capture of neutrons by uranium
describe such reactions because the neutron remaining after the interaction will be mentioned here. The first isoccurring isotope of this element (see
is generally moving in adifferent direction from that prior to the inter 238, the most abundant naturally may be represented as
action. Scattering can be either elastic or inelastic. In elastic scattering, the Table 1.1); the (n, Y) process in this case
energy exchanged between the neutron and the nucleus is entirely kinetic
in nature. Because neutrons generally have a higher kinetic energy than 20U + hn ’ U+ y.
do atomic nuclei, the kinetic energy of the neutron is
decreased in an with the
elastic collision whereas that of the struck nucleus is increased uranium-239, is radioactive and decays
correspond
ingly. In inelastic scattering, on the other hand, part of the kinetic The resulting nucleus, B(charge -1, mass
indicated by
of the neutron is transferred to the nucleus as energy emission of a negative beta particle,
internal (potential) energy. number zero); thus,
Elastic scattering is possible for neutrons of all energies, but
tering can occur only when the inelastic scat
an excited state of the nucleus. neutron energy is large enough to produce U’ B+ Np.
1.32. When first liberated, free
energies, in the million electron voltneutrons usually possess high kinetic
range, and so they are called jast element of atomic number 93 called
The product 2°Np is an isotope of anexist on earth to any detectable extent.
neutrons." However, as a result of scattering collisions with various nucei neptunium, which does not normally rapidBy, according to
Neptunium-239 is also beta active and decays fairly
*Neutron cnerges have been the process
the primnary units here, note thattraditionally stated in eV and
1 eV = 0.160 x 10- # JMeV; these are retained as
1 MeV 016) 10"J = 0.160 x 10 pJ, and
0160 pJ Np ’ B + Pu.
 Nuclear Fsston
Eaergy rm 15
14 Nuclear Fission

isotope 2*Pu of the element of atomic

This forms the oxcurs in nature in the merest traces
plutonum, which processessimilar to the one just only. number
94
described thus
callet thorium-232 and uranium-238,
respectively, in the manner described
followed by two stages of
in
radioative
senes
1.35.(n.Ay)
bythe of with the naturally occurringthorium-232:
reaction is $1.34 et seq., i.e., by neutron capture to be capable of undergoing fission
Th + hn’ h+ y.
init atet no
known
decay. Several other species are they are highly radioactive and decay so
by neutrons of all energies, but
practical value for the release of nuclear
energy.
rapidly that they have fissionable by neutrons of
1.39. In addition to the nuclides which are
cause fi_sion:
the isotope thorium-2233. This nuclide that require fast neutrons to
all energies, there are some made of thorium-232 and uranium-238. For
the product beingof beta decay: the first is
successive stages
Th B + 3Pa,
undergoes tWo among these, mention may be energy. the only reaction (apart from scat
neutrons below about 1-MeV
but above this threshold value.
fission can also
tering) is radiative capture, uranium-238 is possible with suf
occur. Since fission of thorium-232 and fissionable nuclides. In distinc
as
where "Pa is the svmbol for
protactinium-233: the second is ficiently fast neutrons, they are knownplutonium-239. which will undergo
tion, uranium-233, uranium-235, and
are referred to as fissile nucides.
Pa B + U. fission with neutrons of any energy. can be converted into the
Moreover, since thorium-232 and uranium-238 respectively. they are also
The product. uranium-33. is an isotope of
uranium which isS not found fissile species, uranium-233 and plutonium-239,
called fertile nuclides.
any appreciable amount in nature. 1.40. The importance of fission. from the standpoint of the utilization
1.36. The third important class of interaction between the process is associated with
neutrons and of nuclear energy, lies in two facts. First. unit mass of nuclear fuel. and
nuclei mentioned in §I.31 is fission or. more precisely. nuclear fission. The the release of a large amount of energy per
fission process iS essential to the operation of nuclear reactors: hence, it is accompanied
second, the fission reaction, which is initiated by neutrons. two circum
will be treated below in greater detail than were the two other types of by the liberation of neutrons. It is the combination of these
neutron-nucleus interactions. design of a nuclear reactor in which a self
stances that makes possible the release of en
sustaining fission chain reaction occurs with the continuous by means
started in a few nuclei
ergy. Once the fission reaction has been
NUCLEAR FISSION maintained in other nuclei by
of an external source of neutrons. it can be
that it is only
The Fission Process the neutrons produced in the reaction. It should be noted
with the fissile nuclides that a self-sustaining chain is possible. Thorium
fission
1.37. Fission.caused by the absorption of a neutron. occurs with certain 232 and uranium-238 cannot support a fission chain because the
nuclei of high atomic (and mass) number: the large value of Z. and hence probability is smalleven for neutrons with energies in excess of the thresh
the repulsive force within the nucleus ($1.24). is an important contributory old of 1 MeV, and inelastic scattering soon reduces the energies of many
factor. When fission takes place. the excited compound nucleus formed neutrons below the threshold value.
after absorption of aneutron breaks up into two lighter nuclei. called fission 1.41. The liberation of neutrons in the fission reaction can beexplained
as follows. In the compound nucleus Uformed when a uranium-235
fragments. Ifthe neutron is one of low kinetic energy, i.e., a slow neutron. nucleus captures a neutron. the ratio of neutrons to protons is nearly 1.57:
the two fragment nuclei generally have unequal masses. That is to Sa).
s, mmetrical fission by slow neutrons is rare: in the consequently. when this nucleus splits into two parts, with mass numbers
fissions the mass ratio of the fragments is majority of slow-neuo inthe range of roughly 95 to 140. the average neutron-to-proton ratio in
1.38. Only three nuclides, approximately 2 to
permit storage
the instantaneous products must have the same value. It is seen from Fig.
for a long time, having sufficient stability to plutonium-239. 1.2. however.that this ratio is too large for statbility in nuclei of intermediate
are fissionable bynamely. uranium-233, uranium-235, and mass (cf. §2.201). Consequently. if these nucleiproduced in fission have
to millions of neutrons of all energies, from thermal values (or les) sufficient excitation energy. they can expel neutrons, thereby tending to
electron volts. Of these uranium-235 is the only become more stahle.
oCcurs in nature: the other nuclides, produced artificially from
one which
two are
 Nuclear Fiurion 17
Fisson
Energy From Nulear
released in this manner material should
1.42. The actual number of neutrons is Alternatively, it may be stated that 1kg of fissile
however, to confer stability onthe resulting fission fragments. too of carbon.
the same amount of energy as
be capable of producing kJkg.
about 2,700 metric
small,
of the latter still have too high a ratio of neutrons to protons, and so in Most 10 13,000 Btu/lb).
tons of coal (3.0 x proportion-over 80 percent-of the energy
of fission
accordance with the arguments in $1.25, they are radioactive,
negative beta decay. The fission fragments undergo, on the average, aboutexhibiting 1.45. The major the fission fragments, and this immediately
appears as kinetic energy ofof the remaining 20 percent or so is liberated
four stages of radioactive decay before stable nuclei
are formed. The manifests itself as heat. Part fission fragments
gen- instantaneous gamma rays from excited
eral term fission produts is appl1ed to the complex, highly radioactive in the form of
the fission neutrons; nearly
allof this energy is
muxture of nucides consisting of the fission fragments and their varioue and as kinetic energy of nuclear reactor. The rest of the fission energy is
decay products. converted into heat in a neutrinos, and gamma rays emitted by the
carried by the beta particles, they decay over a period of time. The energy
radioactive fission products as in the form
Fission Energy beta particles and gamma rays also ultimately appearsby matter. The
of the interact with and are absorbed
L.43. The amount of cnergy released when a nucleus undergoes fission of heat as these radiationsenergy for uranium-235, which may be regarded
can be calculated by determining the net decrease in mass from the known distributionof the fission fissile species, is
to all three of the important
Isotopic masses, and utilizing the Einstein mass-energy relationship. A as applying approximately
1.2.
given in Table accompanying the
simple, but instructive although less accurate, alternative procedure is the MeV) energy of the neutrinos because the inter
1.46. The 1.6 pJ (10available
following Disregarding the neutrons involved, since they have a negligible for power production
eftect on the present calculation, the fission reaction may be represented betaradioactivity is not particles and matter is
extremely weak. Virtually all
action between these their energy with them,
(approximately) by
the neutrinos escape from a fission reactor carrying within a reactor by
compensated byy energy released
this loss is partly captured ($9. 12).
Uranium-235 Fisson product A + Fission product B + Energy. but fission, in which neutrons are
nuclear reactions, other thanvariations in the fission energy among the fissile
In uranium-235, the mcan binding energy per nucleon is about 7.6 MeV, In view of this fact and the energy deposited within a reactor
may
as seen in Example 1.1, so that it is possible to write nuclides, the total amount of heatfission in making approximate calculations.
per
be taken to be 32 pJ (200 MeV)one mole of any atomic species contains the
in $1.12,
92 p 143 n Uranium-235 + (235 x 7.6) MeV, 1.47. As seen
of individual atoms (or nuclei). Further
Avogadro number (6.02 x 10)fission releases 32 pJ, i.e., 32 x 10-2 J,
more, each nucleus undergoing would therefore
where p and n represent protons and neutrons, respectively. The mass fission of all the nuclei in l mole TJ, where 1TJ
numbers of the two fission product nuclei are mostly in the range of roughly of heat energy. Complete = 19 x 1012 J = 19
95 to 140, where the binding energy per nucleon is, as in tin-120 for ex liberate (6.02 x 10²)(32 x 10-12) in kilograms of material in 1mole of
= 10'2 J. The mass
ampie, about 8.5 MeV, hence. = lterajoule
Per Fission
92 p 143 n Fission products A and B + (235 x 8.5) Me V. TABLE 1.2. Approximate Distribution of Energy
MeV
pJ
Upon subtracting the two binding energy expressions, the result is
168
26.9
Uranum-235 - Fission products + 210 MeV. Kinetic energy of fission fragments 1.1
Instantaneous gamnma-ray energy 0.8
AA The fission of a single Kinetic energy of fission neutrons 1.1
uranium-235 (or similar)
accompanicd by the release of over 20) MeV (32 pJ) of nucleus is thus Beta particles from fission products L0
he compared with about 4 eV (6.4 x 10pJ) released byenergy. This may
the combusti
Gamma rays from fission products 1.6
Neutrinos 200
of an atom of cartbon-12. Hence, the fission of uranium yields 32
like 3 million tunes as nuch energy as the combustion of the something
same mass
Total fission energy
 ion 19
Energy trom Nu lear
Nurlear Fittion

conventional atomic determ1ned

is cqualto 10 'imes the weight, has undergone fssion can be
any clement
complete fission of 23S x 10 'kg of uranium-235 would produce 19 T), Hence, The percentage of uranium that exarnpie, the total
fundarnentally equivalent. For
19/(235 x 10 ) m 81 TJ. For In everal ways which are (or nuclei) per m' of fuel may be calculated
and fission of I kg would yield number of utanium atoms
the coespond1ng
it233,would
number would be 8I.5 TJ, and for
plutoniuranium-29um
be 79.5 TJ In view of the small uncertainties involved, a useful from the density and the
Avoyadro number; thus.

isthat complete fission of 1 kg of fissile material will

NOapproximation
TJ of heat energy; this is equivalent to 2.2 x 10' kilowatt-hourn release 27) 1) 'kp/mole
(kW h). In areactor, more than I kg of fissile material is consumed
S0 TJ because some of the fissile nuclei are lost in nonfission reactions 1(", it follows that (1007.4
10
($2 178) Since the number of fissions is 7.4 uranium has undergone fission. Alter
1.48. Since I Jis equivalent to l watt-sccond (W s), it follows that t (2.3 J(P") - 32 percent of theapproximations that complete fission of
TJ is cqual to 11.6megawatt-days (MW d). Hence, the 80 TJ produced natively. ue may be made of theTJ of thermal energy (1.47) or that 1.08
H)
by the complete fission of Ikg of fissile material is equivalent to 92% Ikg of uranium yields about
roughly 1000 MWd (31.48).
kg of uranium produces percent
MW d. A rough pproximation, therefore, is that fission of 1.08 kg of diozide fuels is that the fission of 1
fissile material will produce 1000 MW d of thermal energy. Another A rouph rule of thumb forelernents) corresponds to 2.3 1P fissions
number that is somctimes useful is based on the release of 32 pJ (or 3.2 x of uranium (or other fissile 10,(000 MW d't, or 0.86 TJkg U
10 " ) per fission. Consequently, 1/(3.2 x 10 ") 3.1 x 100 fissions m' and a burnup of almost
are required to produce IJof heat energy.
Crítical Mass
of fission
Example l.2. The cumulative exposure of a nuclear ful in a reactor neutrons are hberated in each act
I.49. Since two or three chain, it would seem
(or "burnup")) has been expressed in terms of megawatt-days (MW d) of maintain a fission
whereas only one is required to initiated in a given mass of fissile ma
thermal energy per metric ton (1), i.e., 10XX0 kg of total uranium fuel; in were
that once the fission reaction such is not the case because
the Sl system of units. IMW d/ is equivalent to 86,4 MJ/kg. Suppose a However,
terial, it would readilysustain itself. are available to carry on the fission
uranium doxide (U0,) fuel, with a density of 10.4 x 10' kg/m', has a in fission
burnup of 30,000 MW dt, what is the number of fissions per cubic meter not allthe neutrons produced in nonfission reactions (mainly radiative
chain Some neutrons are lost with the
of fuel and what percentage of the uranium has undergone fission? extraneous materials present and even
capture) with the various entirely from the system
neutrons escape
fissile specics itself, whereas other of neutrons lost by escape through the
As seen in §1.48, agood approximation is to assume that 3.1 X 10" undergoing fissson. The fraction by increasing the size (or
mass) of
fissions produce 1J of energy (or 3.| x 10 fissions/MJ); hence, geometric boundaries can be reduced capable
quantity of such material that is
IMW d/t 8o 4MJ/kg - (%% 4)(3.I the fissile material. The minimum called the critical mass.
104) of sustaining a fission chain ismaterial required for a reactor depends upon
-27 x 10" fissionskg U. I.50. The critical mass of it
although for any specific reactor system
Ifthe uranium in thedoxide is assuned to be a wide variety of conditions,Thus, the critical mass of uranium-235 may
238 32 - 270 kg of U0,contains 238 kg of mainly uranium-238, then always has a definite value. water of
system consisting of a solution in
of the UO, Is 10 4 x 0' ky/m". this uranium. Since the density range from less than Ikg for a 9 percent of the fissile isotope, to more
-92 * 10' kg U'n'. Hence, represents (10.4 10'%238)(270) a saltof uranium containing about natural uranium embedded in a matrix
than200kg present in 30,00O kg ofcontaining about 0.7 percent of uranium
M), O MW d 3 10"27 of graphite. Natural uranium alone, matter how large its mass, because too
0")(9.2 x 10') 235, can never become critical, no
neutrons are lost in nonfission reactions.
high a proportion of the fission
74 102 issons/m'
 Nuclear Fission Reactors 21
Fution
20 Eergy From Nuclear

NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS pressurized liquid water or provide

Water-cooled reactors may either use the core, in which case there is no
boiled directly in
General Features for the water to be component.
need for the steam generator working fluid,
the temperature of the steam or other
1.51. Reactors of various types have some general features in cCommo 1.54. The higher
efficiency for conversion into electricity. Hence,
in a power
greater the temperature. In
As shown in outline in Fig. 1.3, a reactor consists of a core, containing the the at the highest practical
fuel, in which heat is released from the fission reaction. In thermal reactors reactor, it is desirable to operate desirable to minimize the core inventory
also
in which most of the fissions result fron the absorption of slow neutrone the interest of economy, it is of engineering considerations are involved
of fissile material. A number are described in the
there is also present amoderator in the core. The function of the moderator achieving a design that will meet these goals. These
s to slow down the high-energy neutrons liberated in the fission reaction, in book.
second volume of this nuclear fission
mainly by elastic scattering. The best moderators are materials consisting
1.55. The rate of heat generation is proportional to theneutron density,
of elements of low mass number with little tendency to capture neutrons given reactor core, by the
rate and this is determined, in a including startup,
such as ordinary water, heavy water (deuterium oxide), and graphite (carbon). neutrons per unit volume. Control,
I.52. The core is surrounded by a neutron reflector, the purpose of i.e., the number of and shutdown, is thus
achieved by
which is to decrease the loss of neutrons from the core by scattering back operation at any desired power level, core. This is generally done by moving
varying the neutron density in theneutrons readily, i.e., a neutron poison.
many of those which have escaped. Hence, the use of a reflector results rods of a material that absorbs
in adecrease in the critical mass of the fissile nuclide. Generally, the same cadmium, results in a decrease in the
material as used for the moderator serves as a reflector. Sometimes, the Insertion of a poison, e.g., boron or property)of the core and, consequently,
reactivity (or neutron multiplying is
reflector is supplemented by a ring of high-density material at the core density. Hence, the reactor power level
periphery. In fast reactors, the fissions in the fuel result from the capture in adecrease of the neutron other hand, is accompanied by
of high-energy neutrons produced by a previous fission. Thus, there is no reduced. Withdrawal of the poison,on the thus in the neutron density
properties and
neutron slowing down and no moderator. Such reactors se a reflector an increase in the multiplying
experimental (especially fast) reactors have been
consisting of high-mas5-number elements. and power level. Some reflector; this causes a
1.53. Acoolant circulating through the core may controlled by displacement of part of the core or the neutrons to escape.
transfer the heat to a decrease in the neutron density by allowing some of
sleam generator from which steam can then be used in a
the coolant isturbine-generator
to produce electricity. In most
although pressurized helium gasreactors, ordinary
and sodium are used in some water,
Reactor Types
designs. 1.56. In the United States, commercial power
reactors are either of the
(BWR) type.
Fig. 13. Schematc repreentation of a pressurized-water reactor (PWR) or boiling-water reactor
CONTROL
pressurized-water reactor system. for orientation purposes.
These will be described very briefly here water-cooled and moderated
Addi
RODS tional material is given in Volume II. Heavy
COOLANT types, which will be
REFLECTOP. reactors are used commercially in Canada. Other countries. Fast
described in Volume II, have been developed in other
breeder reactors are of interest but are still under development.
reactor steam
STEAM TO 1.57. A schematic representation of a pressurized water
CORE TURBINE supply system is shown in Fig. 1.4. For atypical large systemmsupplying and
HEAT EXCHANGER 1300MW of electrical power, the cylindrical core is about 4.2 high about
assemblies, each consisting of
(STEAM GENERATOR) 3.4 macross. It contains about 200 fuel
200 vertical rods in a square array. In some of the assemblies, spaces are
left for guide tubes into which control rods can be inserted. Outside the
PUMP
WATER FROM core and inside the vessel is a steel cylinder (shroud) used for coolant flow
CONDENSER separation. The system operates at a pressure of about 15.5 MPa (2250
psia) with a core outlet coolant temperature of about 330°C. The energy
 Eergy Fro Nacieur Fa Nuclear Fission Reactors 23

STEAM
(TO TURBINE)

SECONDAAY
LOOP STEAM
STEAM
(TO TURBINE)
CON TROS -FEEDWATER
(FROM
DRYERS
STE AM
CONDENSER) SEPARATORS
WATER
STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL FEEDWATER
(FROM CONDENSER)
SHAOUD

JET PUMP
CORE

|sucTION +DRIVING
FLOW FROM
RECIRCULATION RECIRCULATION
CORE
-oowNCOMER PUMP PUMP
-PRIMARY LOOP
REACTOR
VESSE L
2EACTOR PUMP CONTROLS
VESSEL
-WATER -DIFFUSER

Fi l4 Schenatc represeatatioe of a pressurized-water reactor (PWR) steam supply

steT (Oaiy coc of the to. three. or four steam generators is shown.)

in the ciralating pressurized water coolant is then

transferred to
arculating boiling water in the steam generator operating at separately
supply
boiling-water reactor (BWR) steam
pressure of about 7.6 MPa the lower Schematic representation of a
(1100 psia). Fig. 1.5.
158 As shown in Fig 1.5, steam is generated system.
boding-water reactor. However, to assure adegquatedirectly
in the core of a
nuclear
passing through the core is circulated at a rate such that stability, water reprocessed in Europe,
percent by mass of the flow is converted to only about 14 significant fissile and fertile material, ismatters will be described
contains These
arcalated Provision is made above the core to steam. The remainder is re the United States.
but is being stored in
entrained water, which is thea recirculated. separate the steam from in Chapters 10 and
11.
The
than that for a PWR, diameter
core is somewhat of a tvpical BWR
the height is aboutlarger
3.8 m. The pressure is namely about 4.8 m, but History of Reactor
Developmernt
concep
(1050 psia), which is considerably maintained at about 7.24 MPa
less than that for a PWR. Atypical the discovery of fission in 1939, preliminary
However, it was
temperature is 289C. steam 1.60. Shortly after were formulated.
159. nuclear power plants pressure of a wartime
nuclear
Associated with each reactor type is the nuclear fuel tual designs for
2, 1942, under the reaction was
s coOcerned with all stages in the life system, which not until December self-sustaining fission chain
with the mining of the uranium ore. Ahistory of the reactor fuel. weapons program, that the first
Chicago. It was soon
realized that it
fuei in the core. For an key is starting
requirement management demonstrated at the University of
operating at high power to
operating reactor, the of build large reactors
core, whach normally inciudes both
fresh and
must be developed well in advance of the specifications
for a reload
reinserted fuel assemblies, would be necessary to use in nuclear weapons. Subsequently, an ex
operation
scheduled produce plutonium-239 forinitial design power of l000 kW began
The necessary effort, which requires
and regulatory factors isconsideration
shutof down for refueling. perimental reactor with an This uranium
metal-fueled,
Tennessee in November 1943. as the prototype for a num
design, safety,
or sometimes nuctear fuel known as
management. Spent fuel, core
economic, nuclear
fuel at Oak Ridge,
graphite-moderated, air-cooled reactor
served
near Hanford, Washing
which
incimanagement
dental y still, ber of large plutonium
production reactors built
 Fission Nuclear Fission Reactors 25
24 Energy From Nuclear

were water-cooled. attained

ton, The first of these, which
September 1944.
criticality in Role of the Computer
meet the need
number of reactors for computers were initially developed to behavior.
1.61. During the next ten years, a Sim
purposes were constructed in the United States and elsewhere. experiCanadi
mentaanl for
1.67. Large
sophisticated
digital
mathematical modeling of nuclear weapon program in
submarine
needs of the nuclearimproved machines and
water for moderation. Experimental ilarly, the reactor engineering
reactors made use of heavy
reactors also were developed during this period. fast-neutron rapid development of
the 1950s resulted in the from its very beginnings, nuclear reactor engi
L.62. Reactors for the generation of electric power evolved in the Unitea necessary software. Thus, Originally, only
States from the submarine reactor program. It was early realized that a neering has made maximum use of computer approaches.
adequate for core design
computers were
compact nuclear reactor fueled for along period of operationwould permit the most powerful mainframe the capability of smaller computers has in
a submarine to make long undersea voyages at high speed. Therefore and other tasks. However, as the workstation and micro level, significant
development program was initiated in 1948 based on aconcept using highly creased, particularly those at have evolved. Data bases and software are
uses in design and education computers. These are
enriched uranium as fuel and pressurized water as both moderator and task using appropriate
coolant. The U.S.S. Nautilus, the first nuclear-powered submarine result. available for almost every Computer-based methods are essential for the
updated continually. referred to
ing from this program, began sea trials in January 1955. Since that time, being reactor engineering and will be
nuclear propulsion for naval vessels has been widely implemented. practice of modern nuclear
throughout this book.
1.63. Experience gained in the submárine reactor program led to the
application of the pressurized-water concept to central station nuclear power Computer Code Maintenance
plants, starting with the Shippingport, Pennsylvania system, which went
many hundreds of computer codes have
into operation in 1957. The PWR concept, using slightly enriched uranium
dioxide, has since been used in hundreds of reactor power plants through 1.68. In the past three decades, reactor engineer. Originally concen
out the world. been developed to serve the nuclearthe computer code development effort
1.64. The logical possibility of producing steam directly in the trated in the area of reactor physics, aspects of reactor engineering. Partic
all
has made available programs inthermal-hydraulics,
proved as the basis for a practical reactor concept by a series of core was safety, and structural
(BORAX) initiated in Idaho in 1953. Subsequent developmentexperiments ularly significant are those in
led to the analysis. developed, it is necessary to maintain
Experimental Boiling Water Reactor at 1.69. After the software has been
which first generated electricity in 1956. AArgonne National Laboratory, its period of use, which may extend com
over
operating nuclear power plants are now of thesignificant fraction of present it in operationalcondition during required if there are changes in
1.65. Mention must be made of the boiling-water reactor type. some years. Reprogramming may befrom time to time to check the quality
in the United Kingdom, development of gas-cooled reactors
which evolved from experience puter hardware. It is also desirable
standard "benchmark" problems that are
graphite-moderated with air-cooled,
reactors for the production of plutonium, of a code by running so-called area of specialization. Finally, the
Hall dual-purpose (power The Calder generally available in the specific code
and
fueled with natural uranium, plutonium production) reactor in 1956 was need for administrative control is worthy of mention. Archival copies of
moderated with graphite, and cooled with possibility recognized that different
pressurized carbon dioxide. More codes must be safeguarded and the "improvements" are made by
slightly enriched uranium for fuel.advanced power production reactors use versions of the samne code might evolve as
tors have been developed in the UnitedSeveralhelium-coolGermany.
ed prototype reac- users.
as the basis for a modular
approach States
that has beenand These serve
concept ($15.32). proposed as an advanced Code Availability
1.66. Also of note is the fast
neutron reactor, which when
plutonium has the potential for breeding 1.70. Nuclear reactor engineering codes are available from a variety of
uranium-238 (91.34). Vaiious experimentalnew fuel by fueled I with Software Center at Argonne, Ilinois has a
neutron capture in sources. The National Energydistribution various benchmark
and in addition to
Europe. ype reactors
protot
operated both in the United States and large collection available for
eration of the EBR-Il reactor in ldaho, inrated at Very have
problems. Codes of shielding interest are available from
the Radiation
years, starting in 1961, has 20 satisfactooverry 30
op Shielding Information Center ($6. 159)at Oak Ridge,
Tennessee. Packages
demonstrated the
feasibilitMW(el
y of the), forconcept. lor programs developed with support from the
Electric Power Research
26 Energy From Nuclear Fission
Problems 21

Institute are available on alicense fee basis from the Electric

ware Center in Dallas, Texas. These represent only some of Power Sot.
the using the masses H =
3.01605: He =
1.007825; H = 2.014102; H = reactions occur
available for computer software. In modern engineering practice, sources
first two
= 1.008665 u. The
3.016030, He = 4.002603; n in the second
important "tool." This topic will be appro same rate, and the 'H (tritium) formed Estimate the
priate software is an
inChapter 8.
further discussed simultaneously at the
reaction then interacts rapidly
that
('H) nucleus.
with a deuterium theoretically from 1kg of
would be obtainable
total amount of energy above. Compare
the three fusion reactions givenuranium-235.
deuterium as a result of kg of
energy available from 1
the result with the fission
GENERAL REFERENCES

BURCHAM, W. E., "Elements of Nuclear Physics," Longman, 1981.

CoLE, H. A., "Understanding Nuclear Power," Gower Publishing Co., 1988.
GLASSTONE,S., "Energy Deskbook," U.S. DOE, Oak Ridge, TN, 1982.
LAMARSH, J. R.. "Introduction to Nuclear Engineering," 2nd Ed., Addison- Wesey
Publishing Co., 1983.
MURRAY, R. L. "Nuclear Energy." 3rd Ed., Pergamon Press, 1988.
NERO, A. V., JR., "A Guidebook to Nuclear Reactors," University of Califormia
Press, 1979.
RIPPON, S., "Nuclear Energy." Heinemann, 1984.

PROBLEMS
1. The approximate heating value of coal is 3.25 x 10 kJ/kg
Amodern coal-fired power plant rated at 1000 (14,000 Btulb).
input of about 2600 MW from fuel. (a) MW(el) requires a thermal
for 50 percent of the time in a calendarAssuming operation at rated power
would be required? (b) If 6.2 percent of year, how many kilograms of coal
the coal used is discharged as ash,
what is the annual ash accumulation?
2 A light water-cooled nuclear
require approximately 3100 MWpower plant rated at 1000
of thermal input from the MW(el) would
the mass of fuel that has fuel. Estimate
fissioned during a year of
plant capacity factor. The
capacity factor is theoperation 80 percent
at
erated in a given period to plant
the amount that could be ratio of energy gen
operated continuously. Note that the mass produced if the plant
as a result of fission since each
atom
fissioned is
not the loss in mass
3 Calculate the energy in MeV releasedfissioned forms fission product nuclides.
in each of the three
reactions:
following fusion
H + H’ He + tn
H + H’ }He + H
H + H’ He + }n.