journey through time

A history textbook

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Published by Shikshan Books & Stationery Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai
 Publisher’s Note

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01 January 2020
 R
Hello friends! I am obittoo, the robot. I will be your friend and guide you
through this book. I will take you on an adventure every time you begin a
new chapter, until you master it. Sometimes, you will see me helping you
understand the chapter. And at other times, I will test your knowledge. But
at all times, I will ensure that you enjoy the journey of learning. Before we
get on board, let me help you understand the key elements of this book.

Tune In
creative activities and questions
which invoke curiosity and give you a
chance to express your thoughts and
ideas before the chapter is introduced

Let’s Learn
essential
ti l concepts
t th thatt you will
ill
Tickle Your Brain learn by the end of the lesson
thought provoking questions that
will help develop your interpretive
thinking skills

Source Study Did You Know

will help you to be critical interesting facts related to the
and analytical and to develop content in the chapter
investigative qualities towards
the subject by understanding
how historians develop facts by
scrutinizing various sources

Timeline
Rapid Round
the chronology of events depicted in
questions placed at regular a visually appealing manner to help
intervals in the chapter to assess you understand and analyse historical
your understanding events better
 Key Elements

Global Connection

helps you make more sense of the

period of history that you are studying
by providing an overview of another
WEBLINKS contemporary event
links to different websites
which will help you enrich
your knowledge further

People Who Made History

Word Galaxy
draws your attention to and inspires
you by providing information about new and important words and their
exceptional personalities such as meanings to improve your vocabulary
inventors, geographers, social activists,
environmentalist and even common
people, who have made significant
contributions in the field of geography
and society as a whole

HOTS Concept Map

questions that require Higher Order
Thinking Skills related to the content a summary of the chapter in the
which enable you to critically evaluate form of a graphic organiser which
and analyse the content. will help you to understand and
remember the content better

Let’s Exercise

creatively designed questions and

activities that aim to evaluate your
understanding of the concept through
different techniques
 Pledge

India is my country.
All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country and I am proud of its rich
and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all
elders respect
and treat everyone with courtesy.
To my country and my people,
I pledge my devotion.
In their well being
and prosperity alone,
lies my happiness.
 CONTENTS

HISTORY

1. Traces of Modern Indian History........................................................01

2. Beginning of Colonial Rule in India ...................................................10

3. Agrarian Policies of the British ...........................................................24

4. Tribal Societies and the Colonial Rule ...............................................34

5. The Great Uprising of 1857 .................................................................44

6. Crafts and Industries under the British Rule .....................................58

7. Education and the Colonial Rule ........................................................67

8. Indian Renaissance ...............................................................................79

9. Struggle for India’s Independence...................................................... 91

10. India: Towards Building A Nation ..................................................... 106

CIVICS
11. Indian Constitution – A Revelation ..................................................115

12. Fundamental Rights and Duties .......................................................124

13. Directive Principles of State Policy ...................................................132

14. The Indian Parliament ........................................................................139

15. The Union Executive...........................................................................149

16. The Indian Judiciary ...........................................................................156

17. Understanding Criminal Justice System ............................................... 165

18. Marginalisation and Social Justice .......................................................... 172

19. Public Facilities, Law and Social Justice................................................. 179

 1. Traces of Modern Indian History

Let’s Learn
 Periodisation and colonisation
 Sources to study the modern history of India

Tune In
“Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall
redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of
the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment
comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to new, when an
age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance...
...The ambition of the greatest man of our generation has been to wipe every tear from
every eye. That may be beyond us, but so long as there are tears and suffering, so long our
work will not be over. And so we have to labour and to work, and work hard, to give reality
to our dreams. Those dreams are for India, but they are also for the world.”
 What is the message delivered by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in his speech
‘Tryst of Destiny’?

The Indian National

The Battle of Plassey
Congress was founded

1600 CE 1757 CE 1857 CE 1885 CE 1947 CE

The English East India

India gets
Company acquired a The Great Uprising
independence
charter to trade with India

The modern period of Indian history is primarily marked by the arrival of the East India Company.
The collapse of several medieval kingdoms and the advent of the European trading companies
such as those of the Portuguese, British, and French, etc. opened another chapter of Indian
history. It was the East India Company of the British which outdid the others and established
their foot on Indian soil.
Periodisation and Colonisation
Last year, you studied the history of the Medieval Period of India. This year you will read about
the Modern period. James Mill, a Scottish historian in his book, A History of British India divided

*Note: Generally the British were referred to as English untill 1857.

1
Indian history into three periods, namely, Hindu, Muslim and British. Mill’s view was widely
accepted. However, the later historians criticised Mill’s periodisation and referred the periods
as ancient, medieval and modern.
Many historians refer to the modern period as colonial period because India then became a
colony of the British. The process in which one country acquires control over another leading
to the various kinds of political, economic, social and cultural changes in the former is called
colonisation. The subjugated country is a colony whereas the country that rules is called the
imperialist country.
The Industrial Revolution that occurred in England during the eighteenth century led to the
considerable growth in the industrial production. Many European countries such as England
started looking out for territories or markets for their finished products that would also supply
resources for their domestic industries. Thus, several European nations colonised non-European
countries and India became a colony of England.

Sources to Study the Modern History of India

There are ample sources available to reconstruct the history of the modern period. This includes
official records, autobiographies, newspapers, photographs, etc.

Administrative records
The most important source of information comprises administrative records, that is, official
documents. The British officials not only believed in keeping a record of every official proceeding
but also carefully preserved the important documents and papers. They set up record rooms
and specialised institutions such as archives and museums to preserve the records. Most of
these materials are available in the National Archives of India at New Delhi and the India Office
Records in London. The India Office Records are administered by the British Library; over 300
collections and over 3000 smaller deposits of private papers are a significant source of the
British experience in India.

Diaries, autobiographies and travelogues

Although the vast corpus of official records helps us to derive much information about the
modern period, it tells us only about official views, interests and wishes of the British. But, if we look
beyond this, there are diaries of people, accounts of pilgrims and travellers, autobiographies
and biographies of important personalities and national leaders are also important to study
the modern period. The autobiography of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru Toward Freedom, Waiting
For A Visa written by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Mahatma Gandhi’s autobiography, The Story
of My Experiments with Truth reveal facts which are unknown to the common people. While
referring to such sources, historians have to be cautious enough as these are primarily based
on personal experiences and may not provide holistic view.

2
Newspapers, books, magazines, letters and pamphlets
The introduction of printing press gave impetus
to production of books and newspapers. The
ideas and thoughts of eminent personalities were
documented. Several newspapers, magazines
and pamphlets were printed in regional
languages to spread their ideas.
Newspapers played a vital role in national
awakening. These are very useful for the study
of the freedom struggle. Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s
newspaper Kesari in Marathi played a great role in
moulding the public opinion during the freedom Fig. 1.1: Marathi Newspaper ‘Kesari’

struggle. Books such as ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ written by Dadabhai Naoroji are
important in order to understand the economic history of this period. The book throws light on
the deep insight into several topics. Personal correspondence, official letters of national leaders,
great historical personalities and of the British officials provide window to peep into the past.
For example, letters written by
Did You Know
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to his
The Bengal Gazette, the
daughter, Indira Gandhi are a very
first newspaper in India
useful source to understand the
was published in 1780.
prevailing situation. These can
It was edited by James
be used to understand events of
Hicky. Fig. 1.2: Bengal Gazette Newspaper
historical importance.

Historical buildings, photographs and paintings

Historical monuments such as Gateway of India, Rashtrapati Bhawan, India Gate, etc. speak
about the architectural style prevalent during the period. They also furnished knowledge about
political developments of the region.

Fig. 1.3: India Gate Fig. 1.4: Names of the Martyrs

3
 Did You Know
The walls of India Gate bear the names of the Indian soldiers and British officers who died
in World War I and the Afghan Wars fighting for the British.

The Gateway of India was built by the British to commemorate the visit of King George V and
Queen Mary to Mumbai in December 1911.

Source Study

Fig. 1.5: Gateway of India Fig. 1.6: Inscription on the arch of the Gateway of India

Study the given source and answer the following question.

 How does a monument help in the reconstruction of history?

A photograph is a visually recorded source that conveys many historical facts and realities. The
picture of Gateway of India is the photographic representation. It is located in Mumbai but can
be viewed by anyone living in distant places as it provides the exact image of the present-day
state of monument. While referring to a photograph as a source to reconstruct history, one
has to have a critical approach to check whether it is morphed or not as it would not provide
authentic information.

Paintings are also a valuable source of information for the study of modern period. Paintings
received great encouragement during the period. Western methods and techniques were
introduced into the Indian art. Paintings throw light on the various aspects of the modern period.
Paintings can also be used as a source to corroborate evidence gleaned from other sources.

Rapid Round
1. Name the trading companies that arrived in India.
2. Many historians refer to the modern period as .
3. The are administered by the British Library.

4
Surveys and mapping
The British believed that for the purpose of better administration
of any country, it is important to know that country properly.
Efforts were made to know necessary facts such as topography,
quality of soil, flora, fauna, cropping patterns, etc. Thus, they
carried out detailed surveys and prepared maps. Revenue
surveys were conducted in villages. The Survey of India is the
oldest scientific department of the Government of India set
up in 1767. Fig. 1.7: Sir George Everest

Mr. William Lambton and Sir George Everest completed the work of gathering data of Indian
terrain. Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world, was discovered by the Survey of India. In
1865 it was named after Sir George Everest, the British surveyor-general of India. From the end
of the nineteenth century, the census held every ten years has enabled the administration to
prepare detailed records of the number of people living in India. Information pertinent to their
castes, religions and occupations was also collected. In 1830, Henry Walter conducted the first
complete census of an Indian city in Dhaka. This collection of population statistics have often
been used to draw various policies for the nation.

Did You Know

The Rig Veda gives the information that some kind of population count was kept during
800BCE–600 BCE in India.

Oral sources and films

Before the invention of writing, information was transmitted by word
of mouth through successive generations, which falls in the category
of oral sources. History written by using oral sources is known
as Oral History. Interviews, recordings of people and witnesses to
historical events such as freedom struggle, partition of India provide
anecdotes, exciting stories and other information about the past. The
credibility of such sources has often been questioned but when there
is paucity of sources, these are very useful.
Apart from traditional historical sources, films are also a great source
to study the history of modern period. There are several films based
on true events and important issues unfolding many historical facts. Fig. 1.8: Movie Poster
of ’Sardar’
Even though films are primarily made for entertainment purpose,
they give some insight into the period of our study. Films such as ‘Lagaan’, ‘Khelein Hum Jee
Jaan Sey’, etc. throw light on the clashes between the British colonisers and the Indian subjects.

5
On the other hand, films such as Gandhi, Shaheed Bhagat Singh, Sardar, etc. made on historical
personalities are of immense help not only to understand their personal lives but also to study
their contribution in the struggle of Independence.

Rapid Round

1. The Survey of India was set up in .

2. Who is Mount Everest named after?

Global Connection
The Tokugawa Period (1603–1867)
In the History of Japan, the period from 1603 to 1867 is known as
the Tokugawa period, as the country was ruled by the Shoguns
of the Tokugawa family. Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the
dynasty defeated all his rival warlords and unified Japan under
his rule. The period was characterised by internal peace, political
stability, and economic growth. This period is also known as the
Fig. 1.9: Statue of
Edo period, named after the Tokugawa administrative capital city
Tokugawa Ieyasu
of Edo (now Tokyo).

Word Galaxy

corroborate – evidence which confirms or supports a statement, theory, etc.

credibility – the quality of being convincing or believable
glean – obtain (information) from various sources, often with difficulty
paucity – the presence of something in only small or insufficient quantities or amounts

Concept Map
_ŎÞŘÞǣǼNjǼÞɚsNjsOŸNj_ǣ

_ÞNjÞsǣʰȖǼŸEÞŸ¶NjƼÌÞsǣŘ_ǼNjɚsĶŸ¶Ȗsǣ

ŘsɠǣƼƼsNjǣʰEŸŸĨǣʰŎ¶ʊÞŘsǣʰ
ǣŸȖNjOsǣǼŸǣǼȖ_ɴ ĶsǼǼsNjǣŘ_ƼŎƼÌĶsǼǣ
ǼÌsŎŸ_sNjŘÌÞǣǼŸNjɴŸ¯ÝŘ_Þ
ÌÞǣǼŸNjÞOĶEȖÞĶ_Þضǣʰ
ƼÌŸǼŸ¶NjƼÌǣŘ_ƼÞŘǼÞضǣ
ǻNjOsǣŸ¯ōŸ_sNjŘ
ÝŘ_ÞŘËÞǣǼŸNjɴ ǣȖNjɚsɴǣŘ_ŎƼƼÞض
ƼsNjÞŸ_ÞǣǼÞŸŘ Ř_
ŸNjĶǣŸȖNjOsǣŘ_¯ÞĶŎǣ
OŸĶŸŘÞǣǼÞŸŘ

6
 Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) divided Indian history into three periods, namely, Hindu, Muslim
and British.

i) John Stuart Mill ii) James Mill

iii) James Hicky iv) Indira Gandhi

b) The National Archives of India are located at .

i) Mumbai ii) Kolkata

iii) New Delhi iv) London

c) Kesari in Marathi played a great role in moulding the public opinion

during the freedom struggle.

i) Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s ii) Mahatma Gandhi’s

iii) Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar’s iv) Indira Gandhi’s

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) was the first newspaper in India.

b) ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ was written by .

c) conducted the first complete census of an Indian city in Dhaka.

d) The subjugated country is a colony whereas the country that rules is called the
.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) The Story of My Experiments with Truth i) Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar

b) Toward Freedom ii) Mahatma Gandhi

c) Waiting For A Visa iii) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

d) A History of British India iv) Sir George Everest

e) The British Surveyor-general of India v) James Mill

7
4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Why was the Gateway of India built?

b) Why did the British carry out detailed surveys and prepare maps?

c) What does the term ‘colonisation’ mean?

d) What information do the walls of India Gate provide?

e) How can the paintings be used as a source to study the history of the modern period?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Write a note on periodisation.

b) Why the administrative records are important for study?

c) Describe oral sources.

d) Why is the photograph useful to reconstruct the history of modern India?

e) What information do the diaries, autobiographies and travelogues give us?

6. Give reasons.
a) Population statistics have often been used to draw various policies for the nation.

b) Films give some insight into the modern period of Indian history.

7. How do you think that India could have saved itself from being a colony of
the British?

8. Life Skills
According to you, what are the different methods that can be adopted to preserve
various sources?

Do it to know it!

9. Research Work: Find out five films made on historical personalities of the period under
study. What information can you draw about the modern period? Write a report on it.

10. Make a Poster: Make an illustrative poster on different sources of the modern period.

11. Make a Chart: Collect information about the other names of Mount Everest and make a chart.

12. Creative Writing: Imagine yourself to be a hisorian. Write a letter to your friend sharing
your views on James Mill’s periodisation of Indian history.

8
 People Who Made History

James Mill
James Mill was a Scottish economist, historian, and a political
philosopher. He was the author of A History of British India, a
massive three volume work. It was his major literary achievement.
He never visited India. He believed that all Asian societies were
at a lower level of civilisation, backward and undeveloped
than those in Europe. According to him, the British could only
civilise the Indians by introducing the European manners, arts,
institutions in India. The British should conquer all territories of
India for the betterment of the Indians as India was not capable
enough to progress without the help of the British. He was James Mill

appointed as an official of India House in 1819 and gradually rose in rank until he was
appointed as the head of the office in 1830.

WEBLINKS
http://www.historydiscussion.net/essay/essay-on-indian-history/1950
http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/brief_history_of_census.aspx
As on 30/04/2019

9
 2. Beginning of Colonial Rule in India

Let’s Learn
 Advent of the European traders in India  Administrative apparatus
 Expansion of the British rule of the British

Tune In
 List the various administrative departments looked after by the Indian government.
Why do you think it is important to administer a country efficiently?

Four
Battle of Plassey
Anglo-Mysore Wars

1744 CE–1763 CE 1757 CE 1764 CE 1767 CE–1799 CE 1775 CE–1818 CE

Three
Carnatic Wars Battle of Buxar
Anglo-Maratha Wars

Advent of the European Traders in India

Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, discovered a new sea route to India in 1498. This
discovery paved the way for the Europeans to trade with India. The Portuguese were the first
European traders to establish their control in the western coast of India. They had their trading
settlements at Goa, Daman and Diu. By early seventeenth century, the commercial interests
drew the Dutch to India. They established their trading centres at at Masulipatnam, Pulicat,
Surat, Nagapatnam, and Cochin (Kochi).

The English East India Company

A group of English merchants formed the English East India
Company for exploring the possibility of trade with East and
Southeast Asia and India. On 31 December 1600 Queen
Elizabeth I, the ruler of England, signed a Royal Charter granting
monopoly to the East India Company to trade with East India.
The Company sent Captain Hawkins to India but his visit to the
court of the then Mughal Emperor Jahangir did not bring any
concrete results. However, in 1613 Jahangir issued a firman
(royal decree or order) which permitted the British to establish a Fig. 2.1: Sir Thomas Roe

10
factory permanently at Surat. Soon Sir Thomas Roe was chosen as the English ambassador and
sent to the Mughal court to conclude a commercial treaty with the emperor. Before 1619, the
English erected their factories at Surat, Agra, Ahmedabad, and Broach (Bharuch).
In South India, the first English factory was opened at Masulipatnam in 1611. In the east, the
factories were set up at Balasore in 1633 and at Hugli in 1651. Soon factories were also set up at
Patna and Cassimbazar. Subsequently, the English established settlements in Madras (Chennai),
Bombay (Mumbai) and Calcutta (Kolkata) which became prosperous cities in due course.
In 1639, the English established a fortified factory which came to be known as Fort St. George
in Chennai. In 1661, the Company got Mumbai from the British Prince Charles II who received it
from the Portuguese as a part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza at an annual rental of £ 10.
In 1690, Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanati which was fortified in 1696. In 1700, this
fortified settlement was named as Fort William.

Did You Know

The English East India Company secured the zamindari of three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata
and Govindpur in 1698. These villages in course of time developed into the city of Calcutta.

The French were the last to enter the competition for commercial gains. After realising the
importance of Eastern commerce, they established their trading posts at Surat, Masulipatnam,
Pondicherry (present-day Puducherry) and Chandernagore.

Struggle for supremacy

All the companies who came to India were interested in buying textiles and spices. Prices of all
these goods increased due to the competition between the European trading companies. As a
result, the profits that could be earned were reduced. The only way to earn profits was by
eliminating rival competitors. The rivalry urged the trading companies to acquire greater
colonial possessions hence led to fierce battles between them. They often obstructed routes,
sank or averted rival ships from moving. Hence, the companies started to carry out trade with
arms and fortified their trading posts.
The rivalry ousted the Portuguese and the Dutch from Did You Know
the Indian trade market, while the English and the French Carnatic is the name referred by
were left to compete with each other. The involvement
the Europeans to the region of
of the British and the French in the European wars, the
the Coromandel (Cholamandal)
prevailing political conditions in the Deccan and the clash
Coast and its hinterland.
of trade interests brought the two trading companies in
a state of war in South India. A series of wars commonly known as the Carnatic wars, were
fought between the two. The wars lasted for nearly twenty years (1744–1763); put an end to the
French power in India, and the English emerged victorious.

11
 Sketch Map not to Scale,
An Artist's Impression

Fig. 2.2: Extent of the British Territory in India till 1856

Expansion of British Dominion in Bengal

Bengal was the most fertile and the richest amongst India’s
provinces that attracted the East India Company by the great
prospects of a profitable trade it offered. The firman of 1717
issued by the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar confirmed the
trading privileges of the Company subject to an annual payment
of ` 3000. According to the firman, the Company was free to
import and export British goods in Bengal without paying
taxes. It also secured the right to issue dastaks or passes for the
movement of such goods.
Fig. 2.3: Farrukhsiyar

12
The Company officials engaged in private trade were required to pay taxes similar to those by
Indian merchants. However, the officials refused to pay tax on their private trade causing a huge
loss of revenue to Bengal. Further, the officials misused the power to issue dastaks in order to
avoid taxes on their private trade. In the early eighteenth century, this firman intensified the
conflict between the Company and the Nawabs of Bengal. During that time, Bengal was ruled
by Nawabs such as Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan and later by his grandson Siraj-ud-daulah.
During the last years of Alivardi Khan’s reign, Siraj-ud-daulah was administering the state.
He ordered the English and the French to demolish their fortification at Calcutta and
Chandernagore, respectively. The French obliged his order immediately but the British did
not obey him. Siraj-ud-daulah, soon after his accession to the throne, repeated his orders and
insisted on their immediate demolition. The refusal of the British to do so enraged him; he
attacked the English factory at Cassimbazar and seized it. Soon, he captured Fort William after
a feeble resistance by the British.

The Battle of Plassey

The expelled English officials took refuge at Fulta (in Odisha) and waited for military aid to
arrive. After hearing the capture of Calcutta, the Company officials at Madras sent a large
military expedition under Robert Clive and Admiral Watson. Without any serious fighting, they
recaptured Calcutta. The discomfited English exploited the internal situation in Bengal by intrigue
and treachery. They conspired with Mir Jafar, the Commander-in-Chief of Siraj-ud-daulah and
also won over the leading men of Nawab’s court such as Manikchand (the officer in charge of
Calcutta), Omichand (a rich merchant) and Jagat Sheth (banker). With their support, the English
forces defeated Siraj-ud-daulah in the Battle of Plassey fought in 1757.
Siraj-ud-daulah was assassinated after the defeat at Plassey and
the English proclaimed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal. The
Company got free trading rights in the province of Bengal. Robert
Clive and his colleagues acquired the zamindari of 24 Parganas
and a large amount of money for the Company. The Battle of
Plassey proved to be significant for the British as it paved the way
for the British conquest of Bengal and eventually establish their
foothold in the whole of India. Fig. 2.4: Robert Clive

The Battle of Buxar

The English became the real masters of Bengal. Mir Jafar was only a puppet in the hands of
the English; in practice all the affairs were managed by Robert Clive. Mir Jafar was unable to
satisfy the Company’s heavy demands as he had purchased his position. When he protested,
the Company deposed him and placed his son-in-law, Mir Qasim, as the Nawab of Bengal.
Soon, Mir Qasim realised his dependence on the Company and tried to free himself from
its control. Mir Qasim formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-daulah (the Nawab of Awadh) and

13
Shah Alam II (the Mughal emperor). In 1764, the battle was fought at Buxar between the
Company forces and the joint forces of Mir Qasim and his allies. The Battle of Buxar resulted
in the defeat of Mir Qasim, and Mir Jafar was reinstated.
In 1765, the Treaty of Allahabad was signed between Shuja-ud-daulah, Shah Alam II and
the East India Company.
 Robert Clive met Shah Alam II at Allahabad and obtained Diwani, that is, the right to collect
revenue of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (present-day Odisha).
 In return, the Company would pay him the tribute of twenty six lakhs rupees annually.
 The districts of Kora and Allahabad were taken away from the Nawab of Awadh and handed
over to Emperor Shah Alam II.
 Awadh was restored to Shuja-ud-daulah on payment of Rupees fifty lakhs to the Company
and he entered into the defensive alliance with the English.
 The grant of Diwani right facilitated the company to exploit vast revenue resources
of Bengal.

Dual system of government in Bengal

 The English had neither the inclination nor the capacity to take over the responsibility of
the administration of the province.
 In 1765, Robert Clive introduced the Dual System of Government in Bengal.
 Under this system, the administration was divided between the Nawab and the Company.
 The Nawab had the responsibilities of law and order and of criminal jurisdiction whereas
the Company was responsible for the collection of the revenues and dispensation
of civil justice.
 This system helped the Company to remain free from real
responsibility of the administration and still they held their
power safely in Bengal.
 The Nawab had all the responsibilities but no resources to
discharge it.
 As a result, Bengal suffered immensely and lapsed into a state
of anarchy.
 Finally in 1772, Warren Hastings ended this Dual System of Fig. 2.5: Warren Hastings
Government.
Rapid Round
1. When were the Carnatic wars fought and between whom?
2. When was the Treaty of Allahabad signed?
3. When was the Dual System of Government introduced in Bengal?

14
Expansion of the British Empire
After establishing the supremacy over Bengal, the Company adopted a variety of methods to
extend their influence and began their expansion policy by annexing Indian kingdoms.
Subsidiary alliance
The Subsidiary Alliance was a political instrument introduced by Lord Wellesley, British
Governor-General of India (1798–1805), to bring the Indian states under the power of the
Company. It was an agreement signed between the ruler and the Company for which, the ruler
would get protection from his enemies. Under this alliance,
 The Indian ruler had to disband his native armies. Instead he
was required to maintain a British army (a subsidiary force)
within his state.
 The ruler had to pay for the maintenance of the army. A
part of his territory was surrendered to the British for this
purpose.
 A Company official called Resident was placed at his court.
 The ruler would not employ official of any other European
Fig. 2.6: Lord Wellesley
power in his service without the consent of the British.
 The ruler would not negotiate or form an alliance with any other ruler without the permission
of the British.
The Indian states virtually lost their independence by signing this alliance and in reality, Indian
rulers became subservient to the English Resident who interfered in the internal affairs of Indian
states and served the Company. Further, this alliance proved advantageous to the English as it
enabled the company to maintain large forces at the expenses of the Indian states. Eventually,
Indian rulers such as the Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the Nawab of Awadh, the
Peshwa Baji Rao II and several other rulers accepted the Subsidiary Alliance and came under
the direct rule of the Company.

Doctrine of lapse
Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy conceived by Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General
from 1848–1856. According to this doctrine, if an Indian ruler, under the direct influence of the
English East India Company, died without a male heir, his kingdom would ‘lapse’, meaning it
would become a part of the British dominion. According to the Hindu law, an individual or a
ruler could adopt a male child in the absence of a natural heir. However, it was asserted that
such adoptions would have to seek the prior approval of the British. In reality they refused
adoptions and on this pretext annexed several kingdoms such as those in Satara, Sambalpur,
Udaipur, Nagpur and Jhansi.

15
In 1856, Awadh was annexed by the Company on the grounds of the ‘misgovernment’ of the
Nawab. This caused great unrest among the people of Awadh. They were enraged by the
humiliating way of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah’s deposition and revolted against the British.

Conquest of Mysore (Anglo-Mysore Wars)

Mysore was a source of threat to the growing British influence
in India. The Company had to face stiff opposition under the
leadership of Haidar Ali and his son Tipu Sultan and resorted to
direct military confrontation.
The rulers of Mysore did not encourage trade with the
Company. On the other hand, Tipu Sultan’s close alliance with
the French infuriated the British. This animosity resulted in four
Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799) between the Company and
the rulers of Mysore. Fig. 2.7: Tipu Sultan

The war ended with the defeat and death of Tipu who died while fighting gallantly in defence
of his capital, Seringapatam (present-day Srirangapatna). The British annexed some of the
territories of Tipu which were given to the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad for their help.
However, the Marathas refused to accept it. The rest of the kingdom was restored to the minor
heir of the Wodeyars, the old Hindu ruling dynasty of Mysore, by signing a subsidiary alliance.

War against the Marathas (Anglo-Maratha Wars)

The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) resulted in humiliating defeat of the Marathas. Further,
the Maratha Empire was divided into a loose confederacy and ruled by independent Maratha
chiefs such as Sindhias, Holkars, Gaikwads and Bhonsles. After the death of Peshwa Madhav
Rao I in 1772, internal quarrels among the Marathas enabled the British to interfere in their
internal affairs and this led to a series of wars.

 The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782) ended with the Treaty of Salbai which
guaranteed peace with the Marathas for twenty years, thus ending the war but there was
no clear victor.

 In Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805), peace was concluded with the British securing
Odisha, and parts of Western Gujarat and Bundelkhand from the Marathas.

 The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) was a final and a decisive war fought between
the Marathas and the British leaving the Marathas defeated. The British destroyed the
confederacy. The Peshwa was removed and sent to Bithur near Kanpur on a pension of
eight lakh a year and all his territories came under the British control. With this war, the
Company had complete control over all of present-day India, South of the Sutlej River.

16
Conquest of Sind and the Punjab
The East India Company fought a prolonged war (between 1838
and 1842) with Afghanistan that helped the Company to establish
its indirect rule there. They had realised the importance of Sind
as a channel of commerce from the very beginning, which was
annexed by Charles Napier in 1843.
Another significant power against whom the British had to fight
in order to establish their supremacy was that of the Sikhs. But
the presence of Maharaja Ranjit Singh held back the Company
Fig. 2.8: Maharaja Ranjit Singh however it was only for a temporary period. The death of
Maharaja Ranjit Singh followed a period of instability and a struggle for power. The British
grabbed the opportunity and two prolonged Anglo-Sikh Wars decided the fate of Punjab. The
Sikhs could no longer preserve their independence and finally in 1849 Lord Dalhousie annexed
the kingdom of Punjab.

Did You Know

The Battle of Buxar, the Battle of Plassey, the Anglo-Maratha wars, the Mysore wars and the
Anglo-Sikh wars established the Company as the paramount or supreme power in India. A
new policy of ‘paramountcy’ was introduced under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from
1813–1823) which claimed the Company’s power was more than any of the Indian state
and thereby justified their annexation of Indian territories. However, this process did not go
unopposed. There were several instances when the British had to face stiff opposition. Rani
Channamma was one of those who fought against the British. She resisted the British when
they tried to annex the small state of Kitoor. She was arrested and imprisoned where she
died in 1829.

Rapid Round

1. Who devised the policy of Subsidiary Alliance?

2. Name the three kingdoms annexed under the policy of Doctrine of Lapse.
3. Who died while defending the capital Seringapatam?

Administrative Apparatus of the British

In 1757, after the conquest of Bengal, the English East India Company became a dominant
political power in India. With the territorial expansion, the Company also felt the need to
administer the acquired territories efficiently. The British Parliament enacted a series of laws for
better regulation and management of the Company affairs not only in India but also in England.

17
The Regulating Act of 1773
The Regulating Act of 1773 was regarded as the most important act in the evolution of British
administration in India. This Act introduced Parliamentary supervision over the actions of the
directors of the Company. The British territories were broadly categorised into administrative
units called Presidencies. There were three Presidencies namely, Bengal, Madras and Bombay,
and each of these was administered by a Governor.
The Regulating Act of 1773 unified these three Presidencies under the authority of the Governor
of Bengal and the new authority was raised to the position of the Governor-General in order to
create unified administration for India. He was the supreme head of the administration with a
council of four members appointed to administer Bengal. He was to supervise the governors of
Madras and Bombay. Warren Hastings (1773–1785) was the first Governor-General appointed
under this Act.

The Pitt’s India Act, 1784

In 1784, the Pitts’s India Act was introduced to rectify the defects of the Regulating Act of
1773. A Board of Control was established comprising of six members. This Act fully empowered
the Board which had all the powers and control over the civil, military and revenue affairs of
the Company.

The Act of 1786

This Act gave the power to Governor-General to overrule his Council in certain situations. He
was also made Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in India.

The Charter Act of 1813, and 1833

The Charter Act of 1813 opened the Indian trade to all Englishmen subject to a few conditions
and abolished the Company’s monopoly in Indian trade except trade with China. The Charter
Act of 1833 deprived the Company of all its commercial activities and also ended its trade with
China. Henceforth, the Company remained purely an administrative body under the crown.

Law and judiciary

Before the arrival of the British, the Indians followed traditional laws based on local customs
and traditions to carry out justice. In the beginning, they did not interfere with the existing
system and followed the Hindu laws (shastras) and Muslim laws (shariat). However, this caused
confusion and during the period of Warren Hastings and Lord Cornwallis (Governor-General
from 1786–1793, 1805) important changes were made and a proper shape was given to the
Indian judicial system.
In 1772, according to the new system of justice, two courts, namely, a criminal court (faujdari
adalat) and a civil court (diwani adalat) were established in each district. In addition to these, the

18
Sadar Diwani Adalat (a court of appeal in civil cases) and Sadar
Nizamat Adalat (a court of appeal in criminal cases) for revising
and confirming sentences were established in Calcutta. The
criminal courts remained in the hands of a qazi and a mufti who
were supervised by the collector. The civil courts were presided
over by the collector. The main job of the collector was to collect
taxes, and maintain law and order in his district for which he
could take the help of judges, police officers and darogas. Fig. 2.9: Lord Cornwallis

In 1774, the Supreme Court was established

in Calcutta under the Regulating Act of
1773. The foundation of the two notable
developments in the field of judicial
administration – the codification of laws and
the establishment of the High Court was laid
during the administration of the Company. A
Law Commission was constituted to codify all
the Indian laws, thus the principle of the Rule
of Law was introduced for the entire country
Fig. 2.10: Calcutta High Court Building (1880)
irrespective of caste and creed thereby
established the concept of equality before law. The Indian High Courts Act of 1861 authorised
establishment of High Courts in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay by amalgamating the Supreme
and Sadar Courts.

Civil service
In the early days of the Company, commercial as well as the administrative duties were carried
out by merchants, factors and writers. Initially, the candidates selected by the directors of the
Company could join the civil service but later they became extremely corrupt and inefficient.
It was Lord Cornwallis who took the earliest steps to purify administration.
The civil servants were required to sign a covenant by which they accepted the terms and
conditions of the service and signed a pledge not to carry on private trade and accept presents
from the natives. The system of paying commissions to the servants of the Company was
strictly prohibited. The salaries of all cadres of service were raised. The Indians were completely
excluded from the highest offices of the state. They were recruited in the lower ranks and were
subordinate to the covenanted civil servants.

The Charter Act of 1853 introduced open competition for recruitment to services through a
competitive examination but in spite of these provisions, the discrimination against the Indian
employees of the Company continued for a long time.

19
Police
When the British began to rule India, the duty of maintaining law and order was vested in the
hands of the zamindars who for this purpose kept a number of armed retainers or police force.
Lord Cornwallis relieved them from their responsibility of maintaining peace and disbanded
their forces. Their duties were transferred to a number of darogas in every district and placed
under the direct supervision of District Magistrate.

Army
In the beginning, when the Company began to recruit soldiers for its own army; they recruited
from the peasants and trained them as professional soldiers, which came to be known as
the sepoy army. The soldiers were trained in the use of the latest arms to keep pace with
changing military requirements. In the early nineteenth century the British developed a uniform
military culture.

Rapid Round
1. Which act ended the Company’s trade with China?
2. Who maintained law and order when the British began to rule India?
3. Rober Clive took the earliest steps to purify the administration. (True or False)

Global Connection
Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)
The Seven Years’ War was fought between 1756 and 1763 in Europe. It involved all the great
powers of that time; France, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, Russia and Spain (after 1762) on one
side, and Prussia, Hanover, Great Britain, and Portugal on the other. The colonial rivalry
between France and England in North America and India, and the struggle for supremacy
in Germany between Austria and the rising kingdom of Prussia were the main causes of
the conflicts. Peace was made by signing the Treaty of Paris and Treaty of Hubertusburg.
The Treaty of Paris made Great Britain the undisputed leader in overseas colonisation while
France lost most of its overseas possessions. The Treaty of Hubertusburg ranked Prussia
among the great European powers.

Word Galaxy

factory – a base from where the Company’s traders known as factors

operated. It had warehouses (stores), offices and houses of the Company officials
fortify – to make something stronger, especially in order to protect it
puppet – a person whose actions are controlled by someone else

20
 Concept Map
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ǼÌs ƻÞǼǼ˂ǣ ÝŘ_ÞOǼʹˠ˦˧ˣʺ
_ŎÞŘÞǣǼNjǼÞɚsƼƼNjǼȖǣ _ɚsŘǼŸ¯ǼÌsrȖNjŸƼsŘ ǼÌs^ȖǼOÌ
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sɮƼŘǣÞŸŘŸ¯ǼÌs sɮƼŘǣÞŸŘŸ¯DNjÞǼÞǣÌ DǼǼĶsŸ¯DȖɮNj
ضĶŸ˚ōɴǣŸNjs ɠNjǣ DNjÞǼÞǣÌsŎƼÞNjs _ŸŎÞŘÞŸŘÞŘDsضĶ
_ȖĶǣɴǣǼsŎŸ¯
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¶ŸɚsNjŘŎsŘǼ
OŸŘLJȖsǣǼŸ¯ǢÞŘ_ Ř_ǼÌsƻȖŘĠE

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The were the first European traders to establish their control in the
western coast of India.
i) French ii) Portuguese
iii) British iv) Dutch

b) In South India, the first English factory was opened at in 1611.

i) Masulipatnam ii) Bombay
iii) Hugli iv) Patna

c) In 1772, ended the Dual System of Government.

i) Lord Wellesley ii) Lord Dalhousie
iii) Warren Hastings iv) Lord Hastings

d) The Doctrine of Lapse was conceived by .

i) Lord Cornwallis ii) Warren Hastings
iii) Lord Wellesley iv) Lord Dalhousie

e) In 1774, the Supreme Court was established in Calcutta under the .

i) Regulating Act of 1773 ii) Charter Act of 1813

iii) Charter Act of 1833 iv) Act of 1786

21
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) In 1690, established a factory at Sutanati.
b) The resulted in the defeat of Mir Qasim and Mir Jafar was reinstated.
c) A was constituted to codify all the Indian laws.
d) The First Anglo-Maratha War ended with the .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Lord Wellesley i) 1848–1856

b) Lord Dalhousie ii) 1798–1805

c) Warren Hastings iii) 1813–1823

d) Lord Cornwallis iv) 1773–1785

e) Lord Hastings v) 1786–1793

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Where did the Portuguese establish their trading settlements?
b) Why was Sir Thomas Roe sent to the Mughal court?
c) Between who was the Battle of Buxar fought?
d) Which act introduced the open competition for recruitment to services?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) What were the reasons that led to the Carnatic wars?
b) Discuss the important features of the Subsidiary Alliance.
c) How did the British establish their supremacy over Punjab?
d) Describe the Dual System of Government in Bengal.

6. Give reasons.
a) The Regulating Act of 1773 was the most important act in the evolution of British
administration in India.
b) The Third Anglo-Maratha war ended the Maratha rule.

7. Evaluate the administrative changes brought by the British. Was it a curse

or a boon for the Indian society?

22
8. Life Skills
War and treason were some of the strategies used by the British to expand their rule. What
do you think could have been the ideal way to oppose the British?

Do it to know it!

9. Creative Writing: Imagine yourself as one of the officials in the English East India Company.
Write a letter to your family describing how the British misused the power and established
their supremacy.
10. Skit: Write a skit depicting the European traders visit to the court of the Mughal Emperor
Jahangir to secure permission to trade with India and present it in the class.

People Who Made History

Ahilyabai Holkar
Ahilyabai Holkar was born on 31 May 1725 in the village of
Chondi in Ahmednagar, Maharashtra. After the death of her
husband and her father-in-law, she inherited the throne and
ruled Malwa. She was known for administering justice fairly.
Her father-in-law, Malhar Rao Holkar, had trained her in
administrative as well as military affairs. She transformed Indore
from a small village to a prosperous city. She was an able ruler,
administrator and one of the greatest queens of India. Her
glorious rule ended with her death on 13 August 1795. Ahilyabai Holkar

WEBLINKS
http://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/foundation-of-british-rule-in-india/1499
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wyUetXOmjug
As on 30/04/2019

23
 3. Agrarian Policies of the British

Let’s Learn
 Land revenue settlements  Indigo revolt
 Major commercial crops

Tune In
 What are the national sources of revenue? Discuss.

The Mahalwari Settlement Indigo Revolt

1793 CE 1822 CE 1820 CE–1827 CE 1859 CE

The Permanent Settlement The Ryotwari Settlement

The East India Company emerged as a dominant political power in Bengal after its victories in
the Battle of Plassey and the Battle of Buxar. Consequently in 1765, the Company acquired the
Diwani right to collect the land revenue of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. On 12 August 1765 the
East India Company became the Diwan of Bengal. As Diwan, the Company became the chief
financial administrator of the region under its control. Now, the Company not only had to pay
attention to organise revenue resources but also to administer the land. This was done in such
a way that could yield enough revenue in order to meet the increasing expenses.

Land Revenue Settlements

The East India Company primarily being a trading company, its interest lay in trading. Attempts
were made to increase revenue which could be used to purchase fine cotton and silk cloth as
cheaply as possible. These goods were exported to European countries and sold at a high price.
The value of goods purchased by the Company doubled in five years. The Company stopped
importing gold and silver from Britain as the revenue collected as Diwan of Bengal was enough
to buy goods.
There were a lot of changes witnessed in Bengal after the Company established its foothold.
The economy of Bengal suffered a deep crisis. Artisans deserted villages as the prices offered
to their goods were very low. They were unable to meet the huge revenue demanded by the
Company. This resulted in decline of artisanal production and even agricultural production
decreased. Further, a terrible famine in 1770 caused deaths of ten million people in Bengal.
Large areas were depopulated and many cultivable lands were abandoned. The famine played

24
havoc and the economy of Bengal suffered greatly. The Company was not able to acquire
enough revenue. The Company officials contemplated to increase investment in land which
consequently encouraged and increased agricultural production.
In the beginning, the Company continued with traditional system of revenue collection through
intermediaries such as zamindars, muqadams, etc. Soon the Company officials realised the need
of a systematic assessment and collection of the land revenue. Various experiments had been
made by the British leading to the three different types of land revenue settlements in India.
 The Permanent Settlement or the Zamindari System
 The Mahalwari Settlement
 The Ryotwari Settlement

The Permanent Settlement

In 1793, the system of Permanent Settlement was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal.
Under the Permanent settlement,
 The rajas and taluqdars were recognised as the proprietors of the land and known as the
zamindars. They worked as the representatives of the government.
 As zamindars, they could collect rent from the cultivators and pay it as land revenue to the
government.
 The amount to be paid as land revenue was fixed permanently with no scope of revision in
the future.
 This was implemented to encourage the zamindars who would invest in improving the land
and yet pay the same revenue to the Company. This would facilitate increase in agricultural
production and thereby would benefit the zamindars.
The Permanent Settlement was implemented to ensure a regular flow of revenue into the
Company’s treasury. But the Company officials soon discovered the loopholes lying in the
settlement. The problems created by the system were
 The zamindars did not invest in the improvement of the lands as expected by the British.
 Though the revenue was fixed permanently, the zamindars were not able to pay as it was
very high.
 The Company confiscated land from the zamindars who failed to pay the revenue.
 The zamindaris confiscated by the Company were sold off at auctions by the Company.
The situation changed during the beginning of the nineteenth century. Prices rose in the
markets and cultivation expanded. There was an increase in the income of the zamindars but
the Company was not benefitted much as the revenue demand had been fixed permanently.

25
The zamindars rented out their lands to peasants and were least interested in improving the
land. On the other hand, the cultivators suffered immensely. They found it difficult to pay high
rent to the zamindars. They often had to borrow money from moneylenders, and when they
failed to pay the rent, they were driven out from the land.
All this convinced the Company officials to change the existing system and introduce a new
system of revenue collection. This was necessary as the Company needed more money for
trade and to run the administration.

The Mahalwari Settlement

In 1822, Holt Mackenzie devised a new system of revenue collection that came to be known as
Mahalwari Settlement. This was enacted in the Northwest provinces of the Bengal Presidency.
He understood that village being an important social institution in the social set up of India,
needed to be preserved. He ordered the collectors to visit villages, gather not only important
information pertinent to the land but also about the customs and rights practised by the village
people. On the basis of these records, the revenue that each village (mahal) had to pay was fixed.
The land revenue was not collected by the zamindars but the village headman was entrusted
with the responsibility of collecting revenue and paying it to the Company. The revenue demand
was not fixed permanently as in the case of Permanent Settlement. According to the prevailing
conditions, the revenue demand was to be revised periodically. This system came to be known
as the mahalwari settlement because a village was called as mahal.

The Ryotwari Settlement or The Munro System

The British gained control of various territories of South India. They wanted to change the
practice of Permanent Settlement and increase revenue. A different system of revenue collection
known as the Ryotwari Settlement was devised by Capt. Alexander Read. It was Thomas
Munro who subsequently developed this system when he was the Governor (1820–1827) of
Madras and gradually extended it all over South India.
Under this system, there was no middleman to collect the revenue which was directly collected
from the ryots (cultivators). There were no traditional zamindars prevailed in the southern
regions. Before the revenue assessment, a thorough survey of each village was made. The fields
of each farmer were carefully and separately assessed and then the revenue was fixed. It is also
known as the Munro system.
In the ryotwari settlement, the revenue was fixed for specified period, usually thirty years and
about half the net value of the crop is fixed as the government share. The revenue fixed was
too high for the ryots to pay and unable to meet the revenue demand forced the ryots to
leave their villages. The revenue settlements introduced by the British did not yield the desired
results leading the British to turn to other ways of amassing wealth.

26
 Rapid Round
1. What does the word mahal mean?
2. Who introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal?
3. The Ryotwari Settlement was also known as .

Tickle Your Brain

Out of the three revenue settlements, studied which revenue settlement is apt for any nation?
Support your answer with appropriate reasons.

Within a few years of the imposition of new systems, it was evident that all was not well with
them. Revenue officials fixed excessively high a revenue demand to increase the income from
land. Peasants were unable to meet the heavy demands, ryots fled the countryside and villages
were deserted in several regions. The officials had believed that the new systems would enable
the peasants to become rich enterprising farmers however this did not happen.

Major Commercial Crops

The British conquest of India transformed
traditional structure of Indian economy to
colonial economy. This was due to the various
economic policies followed by the British to
cater to the needs of the British economy.
Commercialisation of agriculture was one
of the significant aspects of the colonial
economy. Commercialisation of agriculture
means that agricultural crops and goods
were produced for the market rather than for
Fig. 3.1: Opium Cultivation
domestic consumption.

The British concentrated on the crops that were in great demand in European markets. Many
a times the British officials persuaded and even forced to grow crops in order to provide
commodities required for the Western markets. They encouraged production of jute in Bengal,
tea in Assam, sugarcane in what is now Uttar Pradesh, wheat in Punjab, rice in Madras and cotton
in Maharashtra and Punjab. By the late eighteenth century, the British started the cultivation of
the main commercial crops such as opium and indigo. Opium was cultivated in the western
parts of India. It was exported to China in exchange for Chinese tea. The cultivation of opium
yielded huge revenue in India.

27
Indigo cultivation
Indigo, a blue coloured dye, is obtained from a tropical plant.
This was primarily used to dye cloth in many European countries
such as Britain, Italy and France. Due to Industrial Revolution,
cotton production increased which led to enormous demand of
indigo. The decline in supply from the West Indies and America
forced the users to look for other ways to obtain indigo. The
cloth dyers in Britain were in search of a new source for indigo
supply and turned their attention towards Bengal. The indigo
Fig. 3.2: Indigo Dye
cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly. Many Europeans such
as Scotsmen, Englishmen attracted by the prospects of high profits, became planters. Many
Company officials gave up their jobs and turned to indigo business. The Company and the
banks offered loans to produce indigo.

Fig. 3.3: Indigo Factory

There were mainly two systems of indigo cultivation followed in India, namely, the system of
Nij cultivation and the system of ryoti cultivation.

The Nij Cultivation

In this system of cultivation, the planter produced indigo on the land directly controlled by
him. At times he used to buy land or take it on rent from zamindars and cultivate indigo by

28
directly employing hired labourers. To cultivate indigo in large plantations required large tracts
of fertile land, many ploughs, bullocks and a vast number of hired labourers. The cultivators
were only able to get small plots which were scattered over the area and also had difficulty in
finding labourers for plantation. Further, investing on purchase and maintenance of these large
quantities of ploughs and bullocks was a big problem. Therefore, it was difficult for the planters
to expand the area under this system.

The Ryoti Cultivation

Under this system, a contract or an agreement called satta was signed between the planters
and the ryots or peasants. In many instances, the village headmen were forced to sign an
agreement on behalf of the ryots. Those who signed the contract were given loans from the
planters and forced to cultivate indigo on at least 25 per cent of their land. The ryots were
provided seeds and drills by the planters and they had to cultivate the crop and harvest it. After
the delivery of the crop, the cycle began all over again by granting a new loan to the ryot. The
price paid to the ryots for the indigo was very minimal leading to a chain of cycle of loans as
they were unable to repay the loan. The planters forced the ryots to cultivate indigo on the best
soil which exhausted the soil rapidly and left the land unusable to produce other food crops
such as rice.

The British planters took law in their hands and took recourse to coercive repressive oppressive
and violent actions agaist the peasants such as locking them up in godowns, beating them, etc.

Indigo Revolt against the inhuman oppression

Finally in March 1859, the indigo ryots in Bengal rose in revolt. Two villagers, Digambar Biswas
and Bishnu Biswas, of Govindpur village in Nadia district led the rebellion against the planters
and soon spread to all districts. The ryots refused to grow indigo and pay rent to the planters.
Factories began to be attacked; women also joined the rebellion, gomasthas (agents of planters)
were assaulted, and socially boycotted the ryots who worked for the planters.

The local zamindars were unhappy with the growing power of the planters and angry for being
pressurised to give them land on lease, went to the villages and urged the ryots to resist the
planters. Village headmen also supported the indigo ryots by not only mobilising the peasant
but also fought with the lathiyals (retainers).

The Bengali intelligentsia played a significant role and championed the cause of indigo
cultivators. The pain and sufferings of the oppressed cultivators found expressions in pamphlets,
folksongs and dramas. Dinbandhu Mitra’s play, ‘Nil-darpan’, vividly portrayed the oppression
by the planters. Harish Chandra Mukherjee, editor of the Hindu Patriot, contributed outstandingly

29
by publishing regular reports from his correspondents in the rural areas condemning the
tyranny of the planters.

When the British government realised that the rebellion Did You Know
would get out of their hand, they took prompt action.
The indigo revolt is also known
The military was brought to protect the planters from the
as the ‘Blue Rebellion’.
ryots. The Indigo Commission was formed to look into
the grievances of the indigo cultivators and the planters were proved guilty. The Commission
criticised the planters for the oppressive measures adopted against the indigo ryots. This
rebellion caused the downfall in the production of indigo in Bengal. The planters moved to
Bihar where Gandhiji led non-violent movement against the local planters and marked the
beginning of the Champaran movement.

Rapid Round

1. Name the two commercial crops.

2. Who were the gomasthas ?
3. Who was the editor of the Hindu Patriot ?

Global Connection
The Opium Wars

The Opium Wars arose from China’s attempts to stop the British from exporting opium
to China. The British traders had been illegally carrying out export of opium to China. It
resulted in widespread addiction and caused serious social and economic disruption in
the country. The first Opium War (1839–1842) was fought between China and Britain. The
second Opium War (1856–1860) was fought between China and a British-French alliance.
It is also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China. China lost both wars.

Word Galaxy

commercialisation – the process of managing or running something principally

for financial gain
commission – a group of people who have been formally chosen to discover information
about a problem or examine the reasons why the problem exists
intelligentsia – very educated people in a society, especially those interested in the arts and
in politics

30
 Concept Map

ÞŘ_Þ¶ŸNjsɚŸĶǼ¶ÞŘǣǼǼÌs ǼÌsƼsNjŎŘsŘǼǣsǼǼĶsŎsŘǼ
ÞŘÌȖŎŘŸƼƼNjsǣǣÞŸŘ ŸNjǼÌs ʊŎÞŘ_NjÞ ǣɴǣǼsŎ
ĶŘ_NjsɚsŘȖs
ǣsǼǼĶsŎsŘǼǣ
ǼÌs ŎÌĶɠNjÞ ǣsǼǼĶsŎsŘǼ

¶NjNjÞŘƻŸĶÞOÞsǣ
ǼÌs ŘÞĠ OȖĶǼÞɚǼÞŸŘ ǼÌs NjɴŸǼɠNjÞ ǣsǼǼĶsŎsŘǼ
Ÿ¯ǼÌsDNjÞǼÞǣÌ
ÞŘ_Þ¶Ÿ
OȖĶǼÞɚǼÞŸŘ ŎĠŸNjOŸŎŎsNjOÞĶONjŸƼǣ
ǼÌs NjɴŸǼÞ OȖĶǼÞɚǼÞŸŘ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) is a blue coloured dye obtained from a tropical plant.

i) Cotton ii) Opium

iii) Indigo iv) Jute

b) In 1822, devised the system of Mahalwari Settlement.

i) Holt Mackenzie ii) Lord Cornwallis

iii) Lord Hastings iv) Thomas Munro

c) The indigo revolt is also known as the .

i) Blue Rebellion ii) Black Rebellion

iii) Green Rebellion iv) Purple Rebellion

d) Thomas Munro introduced the in Madras.

i) Mahalwari Settlement ii) Ryotwari Settlement

iii) Permanent Settlement iv) Indigo Cultivation

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) On 12 August 1765 the became the of Bengal.
b) The was formed to look into the grievances of the indigo cultivators.
c) The was enacted in the Northwest provinces of the Bengal Presidency.
d) In the , system of cultivation the planter produced indigo on the land
directly controlled by him.

31
3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Jute i) Maharashtra

b) Tea ii) Punjab

c) Sugarcane iii) Uttar Pradesh

d) Wheat iv) Assam

e) Cotton v) Bengal

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What are the three land revenue settlements introduced by the British?
b) What were the two systems of indigo cultivation?
c) Name the two villagers who led the rebellion against the planters.
d) Why did the Company stop importing gold and silver from Britain?
e) What does Commercialisation of Agriculture mean?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Why did the British introduce the new land revenue settlements?
b) What were the important features of the Permanent settlement?
c) Describe the Mahalwari settlement.
d) How was the Ryoti system disadvantageous for the cultivators?
e) Discuss the nature of indigo revolt.
6. Give reasons.
a) The officials had believed that the new systems would enable the peasants to become
rich enterprising farmers.
b) Many Company officials gave up their jobs and turned to indigo business.

7. Do you think commercialisation of agriculture is essential for any nation to

earn maximum revenue? Give reasons.

8. Life Skills
The exploitative and discriminatory policies of the British affected the life of Indian
peasants greatly. Give your opinion on probable ways that could have improved their
conditions.

32
 Do it to know it!

9. Power Point Presentation: Find out the problems faced by the Indian peasants today.
What measures can be taken to improve their condition? Make a power point presentation
and present it in the class.
10. Make a Collage: Make an illistrative collage on indigo planting and manufacture in India
during the British rule.
11. Research Work: Write a research report on the role played by the Bengali intelligentsia to
champion the cause of indigo cultivators.

People Who Made History

Thomas Munro
Thomas Munro was an Anglo-Indian soldier and a statesman.
He secured the cadetship in the East India Company’s Madras
army. He served his regiment in the campaigns against Haidar
Ali and Tipu Sultan. He rose to high position by his abilities. In
1820, he was appointed as the Governor of Madras. His land
revenue system and judicial system throw light on the British
administrative framework. He died of cholera while touring the
Sir Thomas Munro
ceded districts.

WEBLINKS
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Revenue-Administration-And-Economic-Policy-Of-The-
British_1333/
http://www.historydiscussion.net/british-india/expansion-and-commercialization-of-
agriculture-during-thebritish-rule-in-india/640
As on 30/04/2019

33
 4. Tribal Societies and the Colonial Rule

Let’s Learn
 Sources of livelihood  Various tribal revolts
 Colonial rule and its impact on tribal lives

Tune In

 Can you identify the woman shown in the picture? Which

tribal community does she belong to? Name the various
tribal communities in India. Discuss the sources of their
livelihood.

Sources of Livelihood
India’s substantial number of tribal population is scattered over a large part of the country.
The tribal population lives in distinct ecological and geographical settings. Each tribal society
has its own customs, rituals, beliefs and economic practices. There is no sharp social division;
generally members of the same tribe think of themselves as sharing common ties of kinship.
They possess a consciousness of mutual unity. However, there were some social differences to
a certain extent within tribes.
The tribes share an intimate relationship with forests and depend on the natural resources of
the forest for food, fuel and cattle-feed. Colonialism transformed their relationship with the
forest. Economically, they were involved in variety of activities to earn their livelihood. They are
as follow:
 Shifting cultivation
 Hunting and gathering forest produce
 Herding animals
 Settled cultivation

Shifting cultivation
The cultivators practising shifting cultivation (jhum cultivation) were found in the hilly and
forested tracts of north-east and central India. Their lives are largely dependent on free
movement within forest and on the use of land and forests for growing their crops. This is the

34
only way they could practice the shifting cultivation. The essential characteristics of shifting
cultivation are:
 Shifting cultivation is usually practised on
small plots of forests land.
 The treetops are cut down to allow the
sunlight to reach the ground and the
areas of the forests are burned and
cleared for planting.
 The ashes of the burnt trees, which
contained potash, acts as a natural
fertiliser. Fig. 4.1: Shifting Cultivation

 Axe and hoe are used respectively, to cut trees and to scratch the soil. Subsequently, seeds
are scattered on the field rather than ploughing the land and sowing the seeds.
 After harvest, the land is left fallow for several years.

Hunting and gathering forest produce

Many tribal groups earned their livelihood by hunting animals and
gathering forest resources. The Khonds living in the forests of
Odisha were hunters and gatherers. They went out for collective
hunts, ate fruits and roots collected from the forest. Oil extracted
from sal and mahua seeds was used for cooking. Many shrubs and
herbs found in the forests used for medicinal purposes. Fig. 4.2: Sal Flower

Various forest produces were sold in local markets. Many times they
exchanged goods with neighbouring settled communities for their daily
articles. These practices made them essentially dependent on forests for
survival. They also performed odd jobs such as building roads, carrying
load, working in fields, etc. in the village. But there were many tribal
groups such as the Baigas settled in Central India, who preferred to be
Fig. 4.3: Mahua Seed
independent and were reluctant to work for others. They did not like to
work as labourers, it was below their dignity.

The tribal groups often had to depend on traders and moneylenders for commodities which
were not produced within the locality. Traders sold goods at high prices and moneylenders
gave loans at high interest rates, which often caused debt and poverty to these groups.
Therefore, moneylenders and traders were regarded as the cause of their misery and as evil
dikus (outsiders).

35
Herding animals
Herding and rearing animal was another
source of livelihood on which pastoralists
lived. The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and
the Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were a few
of the tribal groups whose occupation was
cattle herding. The Bakarwals of Kashmir
reared goats while the Gaddis of Kulu were
shepherds.
Fig. 4.4: The Bakarwal of Kashmir
Settled cultivation
Many tribal groups opted for a settled life and began to settle down permanently to cultivable
land and stopped moving from place to place. As they began to cultivate their land, they
gradually secured ownership rights over the land they lived on. In many tribal groups such
as the Mundas of Chottanagpur, the land belonged to the entire clan. All members of the
clan were considered as descendants of the common ancestors who were the original settlers
and first cleared the land. Therefore, all members of the clan had right on the land. Some
members wielded more powers and became chiefs while others remained their followers. The
influential and powerful men of the tribe rented out their land to others rather than cultivating it
themselves. The British found that the settled tribal groups such as the Gonds and the Santhals
were more civilised than hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators. For them, the tribals living in
the forests needed to be settled and civilised as they were wild and savage.

Rapid Round
1. Shifting cultivation is also known as .
2. What did ashes of burnt trees contain?
3. Which tribal group did not like to work as labourers?

Colonial Rule and its Impact on Tribal Life

Before the establishment of the British power, the tribal chiefs enjoyed relative freedom. They
enjoyed economic power and even had control over their territories. In fact, some of them
had their police force and laid rules pertaining to land and forest management. The British
established their supremacy over India and enforced new rules and regulations which greatly
affected the lives of the tribal groups.

Change in the functions and powers of the tribal chiefs

Under the British rule, there was a drastic change witnessed in the functions and powers of the
tribal chief. They lost their administrative powers and were compelled to follow the laws laid

36
down by the British. They were permitted to retain their land titles over a cluster of villages
and if they wished, they could even rent out their lands. They lost their authority among their
people and had to pay tribute to the British.

Introduction of the land settlements

The British wanted the tribal groups such as shifting cultivators to settle down at one place and
become settled cultivators as it was easier for them to control and administer people located
in one place. It was easy for the British to collect revenue from a settled community. The British
enforced land settlements in order to obtain a regular source of revenue for the state. They
measured the land under the cultivation and fixed the revenue demand for the state. But the
Shifting (Jhum) cultivators of North-east India protested against the policy of the British and
insisted on continuing with their traditional practices.

Forest laws and its impact

Forest laws introduced by the British affected the lives of tribals considerably as the tribals
largely relied on forest and forest produce as source of their livelihood. The British declared
forests as government property and established their complete control over all forests. Some
forests that produced timber, which was the British need, were classified as Reserved forests.
This led the tribals to move to other areas in search of livelihood. In many regions, forest
villages were established by the forest departments to look after forests and to get a regular
supply of cheap labour. Many tribal groups rebelled against these laws. The revolt of Songram
Sangma in Assam in 1906 and the forest satyagraha of the 1930 in the Central provinces are
some of the examples of the outbreak of tribals.

The trade and its problem

The coming of the traders and moneylenders to the tribal areas created new problems for the
tribals. They were given cash loans and offered wages for the work they did for the British.
They often bought forest produce from the tribal groups. High demand of Indian silk in the
European markets resulted in the growth of export. The British encouraged production of silk
to meet the increasing demand. The tribal groups took time to realise that it was just another
way of their exploitation.

The Santhal tribe of Hazaribagh in present-day Jharkhand reared cocoons. They were paid
very low price for the cocoons which were sold at a very high cost. The middlemen earned
huge profits. On the other hand, the tribal people who did all the hard work were paid very
meagre amount. This was one of the reasons for their anguish against the traders and the
moneylenders who were viewed as enemies by many tribal groups.

37
In search of livelihood
During the late nineteenth century, tea plantations and mining
became important industries. Tribals were usually recruited
through the contractors in large numbers to work in the coal
mines of Jharkhand and in the tea plantations of Assam. They
were paid very low wages. They could not return home. The
condition of the tribals who left their home in search of work was Fig. 4.5: Tribal woman working
even worse and they had a tough time during the British rule. in tea plantation of Assam

Rapid Round
1. Who lost their administrative powers under the British rule?
2. Give examples of the outbreak of tribals against the forest laws.
3. Which tribe of Hazaribagh reared cocoons?

Various Tribal Revolts

The ire against intrusion of the British was vented out by participation of the tribals in
numerous revolts. The colonial government brought changes in laws, placed restrictions on
their practices. They were to pay new taxes. The system of begari – making the tribals perform
unpaid labour (forced labour) was intensified by the revenue farmers and the government
agents. Furthermore, the oppression and exploitation in the hands of the traders, moneylenders,
policemen and petty officials aggravated the distress among the tribals. The intensity of the
exploitation differed from region to region, but complete disruption of the old agrarian order
of the tribal communities was the significant factor for all the tribal revolts.

The Santhal Uprising The Bastar Revolt

1831 CE–1832 CE 1855 CE 1895 CE–1900 CE 1910 CE 1940 CE

Revolt of the Kols The Munda Revolt The Warli Revolt

Among the various revolts, the most important was the revolt by Kol tribesmen of Chhotanagpur
in 1831–1832, who were distressed by the political intrigues and financial policies of the
British government. The attempt of the British officials to conquer Singhbhum met with a stiff
opposition. In 1831, the uprising rapidly spread to Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Palamau and Manbhum.
It was ruthlessly suppressed by the British and thousands of them were massacred.

Other than this revolt were those of the Santhal hool or uprising of 1855, the Bastar revolt
occurred in Central India in 1910, the Warlis revolted in Maharashtra in 1940.

38
 Source Study

The tribal groups are also known for their

distinct culture and folk arts. The Warli
tribe of Maharashtra is one of such tribes
that is well known for its ‘Warli paintings’.
These paintings portray the daily and social
events of the Warli tribe. The contribution
of Jivya Soma Mashe is outstanding in
popularising the Warli tribal art form. The
noted artist once said, ‘our history is not
written, it is drawn: we tell you stories, we
Fig. 4.6: Warli Painting tell you about our life.”

 Observe the given painting carefully. Do you agree with what Jivya Soma Mashe
said? Support your answer with appropriate reasons.

The Mundas was one of the tribal communities which revolted from 1895 to 1900 and compelled
the Britishers for the promulgation of the Chottanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908. Birsa Munda was
the leader of the revolt of the Munda tribesman from 1899–1900.

Birsa Munda
Birsa Munda was born in 1874. He was the son of a poor father.
During his adolescent years, Birsa had heard the stories about the
golden age when there were no diku oppressors. There would be a
time when they would regain the ancestral right of their community.
He aimed at reforming tribal society. He urged the people of Munda
community to give up bad practices such as drinking liquor and
believing in sorcery and witchcraft. He had also heard stories about
Fig. 4.7: Birsa Munda
the revolts of the Munda leaders urging the community people to
revolt against the oppression of dikus. During his short life, he aroused the tribal mind-set and
mobilised them in a little town of Chhotanagpur against the terror of the British rulers.

The Birsa movement was aimed to expel the missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu landlords and
the government. These forces were identified as the cause of sufferings of the Mundas. In 1899,
Birsa proclaimed to establish a Munda Raj. He gathered a force of 6,000 Mundas. They attacked
police stations, missionaries and government offices. The white flag was raised as a symbol of
Birsa Raj. However, Birsa was arrested in 1900 and died in jail. With his death the movement
fizzled out.

39
 Rapid Round
1. Where did the Warlis revolt?
2. When was Birsa Munda born?
3. Who were the dikus ?

Global Connection
The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)
The Qing dynasty, also called Manchu dynasty, was the last
imperial dynasty of China. It was first founded by the Manchus
in 1636 in order to designate their regime in Manchuria (now
the northeast region of China). It was preceded by the Ming
dynasty. The officials of the Ming dynasty called the Manchus
for their help in 1644, when peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng,
a bandit leader captured the Chinese capital, Beijing. The Fig. 4.8: Henry Puyi, last
Manchus utilised the situation completely, seized the capital emperor of the Qing dynasty

and established their own dynasty. By 1900, various revolutionary groups came to existence.
In 1911 Republic Revolution abdicated the last emperor Henry Puyi.

Word Galaxy

abdicate – (of a monarch) renounce one’s throne

mobilise – to organise or prepare something, such as a group of people, for a purpose
potash – a white powder containing potassium that is put on soil to make crops grow better

Concept Map
ǣÌÞ¯ǼÞضOȖĶǼÞɚǼÞŸŘʰ
ÌȖŘǼÞضŘ_¶ǼÌsNjÞض¯ŸNjsǣǼƼNjŸ_ȖOsʰ
ÌsNj_ÞضŘÞŎĶǣ
Ř_ǣsǼǼĶs_OȖĶǼÞɚǼÞŸŘ
ħŸĶǼNjÞEsǣŎsŘŸ¯NÌÌŸǼضƼȖNj
ǣŸȖNjOsǣŸ¯ĶÞɚsĶÞÌŸŸ_

ǼÌs ǢŘǼÌĶ ŸNjȖƼNjÞǣÞض OÌضsÞŘǼÌs¯ȖŘOǼÞŸŘǣŘ_ƼŸɠsNjǣ

Ÿ¯ǼÌsǼNjÞEĶOÌÞs¯ǣ
ɚNjÞŸȖǣ
DǣǼNj NjsɚŸĶǼÞŘOsŘǼNjĶÝŘ_Þ ǼNjÞEĶNjsɚŸĶǼǣ ǻNjÞEĶǢŸOÞsǼÞsǣŘ_
ÞŘǼNjŸ_ȖOǼÞŸŘŸ¯ǼÌsĶŘ_ǣsǼǼĶsŎsŘǼǣ
ǼÌsNŸĶŸŘÞĶNJȖĶs
ǼÌs ɟNjĶÞǣ NjsɚŸĶǼÞŘ ōÌNjǣÌǼNj
¯ŸNjsǣǼĶɠǣŘ_ÞǼǣÞŎƼOǼ
ǼÌs ōȖŘ_ NjsɚŸĶǼ ÞŎƼOǼŸ¯
DÞNjǣ ōȖŘ_ OŸĶŸŘÞĶNjȖĶs ǼÌsǼNj_sŘ_ÞǼǣƼNjŸEĶsŎ
ŸŘǼNjÞEĶĶÞɚsǣ

ÞŘǣsNjOÌŸ¯ĶÞɚsĶÞÌŸŸ_

40
 Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The Khonds living in the forests of were hunter and gatherers.
i) Gujarat ii) Maharashtra
iii) Odisha iv) Chhotanagpur

b) The flag was raised as a symbol of Birsa Raj.

i) Red ii) Green

iii) Black iv) White

c) introduced by the British affected the lives of the tribals.

i) Civil laws ii) Forest laws

iii) Common laws iv) Social laws

d) The attempt of the British officials to conquer was met with a stiff
opposition.

i) Singhbhum ii) Maharashtra

iii) Central India iv) Bhagalpur

e) transformed the relationship of the tribals with the forest.

i) Orientalism ii) Marxism

iii) Colonialism iv) Functionalism

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) was usually practiced on small plots of forests land.

b) Oil extracted from the and seeds was used for

cooking.

c) The system of was intensified by the revenue farmers and the

government agents.

d) The and the were more civilised than hunter-

gatherers or shifting cultivators.

e) The Mundas revolted and compelled the Britishers for the promulgation of the
.

41
3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) The Kol Revolt i) 1855

b) The Santhal Uprising ii) 1831–1832

c) The Bastar Revolt iii) 1940

d) The Warli Revolt iv) 1910

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Where were the shifting cultivators found?
b) Name the various sources of tribal livelihood.
c) Which were the tribal groups that lived on herding animals?
d) How was the ire against the intrusion of the British vented out?
e) Which forests were categorised as the Reserved forests?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) What are the characteristics of shifting cultivation?

b) Why did the British introduce land settlements? How?
c) Explain the nature of the Munda revolt led by Birsa Munda.
d) Write a brief note on the settled cultivation.

6. Give reasons.
a) The tribals shared very intimate relationship with the forest.

b) Under the British rule, a drastic change was witnessed in the functions and powers of
the tribal chief.

7. Do you believe that a peaceful protest could have been the solution to all
the grievances of the tribal groups? Justify your answer with appropriate
reasons.

8. Life Skills
‘Do not deprive someone on his livelihood. This is a sinful tendency’.
– Mahavira
Share your views on the above mentioned quote.

42
 Do it to know it!

9. Skit: Imagine you have got the opportunity to interact with some tribal groups. How
would you persuade them to forgo their traditional occupations and adopt modern-day
employment opportunities? Write a skit and present it in the class.

10. Make a Collage: Make an explanatory collage of different tribal art forms belonging to
different tribes of the period. Write in brief about how these art forms help us to understand
the socio-cultural history of tribes.

11. Project Work: Divide the class into three groups. Each group will collect the information
on one of the following tribal group.
 The Bastar tribe
 The Warli tribe
 The Santhal tribe

People Who Made History

Rani Gaidinliu
Rani Gaidinliu was born on 26 January 1915 in Manipur state. At the
tender age of 13, she came in contact with Jadonang, a tribal hero, who
wanted to drive away the British from Manipur. When he was arrested by
the British, he entrusted the responsibility to Gaidinliu. She transformed
the rebellion into a revolutionary movement for independence.
However, she was arrested in 1932 and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru gave her the title of Rani that is, ‘Queen’ during
his Assam visit in 1937. She was freed from Tura jail after India became Rani Gaidinliu
independent. She died in 1993.

WEBLINKS
http://hubpages.com/education/Tribal-Revolts-in-Colonial-India
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/history/civil-rebellions-and-tribal-uprisings-in-india-
against-britishrule-1757-1900/23722/
As on 30/04/2019

43
 5. The Great Uprising of 1857

Let’s Learn
 Case Study – Khurda Uprising  Suppression of the Uprising
 Causes of the Great Uprising of 1857  Failure of the Uprising
 Outbreak of the Uprising  Results of the Great Uprising
 Spread of the Uprising of 1857

Tune In
 Do you think peace is important to achieve harmony in the society? What steps would
you take to maintain peace in the society?

Greased cartridges Bahadur Shah Zafar,

became the immediate the last Mughal emperor
cause of the uprising died in Rangoon

1856 CE 1857 CE 1858 CE 1862 CE

Lord Dalhousie The British Parliament

annexed the kingdom passed an Act for the Better
of Awadh Government of India

We have studied in the preceding chapters how the British arrived with the purpose of trading,
took advantage of the situation, assumed the powers and began to administer the country.
They devised various policies to fill the coffer of the Company at the expenses of the Indians.
Their policies affected almost all sections of the people: kings, queens, landlords, artisans,
peasants, tribals, etc. The ruthless exploitation by the British resulted in widespread discontent
among people and eventually culminated into the Great Uprising of 1857. However, there had
been a number of uprisings against the British in the past, which remained localised and poorly
organised. One such uprising is Khurda Uprising.

Case Study – Khurda Uprising

A small kingdom known as Khurda was founded in the late 16th century. It was a well-cultivated
and populous territory located in the south-eastern part of Odisha. It comprised of 150 garhs
(forts), 60 large as well as 1109 small villages. In the past, Birakishore Dev, the king of Khurda,
was compelled to surrender his possession of parganas, the administration of fourteen garjats
(Princely States) and the superintendence of the Jagannath Temple to the Marathas.

44
Mukunda Dev II, son and successor of the king Birakishore Dev, was very disturbed with the
loss. He took the advantage of the Anglo-Maratha conflict and entered into negotiations with
the British seeking their help. The British occupied Odisha in 1803 and showed no inclination
to help him in any way. Consequently, he was deposed and his territories were annexed by
the British. An epoch of oppressive foreign rule commenced with this unfair settlement which
paved the way for an armed uprising in 1817.
The British took over the Khurds and followed a policy of resuming service tenures. They
demanded more revenue and collected it oppressively. As a result, people left Khurda on a
large scale between 1805 and 1817. Further, the British didn’t show leniency in times of natural
calamities. Lands of defaulters were sold to scheming revenue officials from Bengal.
Jagabandhu Bidyadhar Mahapatra Bhramarabar Rai, popularly known as Buxi Jagabandhu, was
the hereditary Military Commander of the deposed king, Mukunda Dev II. He was one of the
dispossessed land-holders. He was reduced to beggary and had to survive on the voluntary
contributions made by the people of Khurda. He lived like this nearly for two years before
deciding to fight for the rights of his own and also of the people of Khurda.
The grievances aggravated more when the British introduced a silver currency known as sicca
rupee in the region. The British insisted that the revenue must be paid in the new currency.
The prices of salt and food-stuff increased unprecedently. The traditional salt makers of Odisha
were deprived of making salt due to the introduction of salt monopoly by the British. Hence
the prices became far-fetched. The auction of local estates in Calcutta brought in absentee
landlords from Bengal to Odisha. The corrupt and insensitive police system worsened the
situation for the armed uprising to take a drastic shape.
On 29 March 1817, the uprising set off when the Paiks not only attacked the police station
but also various government establishments at Banpur. More than a hundred men were killed
in this attack. The Paiks took away a large sum of government money. Khurda became an
epicentre of the uprising but its ripples soon spread to the different directions.
The Paiks were joined by the ryots and zamindars. A ‘no-rent campaign’ was initiated. On
14 April 1817, Buxi Jagabandhu seized Puri with the support the Paiks and the Kandh tribe.
Mukunda Dev II was declared as their ruler. The priests of the Jagannath Temple also extended
their full support to the Paiks. The British declared Martial law as they realised that the situation
was going out of hand. The king was captured and imprisoned in Cuttack with his son.
The uprising rapidly spread to the southern and the north-western parts of Odisha. Major-
General Martindell was given the responsibility to clear off the area from the clutches of the
Paiks. Rewards were announced for the arrest of Buxi Jagabandhu and his associates. Hundreds
of Paiks were killed in the ensuing operation. Many of them fled to the jungles whereas some
returned home under a scheme of amnesty. The uprising was mostly controlled by May 1817.

45
However, outside Khurda, Buxi Jagabandhu continued the uprising with the help of supporters
such as the loyal Paiks and the king of Kujung until his surrender in May 1825. Hereafter,
the British adopted a policy of ‘leniency, indulgence and forbearance’ towards the people of
Khurda. They not only reduced the price of salt but also brought necessary reforms in the police
and the justice systems. Corrupt revenue officials were dismissed from the service. The former
land-holders were restored to their lands. Ram Chandra Dev III, son of the king of Khurda, was
allowed to shift to Puri. He was given the charge of the affairs of the Jagannath Temple with a
grant of rupees twenty-four thousand.
The Khurda Uprising was one of the uprisings that had far-reaching consequences on the
future of British administration in the eastern part of India. Let us study more about the various
causes that worked together to produce the Great Uprising of 1857.

Causes of the Great Uprising of 1857

Discontent among the ruling families

The British policies such as Subsidiary Alliance, Doctrine of Lapse
angered many Indian rulers and chiefs as they lost their power
and honour. The court proceedings were monitored by the
Residents due to which the freedom of the rulers was curbed.
The British did not recognise the claim of the adopted son of
Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi as the heir to the kingdom. The British
refused to continue the pension of ex-Peshwa Baji Rao II to his
adopted son, Nana Saheb. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was
imposed on Awadh. Finally, in 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed
Fig. 5.1: Wajid Ali Shah
the kingdom of Awadh on the pretext of misgovernment and
declared that British rule was needed for proper administration. The dethronement of Nawab
Wajid Ali Shah infuriated the Company’s sepoy as most of them came from Awadh.

Further, a wave of resentment and anger was sent throughout the country when Lord Dalhousie
declared that after the death of the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar, his family would be shifted
from their residence of the Red fort. In 1856, Governor-General Lord Canning announced that
Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal ruler and after his death his descendants would
no longer be recognised as kings; instead they would just be called princes. Thus, gradually
all the powers of the kings and Nawabs were taken over by the Company, which led them to
oppose the British.

Resentment among peasants and artisans

The British policy of economic exploitation of India was another important cause which affected
all sections of the society. The peasants and zamindars resented the high revenue demands

46
and the various methods of revenue settlement. They were exploited by the moneylenders who
confiscated their land for failure to pay back their loans. One result of the British economic
policy was commercialisation of agriculture. The British laid more emphasis on commercial
crops such as indigo due to which the self-sufficient village economy was destroyed.
The British policy also discouraged Indian handicrafts. They sought Indian market for the cheap
British manufactured goods. It resulted into a large flow of the British machine made goods
which, in turn, made the Indian hand-made goods uneconomical to produce. The Indians were
deprived of their livelihood. Thus, artisans and craftspersons were ruined and were forced to
look for the alternate source of income. The displacement of the Indian rulers increased the
miseries of the people as many of them lived on the royal patronage offered to them. Thus,
corrupt and unresponsive administration and the new economic policies affected all – the
zamindars, peasants, artisans, etc. as a large number of them reduced to abject poverty.

Indian responses to reforms

Another important cause of the discontent of the Indian subjects was borne out of the fear
that the Company rule endangered their religion. The Charter Act of 1813 permitted Christian
missionaries to come to India under the license to carry out proselytising activities. They were
granted permission to function freely and even allowed to own land. The suspicion strengthened
when police protection was given to the missionaries. In 1850, a new law was passed by the
government which enabled a convert to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors.
English education was promoted widely. Many educational institutions were set up by Christian
missionaries to spread the knowledge of Christian religion. The British passed several laws to
reform the India society. Some of the legislations sought to remove socio-religious abuses such
as Sati, and to encourage widow remarriage. All these activities filled the people with fear that
the British were not only destroying their religion but also their social and traditional way of life.

Did You Know

Lord Dalhousie drafted the Hindu Widows Remarriage Act and it was passed by Lord Canning
in 1856.

Discontent among sepoys

The Indian sepoys (soldiers) in East India Company’s army had a number of reasons for
discontent, which led to the Great Uprising of 1857. Unsatisfactory conditions of service were
another reason for the discontent. They were fed and lodged in a worse manner than their
British counterparts. They were treated with great contempt and even addressed as pigs. They
had a strong sense of resentment as they were paid much less than their British counterparts.
They had no prospect of promotion to higher posts. The discontent was aggravated by the
non-payment of full bhatta, that is, additional or special allowance paid for fighting wars in
distant places or outside India; for example, while serving in Sind or Punjab.

47
Moreover, some of the rules violated their religious beliefs. In those days, crossing the sea
was prohibited by religion. Many people believed that travel across the sea would lead to
loss of their religion. They refused to follow the order when they were told to go to Rangoon
(Myanmar). Though they agreed to go by the land route, they were severely punished. In 1856,
the Company passed a new Act, the General Service Enlistment Act. By this act all future recruits
in the Company’s army had to serve overseas, if required, this hurt the religious sentiments of
the sepoys.

The annexation of Awadh had added fuel to fire. Most of the Company’s sepoys belonged to
Awadh. They felt indignant and did not like the fact that it came under the rule of the British.
Further, many of the sepoys came from the families of the peasants living in the villages due to
which anger spread among the sepoys.

Immediate cause
All the above factors prepared a ground
for discontent and resentment which
had been growing among the Indians
for a long time. It merely needed
a spark to ignite the situation. The
greased cartridges provided the spark
that turned it into a conflagration.

The British government decided to

replace the old fashioned musket by
the new ‘Enfield Rifle’. It needed a
Fig. 5.2: Loading Cartridge
special type of cartridge which was
covered with greased paper. The paper had to be bitten off before loading the cartridge into
the rifle. The grease used in the paper contained beef and pig fat. Therefore, Hindu and Muslim
sepoys declined to use the greased cartridges as this would violate the religious injunctions of
both the communities.

They believed that the government was purposely trying to obliterate their religion. This
incident exploded the spark and became the immediate cause of the Great Uprising of1857.

Rapid Round
1. Who announced that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal ruler?
2. Which Act permitted the Christian missionaries to come to India under license?
3. When was the General Service Enlistment Act passed?

48
Outbreak of the Uprising
Before the outbreak at Meerut, a sepoy named Mangal Pandey at Barrackpur refused to use the
new Enfield rifle and fired at Lieutenant Baugh. He was arrested and executed. The first major
outbreak that led to the Great Uprising of 1857 occurred at Meerut. On 9 May eighty five sepoys
of the Cavalry Regiment were court martialled for refusing to use the greased cartridge and
sentenced to ten years imprisonment. On 10 May the sepoys broke out in open rebellion. They
attacked and shot their officers. They released their fellow sepoys who were imprisoned and
seized guns and ammunition. They set fire to British properties and declared war against the
British. They rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi where they were joined by the local infantry.
The regiments stationed in Delhi began indiscriminate massacre of Europeans and destruction
of their houses. The sepoys were determined to end the British rule. Those who arrived first
gathered at the Red Fort, requested the Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar to take charge
of the campaign. After a great deal of hesitation, Bahadur Shah agreed and was proclaimed
as the Emperor of India. He wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of India urging them to
come forward and organise a confederacy of Indian states to overthrow the British rule. The
mutineers became the masters of Delhi as the leadership of Bahadur Shah was nominal and
symbolic. Delhi soon transformed into the centre of uprising.

Fig. 5.3: Mangal Pandey Fig. 5.4: Bahadur Shah Zafar Fig. 5.5: Nana Saheb

Spread of the Uprising

Many of the small rulers and chieftains were threatened by the expansion of the British rule.
They joined the confederacy thinking that they would be able to govern their territories once
again only if the Mughal emperor could rule. The uprising that gathered momentum from
Meerut to Delhi soon spread to the other parts of India.
Kanpur
Nana Saheb, the adopted son of last Peshwa Baji Rao II, who had been living near Kanpur led
the uprising. He ousted the British garrison from the city and proclaimed himself the Peshwa.
He acknowledged Bahadur Shah as the emperor and declared himself to be his governor. He
was ably supported by Tatya Tope and Azimullah.

49
 Sketch Map not to Scale,
An Artist's Impression

Fig. 5.6: Major Centres of the Great Uprising of 1857

Case Study – Lucknow in Awadh

The annexation of Awadh on grounds of misgovernance not
only displaced the Nawab but also dispossessed the taluqdars
of the region. Soon, a rebellion erupted in the state of Awadh.
At Lucknow, the uprising was organised under the leadership
of Begum Hazrat Mahal, the queen of last deposed Nawab
Wajid Ali Shah. Birjis Qadr, her young son, was proclaimed as
the new Nawab. She was assisted by the sepoys, peasants and
the zamindars. She organised an attack on the British and the
Residency building was set on fire by the sepoys at Lucknow.
Sir Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner and some of his Fig. 5.7: Begum Hazrat Mahal
loyal sepoys died while defending the Residency.

50
Jhansi
Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, the widowed queen of Gangadhar
Rao, the last of the Jhansi rulers, was also a victim of Lord
Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse. She joined the rebel sepoys
and fought against the British forces. The British forces under
Sir Hugh Rose occupied the fort and the city of Jhansi. Tatya
Tope, the general of Nana Saheb, joined Rani Lakshmibai at
Kalpi. They conceived the idea of seizing Gwalior. The Scindia
ruler of Gwalior was forced to flee to Agra and Gwalior fell into
the hands of the rebel leaders. On hearing the news of loss of
Gwalior, Hugh Rose left Kalpi for Gwalior. A fierce battle was Fig. 5.8: Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
fought and the British recaptured Gwalior.

Other Regions
Kunwar Singh, a discontented zamindar, was the chief organiser of the uprising in Arrah (Bihar).
He joined the rebel sepoys and fought against the British forces. After his death by a fatal
wound caused while fighting, his brother Amar Singh was acknowledged as the leader of the
area. Bakht Khan was a soldier from Bareilly and also a key military leader of the rebellion. He
took charge of the rebel forces that came to Delhi and fought against the British.

Rapid Round
1. Who was proclaimed as the Emperor of India?
2. Who led the Uprising at Kanpur?
3. Who was Begum Hazrat Mahal?

Suppression of the Uprising

The British took immediate steps to suppress the uprising with all their might. The British passed
a series of new laws and reinforcements were brought in from England to quell the insurgency.
In September 1857, the British troops led by Sir John Nicholson succeeded in restoring Delhi.
Bahadur Shah Zafar was taken as a prisoner. His two sons were killed and he himself was tried
in court and exiled to Rangoon (Myanmar) where he died in November 1862.

Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi died in the battlefield while fighting heroically and Jhansi was
captured under the leadership of Sir Hugh Rose. Tatya Tope managed to escape and continued
to fight guerrilla war with the help of tribal and peasant leaders. Soon, he was captured, tried
and put to death in April 1859. Lucknow was taken in 1858 when the forces led by the Sir
Colin Campbell defeated the rebels. Nana Saheb and Begum Hazrat Mahal escaped to Nepal.

51
The British tried all tactics and suppressed the uprisings led by Kunwar Singh and Bakht Khan.
Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad (present-day Ayodhya) was one of the acknowledged leaders in
Awadh. After his defeat at Lucknow, he led rebellion in Rohilkhand but was killed treacherously.

Though restoring peace was not easy, the British not only announced the rewards for the loyal
land holders but also allowed to retain traditional rights over their lands.

Failure of the Uprising

The Great Uprising of 1857 was the result of the outburst of discontent and anger against
the British. The initial success did not bring the desired results and the British succeeded in
suppressing the uprising soon. Many factors were responsible for the failure and they are
as follows:

Limited scope of the uprising

The uprising was localised. There were many parts of India which were not affected by the
uprising at all. It was confined to areas such as Bihar, modern Uttar Pradesh and parts of
modern Madhya Pradesh. The British Indian territories such as Bombay, Madras and Western
Punjab remained outside the fold of the uprising and not at all affected by it. Many Indian
rulers such as the Scindias of Gwalior, the Holkars of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the rulers
of Patiala and many other ruling chiefs and zamindars refused to help the rebels and actively
supported the British in suppressing the uprising.

Weak leadership
One of the important reasons of the failure was the weak ledership. Bahadur Shah was too weak
and an old person to lead the uprising. All the leaders fought to defend their own territories
and neither coordinated nor planned with one another as a unit. No national leader emerged
to give purpose and direction to the uprising.

Unorganised effort and lack of planning

The rebels failed on account of unorganised effort and lack of planning. They were brave but ill
disciplined and unorganised. They worked without any common plan and did not have a definite
aim acceptable to all. They lacked an ideology or programme which could be implemented in
the captured areas from the British.

Superior military resources

The British were better equipped and had superior resources to fight while the rebels were
short of modern weapons and whatever existed was outdated. They fought with old weapons
such as arrows, swords, pikes, etc. against the superior military tactics and highly skilled and
well equipped forces of the British.

52
Lack of interest by the middle, the upper class and the intellectuals
The educated Indians did not support the uprising. Their lack of interest was a serious drawback.
Their view was that the rebels supported the old order along with their superstitions and were
opposing the progressive social measures. Furthermore, except the discontented and the
disposed zamindars, the middle and upper classes did not support the uprising.

Results of the Great Uprising of 1857

 The Great Uprising of 1857 was the great struggle of the Indians for freedom from the
British. The result of the uprising marked the end of the Mughal dynasty. By the end of
1859, the British regained their control over the country. They could not continue ruling the
country with the same policies and introduced major changes in British policies and in the
administrative set-up of India.

 In August 1858, the British Parliament passed an Act for the Better Government of India in
order to manage the Indian affairs in a responsible manner. The responsibility of Indian
administration was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown. Thereby,
the rule of the English East India Company formally came to an end.

 Lord Canning was the Governor-General during the time of the

uprising. He was to continue but was thereafter given the title
of Viceroy, meaning, a personal representative of the crown.

 The British gave assurance to all ruling chiefs that their

territory would never be seized in the future. They were
permitted to pass on their property to their successors,
including adopted sons.

 Thorough reorganisation of the Indian army was another

Fig. 5.9: Lord Canning
important outcome of the uprising. It was decided that the
proportion of the European soldiers to Indian sepoys would be increased in the army to
prevent future uprisings. The Indian soldiers would be recruited from the Gurkhas, Sikhs
and Pathans.

 The British Government also proclaimed to abstain from all interference with the religious
and social customs of the Indian subjects.

 The British believed that the Muslims were responsible for the uprising. Therefore their land
and property was confiscated on large scale.

 The British tried to win the loyalty of zamindars and landlords. They framed new policies
providing them security of their rights over lands.

53
 General pardon and amnesty was given to the rebels except those responsible for the
deaths of the British subjects.
However, The Indian States made to acknowledge the paramountacy of the British Crown as
their Sovereign Paramount (their supreme ruler). Thus, a new phase of colonial rule started in
India after 1857.

Rapid Round

1. Who was given the title of Viceroy?

2. When did Bahadur Shah Zafar die?
3. Name the British Indian territories that were not affected by the Great Uprising of 1857.

Global Connection
American Civil War (1861–1865)
The American Civil War, also known as the War Between the
States, was a four year war (1861–1865). It was fought between
the northern and southern parts of the United States. The
war started after 11 Southern states that seceded from the
United States and established their own government called
the Confederate States of America. The Northern states
wanted to remain a single country and union. Therefore, it
was also called the Union. Fig. 5.10: Abraham Lincoln

Slavery had been the issue that caused factionalism between the two. The Southern economy
was largely based on plantations and most of the work was carried out by African American
Slaves whereas the Northerners wanted to ban slavery in all the states. Abraham Lincoln was
the president of the United States during the Civil War and opposed slavery. The bloody
combat not only caused a great amount of human loss but also destroyed much of the
Southern infrastructure. The Confederacy collapsed and slavery ended in the United States.

Word Galaxy

absentee landlord – a landlord who does not live at and rarely visits the property
they let
amnesty – an undertaking by the authorities to take no action against specified offences
paik – person who forced to work for the state
proselytising – to try to persuade someone to change their religious or political beliefs or way
of living to your own

54
 Concept Map
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ǼÌsȖƼƼsNjOĶǣǣŘ_ǼÌsÞŘǼsĶĶsOǼȖĶǣ ǼÌsȖƼNjÞǣÞض
ǼÌsȖƼNjÞǣÞض

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The Hindu Widows Remarriage Act was passed by .

i) Lord Canning ii) Lord Dalhousie

iii) Lord Wellesley iv) Warren Hastings

b) In Jhansi, the uprising was bravely led by .

i) Rani Lakshmibai ii) Begum Hazrat Mahal

iii) Nawab Wajid Ali Shah iv) Kunwar Singh

c) , young son of Begum Hazrat Mahal was proclaimed as the new.

i) Bahadur Shah Zafar ii) Nawab Wajid Ali Shah

iii) Birjis Qadr iv) Azimullah

d) Bakht Khan was a soldier from .

i) Jhansi ii) Faizabad

iii) Gwalior iv) Bareilly

e) By the end of , the British regained their control over the country.

i) 1857 ii) 1859

iii) 1862 iv) 1858

55
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) The British government decided to replace the old fashioned musket by a new
.

b) A sepoy named at Barrackpur refused to use the new rifle.

c) died while defending the Residency.

d) Maulvi Ahmadullah of was one of the acknowledged leaders in

.

e) In September 1857, the British troops led by succeeded in

restoring Delhi.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Sir Colin Campbell i) Nepal

b) Sir Hugh Rose ii) Jhansi

c) Kunwar Singh iii) Lucknow

d) Nana Saheb iv) Arrah

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is bhatta?
b) Why did the sepoys refuse to use greased cartridges?
c) Name the major centres of the uprising.
d) Give the names of the rulers who supported the British in suppressing the uprising.

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) What were the causes of discontent among the ruling families?
b) How did the British hurt the religious sentiments of the sepoys?
c) What were the factors responsible for the failure of the uprising?
d) What were the results of the Great Uprising of 1857?
e) Discuss the role of Buxi Jagabandhu in Khurda Uprising.

6. Give reasons.
a) The greased cartridges provided the spark which turned it into a conflagration
b) Delhi transformed into the centre of uprising.

56
7. How far do you think the effective leadership would have proved fruitful
in uprooting the British rule?

8. Life Skills
In today’s world, people are discriminated on various grounds. What kind of leadership will
stop such discriminations and lay a foundation for a better and harmonious society?

Do it to know it!

9. Group Discussion: Conduct a group discussion in class on the following topic: Was India
in a position to challenge the British authority?

10. Creative Writing: Imagine you are one of the British officers, who played an important role
in suppressing the Great Uprising of 1857. Write a diary describing your role in suppressing
the uprising.

11. Map Work: On an outline map of India, mark and label the major centres of the Great
Uprising of 1857.

People Who Made History

Tatya Tope
Tatya Tope’s original name was Ramchandra Pandurang Tope.
He was in the service of the former Peshwa Baji Rao II and his
adopted son Nana Saheb. He was completely against the unjust
practices of the British and decided to take his own corrective
course. He kept resisting the British by his guerrilla campaigns
until his betrayal and execution. The British captured and
hanged him to death on 18 April 1859. Tatya Tope’s patriotism
will always be remembered by the Indians. Tatya Tope

WEBLINKS
http://knowindia.gov.in/culture-and-heritage/freedom-struggle.php
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGJfOF4Zd9g
As on 30/04/2019

57
 6. Crafts and Industries under the British Rule

Let’s Learn
 Indian textiles and world market  Foundation of Indian cotton millss
 The decline of the Indian textile  Iron and steel industry in India
industry

Tune In
 Give five names of the fabrics that are used to make clothes.

The first cotton

Richard Arkwright
spinning mill was set up
invented steam engine
at Bombay

1764 CE 1786 CE 1813 CE 1854 CE 1907 CE

The invention of Trade with India was

Sir Dorabji Tata
spinning jenny established Tata Iron
thrown open to all
increased the output of and Steel Company
Englishmen
traditional spindles (TISCO)

Indian Textiles and World Market

In the 18th century, India was one of the world’s largest producers of cotton textiles. Indian
textiles were known for its fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. They were not only exported
to Southeast Asian countries such as Java, Sumatra and Penang but also to West and Central
Asia. From the sixteenth century, European traders started buying Indian textiles for sale in
Europe. It included varieties of textiles such as muslin, calico, chintz and bandhani.
 Muslin was a finely woven cotton fabric in India which attracted the European traders. In the
17th century, it was exported to Europe from India. Dhaka in Bengal (now in Bangladesh)
and Masulipatnam in South India were known for exotic muslins.
 When the Portuguese first arrived in Calicut (Kozhikode), they were primarily in search of
spices. They carried with them cotton textiles along with spices that came to be called as
‘calico’ as it came from Calicut.
 Chintz was another famous Indian fabric used especially for draperies. The word ‘chintz’
derived from the Hindi word ‘chhint’ meaning ‘spotted’. From 1680s, there was a great
demand for printed Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe. It was mainly due to its
exquisite colourful flowery designs, fine texture and relative cheapness.

58
 Bandhani is a bright coloured cloth. The term originated from bandhna meaning tying.
This fabric is produced through intricately tying and dying method; therefore it is also
known as ‘Tie and Dye’.
However, industrialisation of Britain changed the course of India’s textile industry. The British
industrialists were in search of a market for their industrial productions. Britain became the
foremost industrial nation due to mechanised production of cotton textiles. The growth of
iron and steel industry made Britain as the ‘workshop of the world’. This was largely due to
Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution is the process of rapid change that chiefly replaced
an agrarian, handicraft economy by industry and machine manufacturing. This change was
witnessed in England in the 18th century and from there it spread to the other parts of the
western world.

Did You Know

Arnold Toynbee, the English economic historian, first popularised the term Industrial
Revolution to describe England’s economic development occurred from 1760 to 1840.

Indian textiles in European markets

By the early eighteenth century, the popularity of Indian textiles became a cause of worry
for the silk and wool makers in England. They started to protest against the import of Indian
textiles. The British government passed strict law banning the use of chintz in England in 1720.
This Act was known as the Calico Act. During this time, the textile industries in England had
just started to develop. The English producers were not able to compete with Indian textiles.
They needed a secure market for their produce within the country. This was possible only if the
Indian textiles were prevented to enter the market. The calico printing industry was the first
industry to grow under the protection of government. They started to imitate and print Indian
designs on plain unbleached Indian cloth or white muslin.
A stiff competition with Indian textiles
paved way for the technological
inventions in England.
 The invention of spinning jenny in
1764 that increased the output of
traditional spindles.
 Richard Arkwright invented steam
engine in 1786 which brought
revolution in cotton textile weaving.
Now cloth could be woven cheaply
Fig. 6.1: Spinning Jenny
and in abundance too.

59
Inspite of these, the world trade was dominated by the Indian textiles till the end of the
eighteenth century. This flourishing trade proved immensely profitable for the European trading
companies such as the Dutch, the French and the English. These companies imported silver and
bought the Indian textiles. When English East India Company secured political power in Bengal,
they used the revenue obtained from the Indian peasants and zamindars to buy Indian textiles.

Rapid Round
1. Which two cities were known for exotic muslins?
2. How did calico get its name?
3. Industrialisation of changed the course of India’s textile industry.

The Decline of the Indian Textile Industry

The technological innovations and the development of cotton industry in Britain affected Indian
textile industry greatly. Several factors contributed to the decline of the Indian textiles industry.
 The increasing British occupation of India caused destruction of the Indian textile industry
through the process of de-industrialisation.
 After the Industrial Revolution, Britain produced cheap and better in quality machine made
textiles than the Indian textiles made with primitive techniques. Thus, the Indian textile had
to face stiff competition from the British textiles in the European and American markets.
 High import duties were imposed by the British on Indian textiles imported into Britain
proved disadvantageous to the Indian textiles.
 By the beginning of the 19th century, Indian goods lost their markets in Africa, USA and
Europe and the market was captured by the English made cotton textiles. The English
and European companies stopped buying Indian goods. Furthermore, their agents did not
gave any advances. This affected weavers greatly as they were unable to secure supplies.
 The Charter Act of 1813 ended the monopoly of the English East India Company and trade
with India was thrown open to all the Englishmen. By 1830, the British manufactured cotton
goods flooded Indian markets.
 Many of the weavers, spinners and craftsmen were rendered jobless. Thousands of women
spinners who survived on spinning cotton thread lost their jobs. Some of them migrated to
cities in search of livelihood while some went out of country to work in plantations in Africa
and South America. Some of these weavers became agricultural labourers while others
found employment in the new cotton mills established at Bombay, Nagpur, and Solapur.
 The British used their political control and made India not only the exporter of raw materials
such as cotton and indigo but also the importer of finished goods. The purpose was largely
to meet the growing demand of British industry.

60
 The British Government did not make any provision to protect local industries. They rather
enacted strict laws such as the Calico Act that adversely affected the Indian textile industry.

Foundation of Indian Cotton Mills

Though the Indian textile industry suffered at the hands of the machine made goods of Britain,
it did not affect the handloom weaving in India completely. There were certain types of clothes
such as intricate designs, borders or intricately woven cloth which could not be produced with
machines. There was a great demand for such textiles among the rich and the middle class
in India. In addition, the British textile manufacturers did not produce coarse variety of cloth
which was cheap and used by the poor people in India. In the late nineteenth century, Solapur
and Madurai emerged as important centres of weaving

Did You Know

Weavers belonged to the communities that are specialised in the art of weaving. Some of
the communities that are well-known for weaving are the tanti weaver of Bengal, sale and
kaikollar and devangs of south India, the julahas or momin weavers of north India.

The textile industry that was eclipsed for a small time, soon received impetus from the Indian
entrepreneurs. It was in 1854 that the first cotton spinning mill was set up in Mumbai by a Parsi
businessman and industrialist, Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar. Subsequently, mills were started in
Ahmedabad and Kanpur in 1861 and 1862, respectively. From the early nineteenth century,
Mumbai had emerged as an important port to export raw cotton to England and China.

By 1900, there were around 84 mills operating in Mumbai. Parsi and Gujarati businessmen, who
benefited from the trade with China, had established many of these mills. The humid climate
and vast black soil tract of Western India proved advantageous for production of cotton. These
favourable conditions provided essential raw materials required to the mills with ease. The
growth of mills provided employment opportunities for poor peasants, artisans and agricultural
labourers, who moved to the cities to work in these mills.

In the initial phase of its existence, the textile industry had to face many problems. It found
difficulty in competing with the finer and lesser expensive textiles imported from Britain. In
many countries, government protected local industries by imposing heavy duties on imports.
This helped in eliminating competition and supporting industrialisation. However, the colonial
government did not protect the local industries of India.

The First World War provided a major boost for the development of cotton industry in India.
The Indian cotton mills made considerable progress due to the decline in textile imports from
Britain. As a result, the requirements of cloths for military supplies increased.

61
 Rapid Round

1. Which Act ended the monopoly of the English East India Company?
2. Name the communities that are specialised in the art of weaving.
3. When was a textile mill started at Ahmedabad?

Iron and Steel Industry in India

The practice of iron smelting Did You Know
was very common in India
Tipu Sultan’s legendary
till the end of the nineteenth
sword had hard and sharp
century. Every district of Bihar
edge and was made of
and Central India in particular
wootz steel. Tipu Sultan,
had iron smelters. They used
the ruler of Mysore, fought
local deposits of ore and
many wars with the British.
produced iron. This was used
He died fighting with his
to manufacture implements
sword. His swords are now
and tools required for daily
part of valuable collections Fig. 6.2: Sword of Tipu Sultan
use. A special type of high made in the late 18th century
in museums in England.
carbon steel, called Wootz was
produced in every part of South India. Indian wootz steel was the subject of fascination for
European scientists. Many of them had spent years studying the properties of Indian wootz
steel and also left an account of the technique by which it was produced. It was widely used by
the sword and armour making industry.

Due to several reasons, the flourishing craft of iron smelting declined by the late
nineteenth century. Some of them are as follow:
 One reason was the enactment of new forest laws by the colonial government. This law
restricted people from entering the forest areas, thus preventing them from using forest
resources. Iron smelters could not sustain their occupation in such conditions and gave up
their crafts. Many of them looked for other means of livelihood.
 The forest areas where the government permitted access to iron smelters were expected to
pay a heavy tax to the revenue department. This affected their income.
 Moreover, the demand for iron produced by the local iron smelters decreased due to the
import of iron and steel from England. Ironsmiths in India began using iron imported from
England which displaced the iron and steel produced by the indigenous iron smelters.

62
The first iron and steel factory
The foundation of iron and steel industry owes its origin to the
vision of Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata. However, it was his eldest
son, Sir Dorabji Tata, assisted by his cousin, R. D. Tata, who
shouldered the responsibility of realizing Jamsetji’s vision. In
1907, he established the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO)
and township carved from the jungle named Sakchi, near the
confluence of the Subarnarekha and the Khorkai rivers. Sir
Fig. 6.3: Sir Dorabji Tata
Dorabji was knighted in 1910 for his contribution.

In 1911, the first collieries were obtained and started producing pig iron. In 1912, TISCO also
began producing steel. Soon after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, imports of
British steel into India declined as it had to meet the growing demands of war in Europe. That
led the Indian Railways to turn to TISCO for the supply of steel for rails. As the war stretched
on for several years, the demand of the colonial government was fulfilled by the TISCO. Over a
period of time TISCO emerged as the biggest steel industry within the British Empire. In 1919,
Lord Chelmsford renamed Sakchi as Jamshedpur after the visionary Jamsetji Tata.

Global Connection
Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration was a turning point in the history of
Japan. The political revolution in Japan ended the rule of
last Tokugawa Shogunate the emperor Meiji assumed the
direct imperial control over the country. The following Meiji
Period (1868–1912) was marked by the major political,
social and economic change. It was also responsible for the
establishment of a strong centralised government. Japan was Fig. 6.4: Emperor Meiji

opened to modernisation and westernisation. The period ended with the death of Emperor
Meiji in 1912.

Word Galaxy

smelting – metal extraction process from soil or rock by heating it at high

temperature, or of melting objects that are made from metal and use it to make
something new
spinning jenny – an early machine that could spin many threads of wool at the same time

63
 Concept Map
ǻǼ ÝNjŸŘŘ_ǢǼssĶNŸŎƼŘɴʹǻÝǢNŷʺ
ǼÌs¯ÞNjǣǼÞNjŸŘŘ_ǣǼssĶ¯OǼŸNjɴ
ÝŘ_ÞŘǼsɮǼÞĶsǣÞŘ
rȖNjŸƼsŘŎNjĨsǼǣ
ÞNjŸŘŘ_ǣǼssĶÞŘ_ȖǣǼNjɴ ÝŘ_ÞŘǼsɮǼÞĶsǣŘ_
ÞŘÝŘ_Þ ɠŸNjĶ_ŎNjĨsǼ

NNj¯ǼǣŘ_ÝŘ_ȖǣǼNjÞsǣ
ȕŘ_sNjǼÌsDNjÞǼÞǣÌ
¯ŸȖŘ_ǼÞŸŘŸ¯ NJȖĶs
ǼÌs_sOĶÞŘsŸ¯
ÝŘ_ÞŘOŸǼǼŸŘŎÞĶĶǣ ǼÌsÝŘ_ÞŘǼsɮǼÞĶsÞŘ_ȖǣǼNjɴ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) In the 18th century, was one of the world’s largest producers of
cotton textiles.

i) Britain ii) France

iii) India iv) Japan

b) The growth of iron and steel industry made as the ‘workshop of

the world’.

i) Japan ii) Britain

iii) India iv) Australia

c) first popularised the term Industrial Revolution.

i) Mahatma Gandhi ii) Richard Arkwright

iii) Arnold Toynbee iv) Dorabji Tata

d) The foundation of Tata Iron and Steel Industry (TISCO) owes its origin to the vision of
.

i) Dorabji Tata ii) R. D. Tata

iii) Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata iv) Lord Chelmsford

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The Bandhani fabric is produced through the and
method.

64
 b) renamed Sakchi as Jamshedpur after the visionary Jamsetji Tata.
c) was the subject of fascination for European scientists.
d) Every district of and in particular had iron
smelters.
e) By 1900, there were around 84 mills operating in .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) 1907 i) Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur

b) 1910 ii) Sir Dorabji was knighted

c) 1912 iii) Outbreak of First World War

d) 1914 iv) TISCO began producing steel

e) 1919 v) Establishment of TISCO

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Why was Chintz in a great demand in England and Europe?
b) What were the major inventions in the textile industry?
c) Who set up the first cotton spinning mill in Mumbai? When?
d) What was the Calico Act?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Describe the varieties of textiles produced in India.
b) Why was the popularity of the Indian textiles became a cause of worry for the silk and
wool makers in England?
c) How did the British manufacture goods affect the Indian Textile Industry?
d) Why did the iron smelting industry decline?
e) How did the trade of Indian textile prove profitable for the European trading companies?

6. Give reasons.
a) The machine made goods of Britain did not affect the handloom weaving in
India completely.
b) TISCO emerged as the biggest steel industry within the British Empire.

65
7. What steps would you take to preserve the traditional textile industry from
the growing globalisation?

8. Life Skills
What do you think is the correct way to promote traditional crafts and industries? Share
your views.

Do it to know it!

9. Creative Writing: Imagine you are a press reporter, who got the opportunity to interview
Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata. Write the news report based on the interview.
10. Research Work: Write a research report on the contribution of the traditional Indian textile
industry in Indian economy.

People Who Made History

Richard Arkwright
Richard Arkwright was regarded as the father of the modern
industrial factory system. He was a self-educated man.
He travelled widely which brought him into contact with
people associated with spinning and weaving. He invented
many machines; one of them was the water frame, in textile
manufacture, which was patented in 1769. It was superior to the
spinning jenny which produced a stronger yarn; later he invented
the steam engine. He established factories at Nottingham and Richard Arkwright

Cromford. He contributed significantly to the textile industry and he was knighted in 1786.

WEBLINKS
http://history-world.org/Industrial%20Intro.htm
http://www.tatasteel100.com/heritage/
http://www.historydiscussion.net/british-india/decline-of-industries-and-changing-
conditions-of-artisans-in-india-during-british-rule/644
As on 30/04/2019

66
 7. Education and the Colonial Rule

Let’s Learn
 Education during pre-British  Indian initiatives in the field of
period education
 Education and the British rule  Female education
 Impact of the educational policies  Case Studies – Vadodara and
of the British Aligarh

Tune In
If you educate a man, you educate an individual,
But if you educate a woman, you educate a family (nation).
This saying is attributed to the Ghanaian scholar, Dr. James Emmanuel Kwegyir-Aggrey. Do
you agree to this saying? Justify your answer with appropriate examples.

Universities were First Indian Women’s

The English Education
founded at Calcutta, University was started
Act was passed
Bombay and Madras by Maharshi Karve

1784 CE 1835 CE 1854 CE 1857 CE 1877 CE 1916 CE

Sir Syed Ahmad

Khan founded the
The Asiatic Society of
Wood’s Despatch Muhammadan Anglo
Bengal was set up
Oriental College in
Aligarh

Education during Pre-British Period

The British regime in India is significant due to its contribution in the sphere of education. Prior
to the British rule, traditional system of education was followed in India. Elementary education
was imparted in pathshalas and maktabs and restricted to the study of three Rs (reading, writing
and arithmetic) and religion while higher education was restricted to the study of Classical
Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian in tols and madrasas. Grammar, Classical Literature, Philosophy,
Logic, Law and Religious texts formed the important elements of higher study. The local schools
had no printed books, no fixed fee, no separate school building, no classrooms, no roll calls,
no annual examinations and no fixed timetable. According to the report of William Adam, a
Scottish missionary, this flexible system of education was suitable to local needs that enabled
the rural children to support their families and to study.

67
Education and the British Rule
The British government at first took scarcely any interest in improving the then existing
education system of India. Very few educational institutions were founded to get a steady
supply of qualified Indians who will help the British in the Company’s law courts. The knowledge
of these Indians in classical and vernacular languages was of a great help for the British in
correspondence with the Indian states.

Governor-General Warren Hastings started the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 for the study of
Arabic, Persian and Islamic law. In 1792, Jonathan Duncan set up a Sanskrit College at Varanasi
to encourage the study of Sanskrit texts. In 1800, Fort William College was established to train
Civil servants of the Company in Indian culture, tradition, law and administration.

However, there was neither any proposal nor a suggestion for establishment of a proper
educational system under government’s supervision and control. The credit for the idea of
setting up a network of schools for imparting education in English goes to the civil servant of
the Company, Charles Grant, but he could not convince the House of Commons and the Court
of Directors. However, due to his efforts, a beginning for English education was made in 1813,
when the Charter Act of 1813 came into force.

 The Charter Act of 1813 granted permission to Christian missionaries to come to India
under license and spread education.

 Under this Act, the Parliament directed the Company to take steps for the introduction of
useful knowledge for religious and moral improvement.

 It further asked the Company to spend a sum of not less than a lakh of rupees every year
on the education of Indians. The fund had to be used for the revival and improvement of
literature, to encourage the learned natives of India. It should be spent for the introduction
and promotion of knowledge of science among the Indian subjects of the British territories
in India.

Unfortunately, nothing fruitful happened until 1823 although the Charter Act of 1813 formally
laid down the education system in India. In 1823, the Committee of Public Instruction was set
up. Soon, it was divided between the Orientalists and the Anglicists or the English Party on the
medium of instruction and over the proper utilisation of funds allotted for educational purposes.

The Orientalists and the Anglicists

The Orientalists advocated that Western sciences and literature should be imparted to prepare
students to take up jobs. In addition, due emphasis should be given on the expansion of
traditional Indian learning through the medium of classical Indian languages such as Sanskrit,
Persian and Arabic.

68
Sir William Jones was one such Orientalist who set up the
Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 to encourage Oriental studies.
He learned various languages such as Latin, Greek, French,
English, Hebrew, Arabic and Persian. He learnt Sanskrit for the
preparation of a vast digest of Hindu and Muslim law. Many other
Englishmen such as Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nanthaniel
had knowledge of Indian languages and translated Sanskrit and
Persian works into English. Together with them, Jones started a
Fig. 7.1: Sir William Jones
journal called Asiatick Researches.
Anglicists, the other group of officials, believed in exclusive
spending on the promotion of western learning. They believed
that the knowledge of the East is full of errors and very unscientific.
They supported the extensive use of English as a medium of
instruction. James Mill, Thomas Macaulay represented the
Anglicists. James Mill supported that the education should be
useful and practical enough to make the Indians aware about
Fig. 7.2: Thomas Macaulay the scientific and technological advances
According to Thomas Macaulay, India was an uncivilised country needed to be civilised and
the funds set aside should not be spent on Oriental learning. Knowledge should be imparted
in English which would enable the Indians to get familiar with the developments in Western
science and philosophy and with the finest literature that the world had produced. He opined
that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole literature of India and
Arabia. It was in this context that Macaulay presented a proposal of advancement of English
education. It was known as Macaulay Minutes.
In 1835, following Macaulay’s minutes, the English Education Act was passed by the
Governor-General of India, Lord William Bentinck. The law stated that English was to be the
medium of instruction for higher education. Promotion of Oriental educational institutions
such as the Calcutta Madrasa and Sanskrit College was to be stopped.

Rapid Round
1. Who started the Calcutta Madrasa?
2. Who passed the English Education Act?
3. Name the two Anglicists who supported Western learning.

Wood’s Despatch
Although the momentous decision of 1835 led the beginning of English education on a
sound basis, evolution of a comprehensive and co-ordinated system of education is marked

69
 by Sir Charles Wood’s epoch-making Despatch of 19 July 1854.
He was the President of the Board of Control of the Company.
His proposal about education came to be known as Wood’s
Despatch which imposed the duty of creating a properly
co-ordinated system of education, from the primary school
to the University level, upon the Government. It proposed the
improvement and extension of education in English as well as in
Fig. 7.3: Sir Charles Wood vernacular. Its recommendations were as follows:

 to create a separate Department of Education in each province,

 to establish universities at the

Did You Know
Presidency towns, namely, Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras, In accordance with the
recommendations, the
 to take adequate measures for universities were founded
establishment of institutions for at Calcutta, Bombay and
training teachers for all classes Madras in 1857. Later,
of school, universities at Lahore in
1882 and Allahabad in 1887
 to maintain and reform existing Fig. 7.4: Mumbai University
were established.
government colleges and high
schools and increase their number, if required,

 to open new middle schools,

 to improve vernacular schools, native schools for elementary education,

 to introduce a grants-in-aid system in private schools,

 Emphasis was to be given on mass education and women education.

Wood’s Educational Despatch of 1854 is often described as the ‘Magna Carta of English
Education in India’, which presented a comprehensive plan for the development of education
system of India.

Colonial education after 1858

The administration of India by East India Company ended with Great Uprising of 1857. The
power of administration was transferred to British crown in 1858, but the educational policy
of the government of India continued to be based on the Wood’s Despatch of 1854. It was
confirmed by the Secretary of State in 1859. The progress of education continued to be reviewed
and directed by several commissions such as Hunter Commission, Universities Commission
and Sadler Commission

70
Impact of the Educational Policies of the British
 The British Government looked at modern education as the medium to strengthen the
foundations of their political power in India.
 The decision to make English as the medium of Indian education failed to take into account
the Muslims and women.
 Elementary schools were not opened in large numbers as more emphasis was given
on modern and higher education. Therefore, mass education was neglected through
vernacular schools.
 The government was not willing to spend on education more than the money allotted for
the purpose and relied on the ‘filtration theory’. According to the theory, the government
would educate a handful of Indians who would expect to educate the masses and spread
modern ideas among them.
 English education was the only provision for higher appointments opened to the Indians.
Further, the entire system of indigenous learning was dependent mainly on the patronage
of opulent Hindu and Muslim families. As a result, Western education made rapid progress
and the traditional system of Indian learning gradually declined.
 After 1854, the government focused on vernacular education. Now, teaching was based on
textbooks. Strict discipline was imposed. Students were expected to attend regular classes,
to pay fixed fee regularly, and learning was tested by conducting annual examinations.

Rapid Round
1. Who proposed the epoch-making despatch of 1 July 1854?
2. When was the power of administration transferred to British crown?
3. After 1854, the government focused on .

Indian Initiatives in the Field of Education

It was only from 1817 that we find concerted Indian initiatives in the field of education. The
notable institution, namely, the Calcutta School Book Society was founded in 1817 to make
available good text-books not only in English but also in Indian languages suitable for schools.
In the same year, another most significant initiative was the establishment of a Hindu College by
Raja Rammohan Roy, in association with David Hare. There were men in Bengal who supported
Western learning and believed that better things could be achieved through English education.
They admitted the value of Oriental learning for advancement of civilisation. Raja Rammohan
Roy was one of the greatest supporters of Western education. He also founded the Vedanta
College to offer courses which will be a blend of Western and Indian learning.

71
Since then a number of schools were established by Indians. Before 1835, there were not
less than twenty-five such schools only in Kolkata. Soon many such institutions were founded
outside Kolkata. These were all founded by private efforts. Both Englishmen and Indians
cooperated in this work. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was instrumental in opening approximately
thirty-five schools in Bengal. Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda and several
others did pioneer work by establishing various schools and colleges.

Did You Know

Annie Besant, who was born in England, came to Banaras in 1893 and founded the Central
Hindu School for boys in 1898.

Female Education
Female education received a great impetus through various
reformed samajas and societies such as the Brahmo Samaj, the
Arya Samaj and Servants of Indian Society, etc. The formation of
the Hindu Balika Vidyalaya in Kolkata in 1849 marked a turning
point in the history of female education. Wood’s Despatch of
1854 made a special reference to education of women and the
British Government assumed direct responsibility for making
women literate. The first Indian Women’s University was started
Fig. 7.5: Maharshi Karve
in 1916 by Maharshi Karve. An All-India Women’s Conference
was founded in 1927. It did outstanding work in promoting female education.

Case Study – Vadodara

Dr. Jackson, when he was a Principal
of the Baroda College in 1908,
visualised the concept of establishing a
university at Vadodara (then Baroda).
He recommended the formation of a
Science Institute at Vadodara (Baroda)
on an improved and independent basis.
On the 24 September 1926, the Baroda
Fig. 7.6: Maharaja Sayajirao University of Vadodara (Baroda)
University Commission was appointed.
Prof. A.G. Widgery was the Chairman of the Commission. In 1927, a comprehensive report was
submitted for the immediate establishment of a University at Vadodara (Baroda).

72
The Government of the former State of Baroda and its people wanted to have their own
University. The main aim of establishing the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda was to
provide a distinct type of teaching and residential University. It should have complete freedom
to introduce new branches of studies suitable to the needs of the region in particular and of
the country in general. It would be free to take decisions in all academic matters. It became a
university in 1949 and later renamed after its benefactor Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III, the
former ruler of Baroda State.
Case Study – Aligarh
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, great Muslim reformer and statesman,
was the founder of the Aligarh Muslim University. In 1842, the
British decided to replace Persian by English for government
employment and since it was an important language of Courts
of Law, it caused deep anxiety and distress among the Muslims.
After the Great Uprising of 1857, he felt that it was important
and necessary for Muslims to acquire proficiency in the English
language and modern sciences. This would help them to become
Fig. 7.7: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
a part of public life and join the government services in India.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan started various schools and began the preparation to lay the foundation
for the formation of a Muslim University. In 1864, the Scientific Society was established in
Aligarh. The purpose was to translate Western works into Indian languages as this would
help to commence Western education to the Muslim community. In 1877, he founded the
Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College in Aligarh. His purpose was to build a college in sync with
British education system while retaining the Islamic values. By 1920 the college was upgraded
into a university and named as the Aligarh Muslim University.
National Education
From the early nineteenth century, many Indian scholars also began to think about wider
spread of education. The developments that took place in Europe made the Indians believe
that Western education would help modernise India. They urged the British to establish more
educational institutions and spend more money on education. However, two Indians who
strongly reacted against western education were Rabindranath Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi.

Rabindranath Tagore and Shantiniketan

Rabindranath Tagore was another notable scholar who promoted national education. He
always envisioned a school where a child would be free, happy, and creative and was able
to explore his thoughts. He felt that self-learning should be promoted from childhood and
it should be outside the rigid schooling system of the British. According to Tagore, teachers
should be innovative and imaginative. They should understand children and help them to

73
develop their curious minds. He was of the opinion that creative learning could be imparted
within natural ambiance.
Tagore started a school, named Bramhachari Ashram, at
about 100 kilometres away from Kolkata, in a rural area at
Shantiniketan (meaning Abode of Peace), which was earlier
called Bhubandanga. This school later came to be known as
the Patha Bhavan. Ultimately, the school was expanded into
Visva-Bharati University. He stressed the need to teach science
and technology along with art, dance and music. Due to the
open-air education, the children could develop their talent by
learning and living in harmony with nature as opposed to the
Fig. 7.8: Rabindranath Tagore
traditional learning in the four walls of a classroom.

Did You Know

Fig. 7.9: Kala Bhavan

Kala Bhavan is an art college of Shantiniketan and is considered as one of the best art
colleges in the world.

Mahatma Gandhi and Basic Education

Mahatma Gandhi believed that colonial education had enslaved
Indians. They began admiring British rule and considered Western
civilisation superior. Indians educated in British institutions began
to treat their own culture as inferior. According to Mahatma
Gandhi, Western education only focused on reading and writing,
and valued textbooks. There was no scope for oral and practical
knowledge. He argued that education was not for knowing how
to read and write but for the all-round development in children.
Fig. 7.10: Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi wanted such educational system that could
enable the Indians to recover their self-respect and sense of dignity. He strongly felt that

74
Indian languages should be the medium of instruction because education in English had made
Indians ‘strangers in their own lands’. He conceptualised Nai Talim or Basic Education for the
holistic development of a person’s body, mind and soul. He suggested that children should
learn crafts and identify how things functioned differently. This will help their mind as well as
their capacity to understand.

Did You Know

In a speech delivered on 15 January 1908 in Bombay (present-day Mumbai), Aurobindo
Ghose said that the goal of national education was to rouse the spirit of nationality among
the students. This required a thoughtful consideration of the heroic deeds of our ancestors.
It is important to impart education in the vernacular languages as this will help to reach the
large number of people. He laid utmost emphasis on the fact that the students should take
the advantage of western experiments and modern scientific discoveries in governments,
yet they should be connected to their roots. They should also learn craft so as to find
employment once they complete their schooling.

Rapid Round
1. Who championed the cause of National Education?
2. Who founded Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College in Aligarh?
3. Who established Hindu College?

Global Connection
Education in the Nineteenth Century Europe
The European education underwent a significant
transformation in the nineteenth century. The growing spirit
of nationalism and belief in the power of education led to
the emergence of National School System. The European
nations realised that education can not only shape the future
of nations but also individuals. Change in attitude towards
women resulted in the establishment of secondary schools in
Fig. 7.11: Maria Montessori
many countries such as France and Germany. The European
Elementary Schools were attended by children of the lower classes. The usual subjects were
reading, writing, religion, and arithmetic. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss educational
reformer; Friedrich Froebel, the German educator, and Maria Montessori, Italian physician
and educator gave outstanding contribution in the development of education.

75
Word Galaxy

benefactor – a person who helps a persona or an organization by supporting

financially
conceptualise – to form a concept or an idea of something
concerted – planned or done together for a shared purpose

Concept Map
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Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) In 1792, set up a Sanskrit College at Varanasi.

i) Warren Hastings ii) James Mill

iii) Sir Charles Wood iv) Jonathan Duncan

b) The first Indian Women’s University was started in 1916 by .

i) Maharshi Karve ii) Raja Rammohan Roy

iii) Mahatma Gandhi iv) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

c) Prof. A.G. Widgery was the Chairman of the .

i) Calcutta University Commission ii) Hunter Commission

iii) Baroda University Commission iv) Sadler Commission

76
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) Sir William Jones set up the .

b) founded the Vedanta College.

c) Due to the efforts of a beginning of English education was made in 1813.

d) Students should also learn so as to find employment once they

complete their schooling.

e) was the only provision for the higher appointments opened to the Indians.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) The English Education Act i) 1800

b) Annie Besant ii) Lord William Bentick

c) Rabindranath Tagore iii) Central Hindu School for boys

d) Henry Thomas Colebrooke iv) Shantiniketan

e) Fort William College v) The Orientalist

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Give the names of the traditional centres of learning of Hindus and Muslims.
b) What was the turning point in the history of female education?
c) Which proposal was described as the ‘Magna Carta of English Education in India’?
d) Where were the Universities founded in 1857?
e) Who conceptualised Nai Talim?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Discuss the traditional education system of India.
b) What were the recommendations of Wood’s Despatch?
c) How did the Charter Act of 1813 influence the education system in India?
d) Write about the initiatives taken by the Indians in the field of education

6. Give reasons.
a) Education in English had made Indians ‘strangers in their own lands’.
b) Creative learning could be imparted within natural ambiance.

77
7. Do you believe that fixed time table is vital to make a student more
disciplined? Give reasons for your answer.

8. Life Skills
What measures can be adopted to eradicate illiteracy from the country?

Do it to know it!

9. Debate: Organise a debate on ‘The traditional system of education is better or modern

system of education’.

10. Research Work: Find out more about the various schemes developed by the Government
of India to promote female education and make a fact file on it.

People Who Made History

Friedrich Max Muller

Friedrich Max Muller was the son of a noted poet named Wilhelm
Muller. He was a German indologist and Sanskrit scholar. He
edited and translated some of the most ancient religious and
philosophical texts of Asia into English. His noteworthy works
include his edition of the Rig Veda with Commentary. His
greatest work as editor of The Sacred Books of the East (the 51
volume series of translations) and also his initial editing of the
series Sacred Books of the Buddhists. The Goethe-Institutes in
India are named in honour of Max Muller, founder of Indology. Friedrich Max Muller

WEBLINKS
http://www.importantindia.com/11322/british-education-policy-in-india/
http://www.santiniketan.com/
http://www.gandhifoundation.net/about%20gandhi1.htm
As on 30/04/2019

78
 8. Indian Renaissance

Let’s Learn
 The position of women  Muslim reform movement
 The caste system  Sikh reforms
 Indian Renaissance  Parsi reform movement
 Reformers of Eastern India,  Women reformer’s struggle for
Northern India, Western India and women’s emancipation
Southern India

Tune In
 Name any five women who left mark in their respective fields.

Hindu Widows Swami Dayanand

The practice of Sati
Remarriage Saraswati founded the
banned
Act passed Arya Samaj

1828 CE 1829 CE 1851 CE 1856 CE 1867 CE 1875 CE 1897 CE

Prarthana Samaj was

Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Swami Vivekanand
Raja Rammohan Roy established under the
Sabha was founded by laid the foundation of
founded Brahmo Samaj leadership of
the educated Parsis Ramakrishna Mission
Dr. Atmaram Pandurang

The Position of Women

During ancient times, women enjoyed equal status with men which gradually changed
and further deteriorated in medieval times. At the beginning of the nineteenth century,
the position of women was very miserable. They no more enjoyed equal status and had no
access to education. They were deprived of social and economic rights. Many evil practices
such as female infanticide, child marriages, marriages between young girls and aged men,
prohibition of widow remarriage, dowry system, purdah system and polygamy were responsible
for the pitiable condition of women. Sati was one of the barbaric practices prevalent during the
time in which a widow burnt herself on the funeral pyre of her husband. Woman chose such
death were called ‘sati’, meaning virtuous woman.

The Caste System

The caste system was another factor that hampered social mobility. It created social divisions
in the society, which was largely based on inequality, exploitation and injustice. The caste

79
system that prevailed since ancient time placed Brahmins at the top of the social pyramid. They
enjoyed all privileges and had the monopoly to perform rites and rituals. They also had exclusive
access to all kind of learning and knowledge. At the lowest rung of the pyramid, were the mass
of Shudras together with the category of people who were treated as untouchables. These so
called untouchables were assigned the duty of serving all other castes and perform menial jobs
such as those of scavengers, tanners and others. Their touch was considered impure and would
defile the upper castes. They were denied access to temples, schools and water resources. They
had to live far from the main village. They had no freedom regarding the choice of vocation.
They could not mingle or dine with people from other castes. The rigid caste system was the
biggest obstacle not only to political, social, economic, cultural progress of the society but also
to national unity.

Indian Renaissance
The establishment of the British power consequently led to the dissemination of colonial culture
and ideology that resulted in a critical analysis of the indigenous culture and institutions. The
British rule in India from 1757 to 1858 witnessed an outburst of intellectual activity and change
in the outlook towards the socio and religious ideas. This was largely due to the introduction of
English education. It enabled the Indians to get acquainted with Western ideas and knowledge.

The place of faith and belief was taken over by reason and judgment. The educated Indians
influenced by a spirit of rationalism began to inquire and argue before accepting anything. The
superstitious beliefs and practices were examined by applying scientific knowledge. They felt
an urgent need to reform the Indian society in order to bring out nation’s progress. A critical
outlook on the past and new aspirations for the future marked a new beginning called Indian
Renaissance with a view to transform India into a modern nation.

Rapid Round
1. Did women enjoy equal status to men in medieval times?
2. What factor hampered the social mobility?
3. Who had access to all kind of learning and knowledge?

Reformers of Eastern India

Raja Rammohan Roy

The socio religious reforms embraced the entire nation which began with the efforts of
Raja Rammohan Roy. He is rightly called the Father of Modern India. He founded a reform
association known as Brahmo Samaj in 1828. It denounced polytheism, idol worship and

80
the abuse of the caste system. Raja Rammohan Roy wanted to
improve the condition of Indian women and bring about greater
freedom and equality for them. He encouraged education for
women and campaigned against the practice of sati. He tried
to prove through his writings that the practice of sati was not
permitted by the Hindu Shastras. His campaign though roused
the hostility of the orthodox section of people against him but
eventually in 1829, he succeeded in imposing a ban on sati under
Fig. 8.1: Raja Rammohan Roy
Governor-General Lord William Bentinck. He played a notable
part in improving the condition of widows. He also opposed polygamy. He advocated widow
remarriage and fought against child marriage.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Ishwar Chandra was one of the greatest educationist and social
reformers of modern India. He worked for the upliftment of the
status of women. He was influenced by Western ideas. He took
a leading part in successful campaign to legalise remarriage of
widows. He gave reference of ancient texts and suggested that
widows could remarry. His agitation led to the passing of the
Hindu Widows Remarriage Act in 1856. He vehemently opposed
Fig. 8.2: Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar child marriage and polygamy. He did much to promote the
education of girls and set up nearly thirty five schools in Bengal.
His reforming zeal had to earn the wrath of the orthodox members of Indian society. He
rejected the rigid caste system and opened the doors of his Sanskrit college for non-Brahmin
students and admitted students of lower castes.

Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda was the most notable disciple of Ramakrishna
Paramahamsa. He strived hard to eliminate child marriages and
illiteracy to bring social reform in the society. He denounced
social practices such as untouchability. He was determined to
raise the status of women and the masses by means of education.
In 1897, he laid the foundation of the Ramakrishna Mission
and propagated that service to humanity is the true religion. The
Mission set up many schools and dispensaries. It helped people Fig. 8.3: Swami Vivekananda
in times of distress.

81
Reformers of Northern India

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. He
rejected caste distinctions and did not recognise the supremacy
of the Brahmins. He decried child marriages, and encouraged
intercaste marriages. He believed that Hindu society could be
reformed by reviving Vedic rituals and institutions. He proclaimed
that the study of Vedas and other Hindu scriptures be opened to
people of all castes. According to him, only the Supreme Being
should be worshipped and condemned the worship of gods and
goddesses. Under his leadership, Arya Samaj maintained many Fig. 8.4: Swami Dayanand Saraswati
educational institutions and even founded Kanya Gurukuls to promote education for women.

Rapid Round
1. Name any two reformers of eastern India.
2. Who set up nearly thirty five schools in Bengal?
3. Who was the most notable disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahansa?
4. Who was the founder of Arya Samaj?

Reformers of Western India

Dr. Atmaram Pandurang, M. G. Ranade and R. G. Bhandarkar

In 1867, Prarthana Samaj was established under the leadership of
Dr. Atmaram Pandurang. M. G. Ranade and R. G. Bhandarkar were
some of the leaders of the Prarthana Samaj, who infused great
strength in it. The Samaj supported theistic worship and social
reforms. They favoured prayers and devotional songs instead of
cumbersome rituals for worshipping God. It laid utmost emphasis
on the opposition to the caste system and introduction of widow
remarriage. It also worked for the encouragement of female
Fig. 8.5: M. G. Ranade
education, the abolition of purdah system and child marriage.
M. G. Ranade started an all-India movement for social reform.

Did You Know

The Paramhans Mandali was founded in Mumbai to work for the abolition of castes.

82
Mahatma Jyotirao Phule
Jyotirao Phule was one of the eminent reformers of
Maharashtra, who courageously fought for the cause of women
and down-trodden masses. He, with the support of his wife
Savitribai, started a girls’ school at Pune. He campaigned for the
remarriage of widows and even helped the widows to remarry. He
worked diligently for the removal of untouchability and for the
rights of the depressed classes that resulted into the formation of
Satyashodak Samaj. He wrote a book called Gulamgiri meaning
slavery, which he dedicated to all the Americans who had fought Fig. 8.6: Mahatma Jyotirao Phule
to free slaves.

Did You Know

Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde established ‘Depressed Classes Mission’ for the
upliftment of the Dalits.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, popularly known as Babasaheb, belonged
to the Mahar caste. Members of this caste were viewed
as ‘untouchables’ by the upper caste. Throughout his life, he
fought for the rights of down-trodden. He worked persistently
to weed out the roots of untouchability and caste system. He
founded All India Scheduled Caste Federation. He founded
the Bahishkrut Hitkarini Sabha to spread education among the
Depressed classes and to represent their grievances before the
Fig. 8.7: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar government. He started a temple entry movement of the Dalits
for the entry into the Kalaram Temple at Nashik. He led one of the most significant satyagraha
at Chavdar lake in Mahad to assert the right of the untouchables to draw water.

Did You Know

Mahatma Gandhi had coined the term Harijans or Children of God for the untouchables. He
long worked for the eradication of untouchability. He founded an All India Anti-touchability
League. In 1933, he started a magazine called the Harijan.

Dr. Ambedkar started journals such as the Muknayak, Bahishkrit Bharat, Janata and Samata to
present the problems faced by the untouchables. Babasaheb not only fought for the rights of
the Dalits but also to improve the conditions of women. While drafting the Indian Constitution,
he made provisions for their welfare.

83
Reformers of Southern India
Sri Narayan Guru
The socio religious reform movement that began in Bengal
soon spread to other parts of the country. In South India,
Sri Narayan Guru was a critic of the caste system. He started
a reform movement in Kerala for the emancipation of the so
called untouchables of Indian society. He established the Shree
Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam to carry out social
reforms. He regarded the differences based on caste and religion
as superficial and gave the message of ‘one Religion, one
Fig. 8.8: Sri Narayan Guru Caste, and one God for mankind’.

Kandukuri Veerasalingam
Kandukuri Veerasalingam Pantulu was another great pioneer in
the field of social reform of South India. He championed the
cause of widow remarriage and female education in Andhra
Pradesh. In 1874, he opened his first girls’ school. He founded the
Rajahmundry Social Reform Association in 1878. He devoted
his life for the amelioration of women’s status. Fig. 8.9: Kandukuri
Veerasalingam Pantulu
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker ‘Periyar’
The period saw the reformers from non-Brahmin castes to
challenge the Brahmins’ claims to power. E.V. Ramaswamy
Naicker populary called ‘Periyar’ fought against the tyranny of
the upper caste of the social order and worked to eradicate
social evils such as untouchability. He started a social reform
movement known as the Self Respect Movement. This
movement denied the authority of the Brahmins. According
to him, the Brahmins had subjugated the original Tamil and
Dravidian culture and the true upholders of it were the
Fig. 8.10: E.V. Ramaswamy untouchables. He criticised the ancient Hindu scriptures and law
Naicker ‘Periyar’
books which not only established the authority of the Brahmins
over lower castes but also the domination of men over women.

Rapid Round
1. Who started an all-India movement for social reform?
2. Who wrote the book Gulamgiri?
3. Who opened his first girl’s school in 1874?

84
 Did You Know
The Veda Samaj was founded in Madras (Chennai) in 1864. It was inspired by the principles
of the Brahmo Samaj. The samaj condemned caste system, rituals of orthodox Hinduism and
superstitions. It promoted women’s education and the remarriage of widows.

Movements led by lower caste leaders, powerful speeches and writings made the upper- caste
nationalist leaders to rethink. But orthodox Hindu society also reacted by establishing associations
such as the Brahman Sabha in Bengal and Sanatan Dharma Sabhas and the Bharat Dharma
Mahamandal in the north. The primary objective of these organisations was to support
caste distinctions as a foundation of Hinduism and demonstrate how this was sanctioned
by scriptures.

Muslim Reform Movement

Among the Muslims, the social reforms were initiated by Abdul Latif, the founder of
‘The Muhammadan Literary Society’. Another important educationist and social reformer
was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. He opposed the ignorance, superstitions and evil practices such as
purdah system, polygamy and the Muslim system of divorce. He also emphasised the value
of education for women. He opened the Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College, which later
came to be called the Aligarh Muslim University. He also founded the Translation Society
for translating books from English into Urdu. He firmly believed that acquisition of Western
education and science would be significant for the progress of Muslim society.
Sikh Reforms
Religious reforms among the Sikhs were initiated by the establishment of the Singh Sabha
all over the country for the strengthening and purification of Sikh life. It worked to promote
education in the Sikh society. The leaders of the Sabha established Khalsa College at Amritsar
in 1892. It sought to rid Sikhism from the prevailing superstions and caste distinctions and
to bring modernisation. Later, the reformist tradition was continued by the Akali Dal which
started a powerful movement to reform the Gurudwaras. The Mahants who looked after the
Gurudwaras viewed the religious place as their personal property.

Fig. 8.11: Khalsa College

85
Parsi Reform Movement
Religious reform among the Parsis began with the efforts of educated Parsi men. In 1851, the
Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) was founded with the object
of restoring Zoroastrian religion and reforming Parsi community. The purdah system was
abolished. Several social reformers such as Behramji Merwanji Malabari also campaigned
against the child marriage. The spread of education, especially among girls also made
good progress.

Women Reformer’s Struggle for Women’s Emancipation

Several men reformers upheld the cause of women and fought for their emancipation. In due
course of time, women began to take initiative and raised their voices against the prevailing
evil practices and customs that caused great injustice to them.
By the late nineteenth century, Indian women began to enter universities and trained themselves
to be doctors and teachers. They began to write. Their writings became vehicles of social
reform and political awakening. Through their writings they expressed their anguish against the
inferior position of women in Indian society. ‘Stree-Purush Tulana’ written by Tarabai Shinde
criticised the social differences between men and women. Savitribai Phule contributed to the
cause of women’s education despite strong opposition from the society.
Pandita Ramabai was one of such greatest Indian reformers who wrote a book which showed
the miserable condition of upper-caste Hindu women. She founded the Arya Mahila Samaj.
Later, she also established the Sharda Sadan to provide shelter and help to widows by training
them to support them economically.
Many Muslim women played notable roles in promoting women education. The verses from
the Quran were reinterpreted by reformers such as Mumtaz Ali to argue for women’s education.
Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain set up schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Kolkata. She
fearlessly criticised conservative ideas and argued about the inferior place accorded to women
by the religious leaders of every faith.

Fig. 8.13: Begum Rokeya

Fig. 8.12: Pandita Ramabai Sakhawat Hossain Fig. 8.14: Annie Besant

86
 Did You Know
In 1875, the Theosophical society was founded in the United States of America by Madame
H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott. In India, its headquarters was situated at Adyar,
Chennai. The society prospered under the leadership of Annie Besant, a reform-minded
Englishwoman. The Society played a significant role in social and religious reforms especially
in South India.

Several independent women organisations such as Bharat Mahila Parishad and All India
Women’s Conference came to be formed. These organisations soon reached national level
through which women advocated their issues such as the right of inheritance, the right to vote, etc.
From the early twentieth century women took active part in the national movement. Many great
Indian leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose supported the demand for
greater equality and freedom for women. The struggle bore the fruit when the principle of
equality of men and women was stated in the Constitution of India.

Rapid Round
1. Give the names of any three women social reformers.
2. Who established Khalsa College?
3. Who was the founder of ‘The Muhammadan Literary Society’?

Global Connection

Rise of Feminism in the West

Feminism is a movement that started for the attainment of social, political and economic
equality for women to that of men. The Seneca Falls Convention was held in Seneca
Falls, New York in 1848. It was the first convention organised by Elizabeth Cady Staton,
Lucretia Mott and others for the women’s rights. They demanded complete legal equality
with men, full educational opportunity and equal compensation. Thereafter, the woman
suffrage movement began which met with a stiff opposition in United Kingdom and the
United States. Their struggle resulted in great success when women secured the right to
vote in 1918 and 1920 respectively.

Word Galaxy

Dalit – member of the so called lower caste

polygamy – the practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time
polytheism – the belief in or worship of more than one god
theistic – relating to or characterized by belief in the existence of a god or gods

87
 Concept Map
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Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) agitation led to the passing of the Hindu Widows Remarriage Act
in 1856.

i) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s ii) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s

iii) Pandita Ramabai’s iv) Savitribai Phule’s

b) founded Kanya Gurukuls to promote education for women.

i) Swami Vivekanand ii) M. G. Ranade

iii) Swami Dayanand Saraswati iv) Annie Besant

c) Mahatma Gandhi started the magazine .

i) Gulamgiri ii) Muknayak

iii) Janata iv) Harijan
d) The started a powerful movement to reform the Gurudwaras.

i) Arya Samaj ii) Akali Dal

iii) Theosophical Society iv) Brahmo Samaj

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The book was written by Tarabai Shinde.

88
 b) gave the message of ‘one Religion, one Caste, and one God for mankind’.

c) started a temple entry movement.

d) Kandukuri Veerasalingam Pantulu founded in 1878.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Depressed Classes Mission i) Pandita Ramabai

b) Brahmo Samaj ii) Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde

c) Arya Mahila Samaj iii) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

d) Bahishkrut Hitkarini Sabha iv) Swami Vivekanand

e) Ramakrishna Mission v) Raja Rammohan Roy

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Name a few evil practices responsible for the pitiable condition of women.
b) Define Indian Renaissance.
c) Who established the Shree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam?
d) Where was the headquarter of Theosophical Society situated in India?
e) Who was the Parsi reformer campaigned against the child marriage?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Discuss the role of Periyar to eradicate untouchability.

b) How the reform movements were initiated among the Sikhs?
c) Describe the contribution of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in the upliftment of lower class.
d) How did women reformers fight for the emancipation of women?

6. Give reasons.
a) The introduction of English education changed the outlook towards the socio and
religious ideas.
b) The caste system had hampered social mobility.

7. In context with the position of women in present-day society, do you really

think the reformers have succeeded in bringing the change? Justify.

89
8. Life Skills
If every individual starts to think about the well-being of another, then no one would be a
victim of unjust and unfair treatment. Share your views.

Do it to know it!

9. Creative Writing: Collect information about a famous Indian woman and write a biography
of her life.
10. Project Work: Make a project report on ‘The role of media in socio-religious reforms in
today’s time’.

People Who Made History

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio was born to an Indian father and
an English mother. He had joined Hindu College at Calcutta.
He criticised the orthodox social practices and religious
beliefs of Hinduism. He profoundly influenced his students.
Referred to as the Young Bengal Movement, his students and
followers emphasised on female education. They condemned
superstitions and attacked evil customs and traditions. They
supported the freedom of thought and expression. Henry Louis Vivian Derozio

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As on 30/04/2019

90
 9. Struggle for India’s Independence

Let’s Learn
 Rise of nationalism
 Early associations
 First phase of the Indian National Movement
 Second phase of the Indian National Movement
 Independence and partition

Tune In
 Complete the timeline given below.

Battle of Plassey

1600 CE 1854 CE 1857 CE

Practice of Sati Hindu Widows

Remarriage Act Indigo Revolt
banned passed

It will be quite fair to say that it was the British who with their diffusion of modern culture and
ideology led the Indians to analyse the extent of their oppression over themselves. Introduction
to modern education and the numerous socio-religious reforms helped the Indians to realise
the exploitative nature of the British rule.

Rise of Nationalism
The socio-economic changes coupled with increased oppression of the British led to new
national consciousness amongst the people. They realised that the British were in India only
to exploit the Indians for their benefit. The Industrial Revolution of Great Britain had given the
Indian intellectuals some hope of modernisation of India. They felt that the British should treat
them at par with themselves. It did not take much for the Indians to realise the disillusionment
about the real motive behind the British rule. Though the world was progressing, India
was regressing.
The economic policies of the British gradually led to mass dissatisfaction amongst the
people. The British discrimination against the Indians was evident in the Acts passed by
them. The Arms Act, 1878, did not allow Indians to manufacture, possess or sell firearms. The

91
Vernacular Press Act, 1878, allowed confiscation of newspapers and printing press by the British
Government, if the content published was found objectionable.
The Illbert Bill proposed in 1883 allowed Indian judges to preside cases concerning Europeans.
Amendments made to the same bill after objections by the Europeans infuriated the Indians.
All these events along with the sweeping current of Westernisation culminated in the feeling of
nationalism amongst the people.

Early Associations
The rise in national consciousness inevitably led to the formation of many associations
throughout the country. Indian Association, Bombay Presidency Association, Mahajan Sabha of
Madras and Poona Sarvajanik Sabha were some of the important political associations formed
in the latter half of the 19th century. These associations held public meetings and conferences
that helped to disseminate a political spirit amongst the masses.

Indian National Movement – First Phase

The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, under the leadership of Allan Octavian
Hume infused a new vigour in the people. It quickened the political consciousness of the masses.
W.C. Bonnerjee was the first President of the Congress. The initial phase of the Indian National
Movement was restricted to demands for political and economic reforms such as admission of
elected members in Legislative Councils, decrease in military expenditure, introduction of Public
Service Examination in India at the same time when they were held in England, among others.

Early Nationalists
The leaders of the Congress, in its initial stage, were known as Early Nationalists. They
believed in bringing about change in society through constitutional reforms. Pherozeshah
Mehta, Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopalkrishna Gokhale and Surendra Nath Banerjee were some of
the eminent Early Nationalists. Early Nationalists were of the belief that the British believed
in justice and would concede to their demands, sooner or later. They were very critical of the
economic exploitation of India for the benefit of the people of England.

Fig. 9.1: Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopalkrishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji

92
Dadabhai Naoroji, after meticulous research, propounded his famous ‘Drain Theory’ in his
book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ on how the British were draining India’s wealth on
multiple fronts.

Assertive Nationalists and Assertive Nationalism

Leaders such as Bipin Chandra pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Aurobindo Ghose,
among others, were very unhappy with the methods of the Early Nationalists. They were of
the belief that the Early Nationalists did not connect themselves with the masses or the youth.
They believed in a more aggressive approach to be free from the oppressive policies of the
British. These leaders are known as Assertive Nationalists and their approach is termed as
Assertive Nationalism. Assertive Nationalists did not agree to the Early Nationalists’ idea of a
government under British rule. They believed in complete freedom through self rule or ‘Swaraj’.

Fig. 9.2: The Assertive Nationalists Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and
Bipin Chandra Pal were also known as Lal Bal Pal

Did You Know

Bal Gangadhar Tilak coined the slogan ‘Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!’

Rapid Round
1. What power did the Vernacular Press Act, 1878, give to the British?
2. Name three Assertive Nationalists.

Partition of Bengal
The year 1905 was a decisive moment in Indian history. The partitioning of Bengal by Lord
Curzon spelled out the intentions of the British quite clearly. People realised that the British
were following the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’. They were not concerned about India and its
people. Although the reason given was that of administrative convenience, Partition of Bengal
was aimed at weakening the epicentre of the Indian National Movement. The chief motives

93
were to restrict the influence of Bengali politicians and to divide the Bengali people. Indians
throughout the country were enraged at the decision. Both the Early Nationalists and the
Assertive Nationalists protested against the decision. Protest meetings were held throughout
the country. More than 500 protest meetings were held in East Bengal (now Bangladesh) alone.

Swadeshi Movement
The leaders of the Indian National Movement realised that they needed a new approach to
achieve the ideal of forming a government. The genesis of the Swadeshi Movement can be
traced to the anti partition movement that took place to object the partition of Bengal. The
Swadeshi Movement emphasised on the use of indigenous goods and clothes. It also advocated
the use of Indian languages and urged the people to pursue national education. One of the
important features of the Swadeshi movement was the emphasis on self-reliance or self help.
The Swadeshi Movement campaigned for the boycott of foreign goods and institutions.

Other developments between 1905 and 1919

The period between 1905 and 1919 witnessed some other important developments too. The
main shortcoming of the Swadeshi Movement was that it could not acquire the support of
Muslims. As a result, All India Muslim League was formed at Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim
League demanded separate electorates as they felt that they were not adequately represented
in the government.
Another important development was the split in the Congress in 1907. The Early Nationalists
and Assertive Nationalists did not agree to each other’s way of functioning.
The Indian National leaders had hoped that the Indian Councils Act, 1909, popularly known
as Morley-Minto reforms would incorporate some of their demands. Although the reforms
introduced a system of indirect elections, they also allowed separate electorates for Muslims,
which was not appreciated by the leaders of the Congress.
The First World War that began in 1914 infused a different kind of nationalism in the Indians.
The somewhat dormant phase of the Indian National Movement was over. Dr. Annie Besant and
Lokmanya Tilak started the Home Rule Movement that demanded Self rule for the Indians.
The Early Nationalists and the Assertive Nationalists decided to reunite the Congress in 1915.
The historic Lucknow Pact signed in 1916 between the Congress and the Muslim League was
another important development of this phase. The two organisations decided to work together
towards achieving the goal of self-government.
The Indians contributed to the World War I significantly. Indians leaders hoped that the British
would give in to their demands if they helped them. The Montague-Chemsford Reform,
1918, culminated in the Government of India Act, 1919, which stressed upon increased
participation of the British in the administration.

94
By the time the World War ended, the stage was set for the entry of one of the most important
leaders of the Indian National Movement, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.

Second Phase of the Indian National Movement

Gandhian Era
The second phase of the Indian National movement is marked by the entry of Mohandas
Karamchand Gandhi on to the political scenario of India. Having worked as a lawyer in South
Africa for twenty years, he fought against racial discrimination meted out to the Indians
there. Gandhiji evolved a technique of civil disobedience or passive struggle which he termed
as Satyagraha.
Success in South Africa prompted Gandhiji to make an attempt to free his country from British
rule. It was with this intention that he came to India in 1915. He spent a year travelling and
understanding the problems of the people throughout India. Gandhiji was involved in local
movements for the peasants of Champaran and Kheda. He also led a successful campaign for
industrial workers of Ahmedabad against the mill owners for whom they worked. Gandhiji’s
participation in these movements helped him gain a strong foothold amongst the political
workers as well as the people of India.

The Rowlatt Act and Satyagraha

The Rowlatt Act of 1919 prompted Gandhiji to call for a nationwide protest against the Act.
The Act curtailed the basic fundamental rights such as freedom of speech and expression.
The Act also allowed the government to arrest anyone it deemed suspicious and imprison
anyone without a trial. The political leaders criticised the Act and called it a ‘Black Act’. Gandhiji
organised Satyagraha Sabhas and urged the people to protest non-violently against this Act.
The Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act was the first all India agitation against the British, though
the participants were mainly from towns and cities.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Protests and agitations carried out throughout the
country against the Rowlatt Act were suppressed by
the British government. One such meeting was to be
held in Amritsar on 13 April 1919 at Jallianwala Bagh.
Around 10,000 people had gathered in the Bagh which
had a very narrow exit. Brig. Gen. Dyer ordered his
troops to fire at the unarmed crowd. Though an official
report claims that around 379 people died and 1200 Fig. 9.3: The memorial at Jallianwala
were injured, the actual numbers are believed to be Bagh for those who laid down their life

95
much more. The brutal force used by the British at Jallianwala Bagh had stunned the nation and
Gandhiji called off the Satyagraha on 18 April 1919.

Did You Know

Rabindra Nath Tagore, the famous poet and writer, renounced his Knighthood in protest of the
Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

The Khilafat and the Non-cooperation Movement

Having called off the Satyagraha after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Gandhiji was looking
for an opportunity to start a movement that would involve the Hindus as well as the Muslims.
Opportunity struck in the form of the Khilafat issue. The British imposed harsh treaty on Turkey
after the First World War and the Caliph was not allowed to exercise his powers over the holy
places in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire. The Indian Muslims were upset as they regarded the
Caliph of Turkey as their religious head. Gandhiji suggested a non-cooperation movement to
the Khilafat Committee. In June 1920, Gandhiji was asked by the Khilafat Committee to lead the
non-cooperation movement. The movement came to be known as the Khilafat Movement.

In the meantime, the Central Khilafat Committee met with the Hindu leaders such as Gandhiji,
Motilal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, etc. and urged them to join and support the non-cooperation
movement. The Non-cooperation Movement was formally launched on 1 August 1920 by
Mahatama Gandhi. The main features of the Non-cooperation Movement are as follows:
 People boycotted and burnt foreign cloths in many cities and towns.
 Many lawyers such as C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel gave up their law practices.
 Thousands of students left foreign schools and colleges.
 Picketing of shops that sold foreign cloth was a common feature.
 On the suggestion of Gandhiji, people started using charkha and the khadi cloth.
 People resigned from government jobs and committees.
 Non-violent hartals and processions were carried throughout the country.

The British Government repressed the movement by putting restrictions on public meetings and
assemblies, newspapers and arresting people on a large scale including the political leaders.
Rapid Round

1. What do you know about the Morley-Minto Reforms?

2. Name any two places where Gandhiji was involved in local movements for peasants.
3. Which movement was formally launched on 1 August 1920?

96
Important events from 1922 to 1929
On 5 February 1922, an incident in Chauri Chaura prompted Gandhiji to call off the
Non-cooperation Movement. Some people in Chauri Chaura had a tussle with the police. When
the people went to complain, they were mishandled and the police fired at the people. Once
the ammunition was over, the enraged people lit the fire station which resulted in the death
of 22 policemen. Gandhiji was very disturbed by the whole incident and decided to call off the
Non-cooperation Movement as this incident did not follow his ideal of non-violence.
The followers of Mahatma Gandhi decided to extend their support base by working in villages.
Congress leaders such as C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru suggested that they should take part in the
elections of the legislative councils and enter them to influence the policies of the government.
They called this programme ‘either mending or ending’. They formed the Congress-Khilafat
swaraj Party which was later known as the Swaraj Party. The formation of the Communist Party
of India and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) were the significant developments of the
mid-1920s.
Another important feature of the 1920s was the boycott of the Simon Commission which
was sent to make changes to the structure of the Indian Government. As the Commission did
not include any Indian and was not ready to accept the demand for Purna Swaraj, Indians
boycotted the Comission and posters of ‘Simon Go Back’ were seen in many places. The
Simon Commission was greeted with hartals and protests were held throughout the country.
Lal Lajpat Rai, one of the famous famous leaders succumbed to his injuries during a lathi
charge and died on 17 November 1928.
Another major event of the 1920s was the acceptance of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or complete independence
as the goal of the Congress at the December 1928 session of the Congress.
The arrival of Bhagat Singh and other assertive nationalists within the political scenario was a
spark in the otherwise stagnant phase of the Indian National Struggle. Many young people,
who were a part of the Freedom struggle, began to question the strategy of non-violence. They
believed that violence was the only way to free India from British control.

Fig. 9.4: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru

97
Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajguru, Sukhdev, Surya Sen, Jatin Das, etc. were some
famous revolutionaries of the time. They formed an association called the Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association.

Did You Know

Bhagat Singh killed Saunders, the Assistant Superintendent of Police, Lahore to avenge the
death of Lala Lalpat Rai. Bhagat Singh was executed for killing Saunders and throwing a bomb
in the Assembly Chamber in New Delhi.

Civil Disobedience Movement

The Indian flag was first hoisted on 31 December 1929. The Congress decided to launch a Civil
Disobedience Movement in 1930 as their demand for independence was not agreed upon by
the British. On 26 January 1930, public meetings were held and the Independence Pledge was
read out to the people. Gandhiji decided to start the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking
a law that concerned people of all religions and economic status, whether rich or poor. Gandhiji
decided to break the Salt Law which had allowed only the British to manufacture salt.

The Indians were forced to pay tax for a commodity as common

as salt, which was the basic ingredient of food. Gandhiji and
his followers walked from Sabarmati to Dandi and broke the
Salt Law by manufacturing salt. This march famously came
to be known as the Dandi March. Thousands of people
thronged Dandi even before Gandhiji and his followers had
reached the place. People from all communities and classes
joined the movement. Peasants, women, students, youth and
even the tribals took part in the movement. Workers went
on strikes, students left government schools and colleges,
people refused to pay taxes. Gandhiji urged the people to
Fig. 9.5: Gandhiji with his
be non-violent. Thousands of people including Gandhiji and followers at Dandi
Nehru were arrested and sent to jail. The Civil Disobedience
Movement was the first mass freedom movement in India in the true sense.

Did You Know

Participation of women in Indian national movement provided the national struggle an
immense force. Ambabai of Karnataka was one such woman who picketed liquor shops
and foreign cloth in Udipi. During her prison terms she made speeches, organised prabhat
pheris, and taught spinning.

98
First Round Table Conference and Gandhi-Irwin Pact
While the Civil Disobedience Movement continued throughout the country, the Viceroy
suggested a Round Table Conference between the Indian political leaders and representatives
of the British government. To initiate the talk, Gandhiji and some political prisoners were
released. Gandhiji initiated a talk with the Viceroy, Lord Irwin. The pact signed by Gandhiji and
Irwin came to be known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The government agreed to concede to
some demands of the Indians like release of political prisoners, right to make salt, etc.
Government of India Act, 1935
After persistent confrontation with the British in the Second and Third Round Table Conferences,
Indian political leaders had hoped that the Government of India Act, 1935 would concede
to their demand of complete independence. The Government of India Act, 1935 granted
provincial autonomy and setting up of a bicameral legislature at the Centre. The Government
announced that provincial elections in 1937. The Congress succeeded in forming governments
in 7 out of 11 provinces. World War II broke out in 1939. The Congress agreed to support only
if Britain agreed to free India. When the British declined to concede the demand, the Congress
ministries resigned from the government in protest.

Quit India Movement

In the middle of the Second World War, Mahatma Gandhi decided to start a new phase of
movement against the British. 8 August 1942 was the day decided to launch another mass Civil
Disobedience Movement. ‘Quit India’ or ‘Bharat Chhodo’ was the slogan of this movement
famously known as the Quit India Movement.
Countrywide strikes and hartals were held against the British Rule. There were many acts of
violence at railway stations, government buildings, etc. The British Government arrested the
leaders and resorted to brutal suppression by arresting and killing people.

Fig. 9.6: Quit India Movement

99
 Indian National Army (INA)
Subash Chandra Bose, the famous political leader, escaped from
India and formed the Indian National Army to overthrow the
British and free India from their control. He took the help of
Japan to fight the British but Japan’s loss to the former dealt a
blow to his plans. ‘You give me blood and I will give you freedom’
was one of his most popular slogans.
Fig. 9.7: Subhash Chandra Bose
Developments after 1945
There was a dramatic change in the political situation in India after the end of the Second World
War. Although Britain along with its allies had won the Second World War, they were steadily
losing the battle with the Indians. The change of power in Great Britain was an important
development too. The Labour Party, led by Prime Minister Clement Atlee decided to lift the
ban on the Congress and send a Cabinet Mission to India. The Cabinet Mission was to transfer
the power in the hands of the Indians through the formation of an interim government. A
Constituent Assembly was to be formed to frame the Indian Constitution.

Mountbatten Plan
Lord Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of India. He presented a plan to divide India into two
countries – India and Pakistan as the Muslim League was adamant on the formation of Pakistan.
His plan came to be known as the Mountbatten Plan. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 was
passed by the House of Commons in Britain. It was decided that 15 August 1947 would be the
date to transfer power.
Independence and Partition
An interim government was set up in 1946 with Jawaharlal Nehru as its head. The Muslim
League announced ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16 August 1946 for mass agitation for the demand
of Pakistan. Riots broke out in Kolkata and spread throughout the country. Hundreds of
people were killed and thousands had to flee from their homes. At the stroke of midnight,
on 14 August 1947 India became independent. 15 August 1947 was the day India became
free from British rule. Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of independent India. The
happiness of India’s freedom was somewhat marred by the violence caused due to the partition
of the country.
Rapid Round
1. Name two members of the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party.
2. Which date was decided to transfer the power?
3. Why was the Cabinet Mission sent to India?
4. Which Act was passed by the House of Commons in Britain?

100
 Sketch Map not to Scale,
An Artist's Impression

Fig. 9.8: India before partition

Global Connection

Indonesia’s Struggle for Independence

Indonesia’s struggle for independence was an important event of the late 19th and early
20th century. Indonesia’s history was influenced by many nations as it was a trade hub since
the seventh century. The Portuguese, the British and the Dutch colonised Indonesia during
different periods of the 19th and 20th century. To gain independence from the Dutch, the
Indonesians founded Boedi Oetemo, meaning noble conduct, an organisation that would
fight for its independence. Indonesia became independent from 350 years of Dutch rule
after a prolonged struggle at the end of the Second World War.

101
 Word Galaxy

autonomy – the right or condition of self-government

bicameral – consist of two separate houses
picket – a person or group of people who stand outside a workplace or other venue as a
protest or to try to persuade others not to enter during a strike

Concept Map

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Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Lokmanya Tilak and Annie Beasant started the that demanded
self-rule for the Indians.

i) Home Republic Movement ii) House Rule Movement

iii) Home Resist Movement iv) Home Rule Movement
b) Second World War broke out in .
i) 1939 ii) 1929
iii) 1928 iv) 1938

102
 c) ‘You give me blood and I will give you freedom’ is a famous slogan coined by
.
i) Bhagat Singh ii) Mahatma Gandhi
iii) Subhash Chandra Bose iv) Gopalkrishna Gokhale
d) Muslim League designated 16 August 1946 as for mass agitation for
the demand of Pakistan.
i) Direct Independent Day ii) Direct Action Day
iii) Double Action Day iv) Direct Allowance Day

e) was the first President of the Congress.

i) Bal Gangadhar Tilak ii) W.C. Bonnerjee
iii) C.R. Das iv) Mohammed Ali Jinnah

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) and were two of the many political associations
formed in the latter half of the 19th century.
b) was formed at Dhaka in 1906.
c) Gandhi evolved a technique of civil disobedience or passive struggle which he termed
as .
d) The historic was signed between the Congress and the Muslim League
in 1916.
e) An interim government was set up in 1946 with as its head.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Subhash Chandra Bose i) Renounced his Knighthood

b) Lord Mountbatten ii) First Prime Minister of India

iii) Fought for the rights of Indians in

c) Jawaharlal Nehru
South Africa

d) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi iv) Last Viceroy of India

e) Rabindra Nath Tagore v) founder of the Indian National Army

103
 4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Who were Early Nationalists? Name any three.
b) What do you understand by the term ‘Assertive Nationalism’?
c) What was the important feature of the Swadeshi Movement?
d) What do you know about the Indian National Army?
e) What is the Mountbatten Plan?
f) What were the significant developments of the mid-1920s.?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) What do you know about the rise of nationalism in India during the late nineteenth
century?
b) What are the main features of the Non-cooperation movement?
c) Write about the Partition of Bengal.
d) Mention the developments after 1945 that led to India’s independence.

6. Write short notes.

a) Rowlatt Satyagraha
b) Chauri Chaura incident
c) Civil Disobedience Movement
d) Simon Commission

7. Give reasons.
a) The brutal force used by the British at Jallianwala Bagh had stunned the nation.
b) The Khilafat Committee asked Gandhiji to start a non-cooperation movement.

8. How did the use of indigenous goods and clothes help to achieve
independence? Justify your answer with appropriate reasons.

9. Life Skills
‘There were many people who contributed directly or indirectly in Indian National Movement.
Suggest some ways to reminisce their contribution.

Do it to know it!

10. Creative Writing: Collect the information about any one of the following and write a
biography on the same.
i) Subhash Chandra Bose ii) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
iii) Mahatma Gandhi

104
10. Creative Writing: Write a song to invoke true patriotic feelings among the Indians in order
to unite against the British rule.
11. Research Work: Find out about the important issues highlighted by Dadabhai Naoroji in
his book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ and make a fact file on the same.

People Who Made History

Kasturba Gandhi
Kasturba Gandhi got married to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
when she was thirteen. He taught her to read and write. Kasturba
renounced all caste distinctions although she was very religious.
Kasturba supported Gandhiji in all his political movements. She
worked at the Sabarmati and Sevagram Ashrams too. Kasturba
even went to jail many times with her husband. She also took his
place while giving statements to the press when Gandhiji wasn’t
around. Kasturba taught discipline, cleanliness, reading and
Kasturba Gandhi
writing to many village women and children.

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105
 10. India: Towards Building A Nation

Let’s Learn
 Evolution of the Constitution  Planning for economic development
lopment
 Rehabilitation of the refugees  Foreign Policy of India
 Integration of the princely states  India and neighbouring countries
ntries
 Integration of other colonial possessions  India: seventy years of independence
in India and more
 Reorganisation of the states

Tune In
 Name the various movements led by the Indian leaders to achieve Independence.

Goa was liberated from the Portuguese.

The Constitution of India SAARC was established
The first conference of Non-Alignment
came into effect at Dhaka
Movement was held at Belgrade

1947 CE 1950 CE 1951 CE 1961 CE 1974 CE 1985 CE

India’s first nuclear

India First Five Year Plan was
test was conducted at
became independent launched
Pokhran, Rajasthan

India became independent on 15 August 1947 after a prolonged struggle. Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru became the first Prime Minister of Independent India. The end of colonial rule marked a
period of building the nation.

Evolution of the Constitution

The process of framing of the Indian Constitution began many
years before the date on which it came into force. In 1946,
the Constituent Assembly (the constitution-making body
for Independent India) was set up under the Presidentship
of Dr. Rajendra Prasad. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Chairman of the
Drafting Committee, played a significant role and presented Fig. 10.1: Dr. Rajendra Prasad

106
a detailed draft constitution. After thorough discussion, the Constitution finally came into effect
on 26 January 1950.

As the Constitution envisages, India has adopted the Parliamentary form of government and
guarantees Universal Adult Franchise for all citizens. The Indian Constitution affirms that every
individual, irrespective of one’s religion, race, caste, sex and place of birth, is entitled to enjoy
equality before law and equality of opportunity. Special privileges were granted to the poor
and the most disadvantaged Indians. Untouchability was abolished and its practice in any form
was forbidden. A certain number of seats were reserved in legislature, jobs in government and
in educational institutions for the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes, and other members
of the deprived classes.

The Constitution of India has specified legislative powers to minimise the conflicts between the
centre and state governments through the Union, the State and the Concurrent Lists. The Union
list includes subjects such as defence and foreign affairs. The State list comprises subjects such
as health and agriculture. The Concurrent list covers subjects such as welfare of labour and
education.

The Constitution adopted Hindi as the official language of India. English would be used in all
the official purposes such as in the courts, in communication between the states, etc.

Rehabilitation of Refugees
Independence came at the heavy cost of partition and accompanied by a series of challenges.
As a result of partition, the question of the settlement of the refugees arose. There were about
eight million people who migrated to India. The problem of displaced persons put immense
pressure on administration and on financial resources. Providing them jobs and shelter
became a difficult task. Though the task took some time to accomplish, the problem had been
successfully tackled.

Integration of the Princely States

Another major problem that the newly established government had to face was the one
concerning the princely states. These states differed in their sizes and populations. The princely
states enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy during the colonial rule. At the time of partition,
these princely states had the right to either merge with India or Pakistan.
It was the efforts of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the then Home Minister of India, that he
convinced all the princely states to join India. His success resulted in the merger of all princely
states except Junagad, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad. With great skill and firmness Patel
emerged victorious and resolved the issue of the merger of these three princely states. By the
end of 1948, the merger of the princely states with India was complete with the accession of
Hyderabad.

107
 Integration of Other Colonial Possessions in India
After prolonged negotiations, the French handed over Pondicherry (now Puducherry) and rest
of the other territories to the Government of India in 1954. But the Portuguese were not ready
to leave and refused to surrender the territories under its possession. In 1961, the Indian troops
marched into Goa. Soon, Goa was liberated from the Portuguese. Thus, the territorial and
political integration of India was achieved.

Rapid Round
1. Who became the first Prime Minister of India?
2. Who was the Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee?
3. When was the merger of the princely states completed?

Reorganisation of the States

Various committees were appointed to solve the question
of linguistic reorgnisation of India. However, the committees
advised against the formation of states on the basis of language
as this step would endanger the national unity, national security,
economic development and administrative inconvenience. This
caused a great disappointment among the people. Hartals,
bandhs, protest marches, hunger strikes were organised in many
towns. Fig. 10.2: Potti Sriramulu

In 1952, a veteran Gandhian, Potti Sriramulu, undertook a fast unto death demanding the
creation of a separate Andhra state in order to protect the interests of Telugu speakers. He
died after fifty eight days of his fast. The news of his death caused a widespread protest all
over Telugu speaking region. The Central government conceded the demand and finally on
1 October 1953 the separate state of Andhra Pradesh came into existence.

Did You Know

On 2 June 2014, Telangana came into existence after reorganisation of the State of
Andhra Pradesh.

Consequently, other linguistic groups also demanded their own state. In 1953, the States
Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was set up under Justice Fazl Ali, K. M. Panikkar and Pandit
Hridaynath Kunzru. The committee submitted its report in 1956 and recommended redrawing of
the state boundaries on the basis of linguistic principle. After the recommendations of the SRC,
the Parliament passed the States Reorganisation Act which divided India into fourteen states and
six centrally administered Union Territories.

108
Planning for Economic Development
During the colonial rule, the economic policies of the British government were largely derived
to protect and promote their interests. These policies led to the decline and disappearance of
traditional Indian economy and society. After Independence, the chief objectives of the new
nation were to alleviate poverty and to build modern technical and industrial base for national
economic development. To achieve the objectives, the model of mixed economy was adopted,
which emphasised on the role of the State and the private sectors. Both the sectors would play
important and complementary roles in order to increase production and in generating jobs.

The government set up a Planning Commission in 1950 with Jawaharlal Nehru as its first
Chairman. The Commission was entrusted with the responsibility of formulation and execution
of the plans for the planned economic development. The Planning Commission laid out plans
to carry out the work targeting the period of five years. Therefore, these plans are also known
as Five Year Plans. The implementation of the First Five Year Plan (1951–1956) was a significant
step in the process of planned economic development.

Did You Know

The Planning Commission has been replaced by the National Institute for Transforming
India, also called NITI Aayog, on 1 January 2015.

Rapid Round
1. When did Andhra Pradesh come into existence?
2. Who was the first Chairman of the Planning Commission?
3. When was First Five Year Plan launched?

Foreign Policy of India

Under the colonial rule, India did not have a foreign policy of
its own. After independence, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who
was then also the foreign minister, formulated a policy which
opposed colonialism and supported the cause of exploited
nations against the imperialist powers.

Panchsheel
Another most important feature of India’s foreign policy was
Panchsheel or the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.
These were first envisaged and formulated in the agreement
Fig. 10.3: Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
signed by India and China in 1954.

109
 The five principles are as follows:
 Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
 Mutual non-aggression.
 Mutual non-interference.
 Equality and mutual benefit.
 Peaceful co-existence.
Subsequently, Panchsheel formed the bedrock of the Non-Alignment Movement.
Non-Alignment Movement
The period after the Second World War saw the emergence of Cold War. The world was divided
into two power blocs, namely, the Western Bloc led by the USA and the Eastern Bloc led
by the USSR. The power rivalries and ideological conflicts between the two blocks created
numerous military pacts and alliances. This was also the period when many countries attained
freedom from the colonial powers. For the newly independent, poor countries of Asia and
Africa, joining any of these blocks meant losing everything. It was in this context that the
Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) came into existence. India was the first country to adopt
the Non-Alignment policy and urged the countries not to join either of the two major alliances.
Soon, other countries such as Yugoslavia, Egypt, and Indonesia joined the movement. In 1961,
the first conference of the leaders of the Non-Alignment Movement was held at Belgrade.
India and Neighbouring Countries
India being a vast and peace loving country has always emphasise on peace, freedom, social
justice and mutually beneficial co-operation among the nations. India shares its border with
various countries, namely, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and
Myanmar. India’s southern neighbours across the sea includes two island countries – Sri Lanka
and the Maldives.

Did You Know

The South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
was established in 1985 at Dhaka. The members of the SAARC are
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and
Sri Lanka. The SAARC aims to promote welfare of the people of the
member states by providing a platform to work together by building
friendship, trust and understanding and accelerating the process of
socio-economic development. India being one of the member states
has played a significant role in fostering friendly relations with the Fig. 10.4: SAARC Logo

South Asian countries.

110
The Government of India seeks a supportive external environment not only globally but also in
our region to safeguard the interest of the country. As a result, it is essential to have a peaceful
periphery that would enable to achieve desired objectives without any obstacles. Therefore,
India works for harmonious and cordial neighbourly relations in its extended neighbourhood.

India: Seventy Years of Independence and More

The long journey of India to establish its own identity in the world arena has been remarkable.
It undertook the circumstantial challenges and emerged as the World’s largest democratic
nation. The biggest achievement is its Unity in Diversity. Since Independence, hundreds of
elections have been held at various levels affirming the democratic values and civil liberties.
India has made tremendous progress in different fields such as communication and information
technology, nuclear and space technology, transport and banking sector, politics, trade, mass
media, entertainment, sports, etc.

India has successfully broken from the economic structure of the

colonial rule and laid the foundation of a self-reliant, independent
economy. It has more or less become self sufficient in defence
production. India’s first nuclear test was conducted in 1974 at
Pokhran, Rajasthan. The Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) established with an objective to develop space technology
and its application to various national tasks. Aryabhata was
India’s first indigenously built satellite by the ISRO. Soviet Union
Fig. 10.5: Aryabhata
launched this space craft on 19 April 1975.

Today, India holds an important place in the world largely due to its progress in every field. The
struggle for women’s emancipation has resulted in granting them the status of equality. In the
modern period, on one hand, where women are climbing the ladder of success, on the other
hand violence against them has increased. There are still many grave issues such as population,
corruption, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, gender discrimination and child labour that need
a special attention for the wholesome development of the nation.

Rapid Round
1. What does NAM stand for?
2. Where was the first Non-Alignment Movement conference held?
3. What is the full form of SAARC?
4. Who launched Aryabhata on 19 April 1975?

111
 Global Connection

The Korean War (1950–1953)

World War II divided Korea into North Korea and South
Korea at the 38th parallel (latitude 38° N). In June 1950,
Korean War was fought between the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea (North Korea) supported by the
Communist China, and the Republic of Korea (South Korea)
supported by the United Nations with the United States as
the most important participant. Kim Il-Sung, the Communist
Fig. 10.6: Kim II-Sung
leader of North Korea established a strong control over the
Communist Party, the northern administrative structure and military forces. His desire to
unify the peninsula under communist rule led to an attack on South Korea. Soon the North
Korean troops captured the capital city, Seoul. The war caused heavy causalities on both the
sides. The three year long war ended with an armistice signed in 1953 and North and South
Korea still divided, same as before the war.

Word Galaxy

Universal Adult Franchise – any adult above the age of 18, irrespective of
gender, caste, creed, occupation or religion is allowed to cast a vote

Concept Map
ÝŘ_ÞʲǣsɚsŘǼɴɴsNjǣŸ¯ÞŘ_sƼsŘ_sŘOsŘ_ŎŸNjs
sɚŸĶȖǼÞŸŘŸ¯ǼÌsOŸŘǣǼÞǼȖǼÞŸŘ

ǢNJN
NjsÌEÞĶÞǼǼÞŸŘŸ¯ǼÌsNjs¯Ȗ¶ssǣ
ÝŘ_ÞŘ_ ŘsÞ¶ÌEŸȖNjÞض OŸȖŘǼNjÞsǣ

ÝŘ_ÞʲǻŸɠNj_ǣ ÞŘǼs¶NjǼÞŸŘŸ¯ǼÌsƼNjÞŘOsĶɴǣǼǼsǣ
DȖÞĶ_ÞضŗǼÞŸŘ
¯ŸNjsÞ¶ŘƼŸĶÞOɴŸ¯ÝŘ_Þ
ÞŘǼs¶NjǼÞŸŘŸ¯ŸǼÌsNjOŸĶŸŘÞĶƼŸǣǣsǣǣÞŸŘǣÞŘÝŘ_Þ
ŘŸŘ˚ĶÞ¶ŘŎsŘǼŎŸɚsŎsŘǼ

ƼĶŘŘÞض¯ŸNjsOŸŘŸŎÞO_sɚsĶŸƼŎsŘǼ NjsŸNj¶ŘÞǣǼÞŸŘ Ÿ¯ǼÌsǣǼǼsǣ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The Constitution of India came into effect .
i) 26 January 1950 ii) 15 August 1947
iii) 1 January 1950 iv) 1 August 1947

112
 b) In 1961, was liberated from the Portuguese.
i) Andhra Pradesh ii) Junagarh
iii) Hyderabad iv) Goa
c) The Constituent Assembly was set up under the Presidentship of .
i) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel ii) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
iii) Dr. Rajendra Prasad iv) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
d) The is replaced by the National Institute for Transforming India, also
called NITI Aayog.
i) Planning Commission ii) Transforming Commission
iii) Plan and Act Commission iv) Constituent Assembly

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The adopted Hindi as the official language of India.

b) The handed over Puducherry to the Government of India.

c) formed the bedrock of the Non-Alignment Movement.
d) The laid out the plans targeting the period of five years.

e) The biggest achievement of is its Unity in Diversity.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Planning Commission i) 1946

b) Panchsheel ii) 1974
c) India’s first nuclear test iii) 1950
d) The Constituent Assembly iv) 1954
e) The States Reorganisation Commission v) 1953

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What were the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC)?
b) Describe mixed economy.
c) What is the main objective of ISRO?
d) What are the issues that India needs to pay special attention?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) How was the problem of rehabilitation of refugees tackled?

113
 b) How was territorial and political integration of India achieved?
c) How did India plan its economic development?
d) Elucidate Panchsheel and its principle.

6. Give reasons.
a) The long journey of India to establish its own identity in the world arena has been
remarkable.
b) A separate state of Andhra Pradesh came into existence in 1953.
7. Evaluate the performance of India as a Nation.

8. Life Skills
Foreign policy determines how a nation conducts its relations with other nations. What is
your take on the present foreign policy of India?

Do it to know it!

9. Project Work: Find out the Indian personalities who carved their names in various fields
such as politics, sports, entertainment, etc. Make a project report on their achievements
that contributed significantly in the success story of India.
10. Creative Writing: Write an article for the newspaper that emphasis on the problems faced
by the refugees after the partition of India.
11. Research Work: Find out about the various five years plans. What are salient features of
these plans? Make a fact file on it.

People Who Made History

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel, popularly known as Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel, was one of the greatest leaders of Indian
National Movement. In 1928, he led the Bardoli satyagraha in the
state of Gujarat urging the peasants of Bardoli to protest against
increased land revenue and refuse to pay taxes. This movement
earned him the title Sardar (leader). After independence, he held
the post of deputy prime minister, minister of home affairs, minister
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
of information, and minister of states. He passed away in 1950.

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114
 11. Indian Constitution – A Revelation

Let’s Learn
 What is a Constitution?  Key Features of the Indian Constitution
 Why do we need a Constitution?  Vision of the Indian Constitution
 Case Study – Dowry  Preamble
 Rule of Law  Constitutional Amendment
 Legitimacy of Law  Law and Dissent
 Making of the Indian Constitution

Tune In

 Do you think we need rules and regulations to live in a society? Discuss in class.

A law is a rule that states how people may and may not behave in society. Such rules are
essential for the smooth functioning of a country. All the basic rules according to which a
country is governed are laid down in the constitution.

What is a Constitution?
A Constitution is the most significant document that contain the fundamental law of a nation.
The constitution provides a framework to form the ideal government for effective and better
governance of a nation.

Why do we need a Constitution?

Most of the countries in the world today have a Constitution. The Constitution serves several
purposes. The Constitution lays down ideals of the people of the country which tells us the
basic nature of the society. A country comprises of people of different castes and communities
who have their own set of beliefs and traditions. The rules and regulations in a Constitution are
such that are agreed upon by all individuals.
The Constitution also reflects ideals that the citizens of the country believe they should hold. This
is reflected in its form of government too. Let us take the example of Nepal. Nepal was earlier
a monarchy with the King as its Constitutional head until 1990. People started a movement for
the establishment of a democracy which was finally granted to them in 2006. The people of
Nepal wrote a new Constitution as the previous one did not uphold the vision of their country.
Let us take a simple example. We all have been bullied by somebody or the other, sometime,
whether it is an elder or younger sibling, parents, friends, seniors, etc. When people have

115
 power, they sometimes tend to misuse it. The Constitution lays down rules that prevent people
from misusing the power given to them.
You may have heard of a large mob mistreating some people they disapprove of; or a group
of boys teasing a girl. Sometimes, majority groups enforce their decisions on the minority
group. Taking care of situations like these and punishing the guilty is also provided for in the
Constitution. The Constitution makes provisions so that a dominant group does not ill treat a
smaller group or a less privileged group.
Above examples throw light on the importance of rules and laws. The following Case Study
of Dowry will help us to understand how proper and effective laws help correct injustices and
practices prevailed in our country.

Case Study – Dowry

Dowry can be defined as an amount of money, goods or property that a bride’s family gives
to the groom at the time of marriage. The practice of giving and accepting dowry existed in
India for centuries. However, this was a voluntary act which became an obligation over a long
period of time. As a result, there have been several cases of deaths and domestic violence due
to dowry. After independence, the Government of India has passed the Dowry Prohibition Act
in 1961 to prohibit the demanding, giving and taking of dowry.The practice of dowry is not only
banned by law but such acts are also punishable offences.

Tickle Your Brain

The Government of India has passed various laws to prohibit the practice of dowry even
after 1961. What could be the reason for passing so many laws?

Rule of Law
The makers of the Constitution had envisaged that the rule of law must always prevail to help
India occupy a credible position as a democratic country.
The rule of law implies that no one is above law and a person can be penalized for a breach of
law and not for anything else. It demands that people holding power and occupying positions
in different organs of the state should be guided by law. They should not be permitted to
act in an unlawful or arbitrary manner. Hence the constitution makers chose to guarantee
certain rights to its citizens and expected them to discharge certain responsibilities. In this
constitutional structure, it is the Parliament or the legislature that makes laws, the executive
that enforces laws and the judiciary that interprets laws.

The Legitimacy of Law

In India, it is the Constitution that is supreme. If the law is inconsistent with regard to its
conformity with the constitution then the High Courts and Supreme Court of India have the

116
power to declare a law unconstitutional. This process is called as judicial review. For a law to be
valid, it must conform to the constitutional requirements. It is the responsibility of the judiciary
to come to a decision whether the law is constitutional or not.

Making of the Indian Constitution

India was ruled by the British for nearly 200 years. The Indian
freedom fighters were aware of the importance of drafting a
Constitution that gave equal freedom and rights to all the citizens
of India; something that was denied to them under the colonial
rule. The Constituent Assembly was formed in 1946, to draft the
Indian Constitution. It had over 300 members. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar,
chairman of the drafting committee, is also referred to as the
Father of the Indian Constitution. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Jawaharlal
Nehru, Sardar Vallabbhai Patel, Maulana Azad, Sarojini Naidu,
Vijaylaxmi Pandit were some of the eminent members of the
Fig. 11.1: Sarojini Naidu
Constituent Assembly that drafted the Indian Constitution.
The Constitution drafted maintained diversity of the different people while preserving
the national unity. The Constitution of India was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on
26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950.

Key Features of the Indian Constitution

The following are some of the key features of the Indian Constitution.
 Federalism – Federalism refers to the division of power between a central authority and
its sub-units. The Indian Constitution states that India will have governments at the centre
and the state level. Since India is a vast country with a diverse culture, a single government
at the centre cannot do justice to its role. Local people are required to understand the
requirements and problems of each area, and then suggest measures to tackle it. The
Constitution allows autonomy of the state governments in most matters, but reserves
matters of national importance for the central government. Laws are made by the central
as well as the state governments.
 Parliamentary Form of Government – The Indian Constitution states that India will have
a Parliamentary form of Government, that is, the real power to run the government will
be given to the members of the cabinet who will be answerable to the legislature. The
Constitutional Head of the State will have powers that he/she can use only in special cases.
The Constitution also guarantees the right to vote to all Indian citizens irrespective of caste,
creed, culture, gender, etc; to elect their representatives to the Legislatures.
 Separation of Powers – The Indian Constitution divides the government’s power into
three different entities, namely Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. As read earlier, the

117
 Legislature makes laws, the Executive implements the law and the Judiciary is responsible
for punishing people who break the laws and protect those who have been wronged.
Separation of powers is essential to prevent misuse of power by the government. Each
organ of the government acts as a check on the other.
 Secularism – Secularism refers to refraining the use or promotion of any religion in political
matters. It also means that there is no state religion. In a diverse country such as India, there
are many religions and the country does not promote any one religion.
 Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties – The Constitution of India grants basic
fundamental rights to all citizens, against individuals and the State itself. The Constitution
also lays down some fundamental duties that each citizen is expected to follow. We shall
study about them in detail later.

Rapid Round
1. Who is known as the Father of the Indian Constitution?
2. What do you understand by the term ‘secularism’?

Vision of the Indian Constitution

The makers of the Indian Constitution envisioned the Constitution to be more than just a legal
document; they wanted it to be a guiding principle to conduct the affairs of the country in a
fair and just manner. The Indian Constitution was meant to fulfill all the expectations of the
people that they envisaged when they were under British Rule. The makers of the Constitution
wanted to draft it in a manner so as to make everyone equal in the eyes of law. They wanted to
give some special privileges to the down trodden classes who have been exploited by others
for their own benefit. The makers of the Indian Constitution wanted to identify the functions of
the various institutions and the important political figures of India.

Preamble
The Preamble of the Indian Constitution is an introduction to the
basic ideals and objectives of the constitution. It points to the source
of authority from which it gets its power. The Preamble promises
features like justice, liberty, equality and fraternity to all the citizens
of the country although it cannot be enforced in a court of law. Let us
now go through the important features of the Preamble.

Sovereign – The Preamble states that India is a sovereign country;

it means that India is free from external control by any other country
or authority. India is independent to conduct its own internal and
external affairs. Fig. 11.2: The Preamble

118
Socialist – The term socialist was added to the Preamble in the year 1976 through the 42nd
Amendment. Although socialism means public control and equal distribution of all resources,
the term socialist in the Preamble aims to reduce the differences between the wealthy and the
needy sections of society.
Secular – India is a country of people of different religions, cultures, languages, caste, creed,
etc. The term secular suggests that India does not endorse any religion as the state religion.
It also means that the citizens of the country are not discriminated on the basis of religion.
Citizens of the country are free to practice or preach any religion.
Democratic – The word democracy means power of the people. The word democratic
emphasises that the leaders of the country will be chosen from among the citizens of the
country itself. It also states that the citizens of the country choose their own leaders.
Republic – The term republic means that the head of the state of India is chosen from amongst
its citizens through their elected representatives. It also means that the position of the head of
the state is not hereditary as in the case of a monarchy.
Justice – As mentioned in the Preamble itself, the Constitution of India would provide social,
economic and political justice to all the citizens of the country. It means that all the citizens
will be treated and protected equally by the law of the state; irrespective of their gender, caste,
creed, colour, religion, etc. The term justice also emphasises the fact that all the citizens of the
country are free to participate in the affairs of the state.
Liberty – The Indian Constitution gives all the citizens of the country - the freedom to think,
express, worship and work in the way that an individual desires.
Equality – Equality means that all the citizens will be treated equally and given equal opportunity
by the government. It also means that the government would not differentiate on the basis of
gender, caste, creed, colour or religion.
Fraternity – Fraternity means brotherhood or alliance between a group of people. In a country
as vast and diverse as India, the makers of the Constitution felt the importance of binding the
nation as a whole, to strengthen its unity and integrity. This was only possible by emphasizing
a feeling of brotherhood amongst the citizens of the country by treating them equally.

Rapid Round
State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The makers of the Indian constitution wanted to give some special privileges to the
down trodden sections of society.
2. The Preamble can be enforced in a court of law.

119
 Constitutional Amendment
India’s Constitution is sometimes referred to as a ‘living document’ as changes can be made in
it. The process of making changes in the Constitution is known as constitutional amendment.
Sometimes, changes are required in the law to incorporate modern sentiments and values.
For example, the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, gives equal rights to daughters
in their father’s property. New states have also been formed in India through the provision of
constitutional amendments.

Law and Dissent

Law and dissent are like two sides of the same coin. If people agree to most of the laws
made by the government, there will be times when people will not agree to the law made by
them. Dissent also means refusal to conform to a particular authority. Dissent can sometimes
bring about a change in society or the political situation of the country. Let us look at the
following example.

Salt Satyagraha
During the British rule, Mahatma Gandhi showed dissent against the British rule by starting the
Salt Satyagraha or the Salt March in 1930. The British made a law which did not allow Indians
to manufacture salt. They were forced to buy imported and expensive salt which everybody
could not afford. Gandhiji started the Salt Satyagraha, a demonstration against the British by
marching to the town of Dandi and making salt, along with many people. Gandhiji started a
Civil Disobedience Movement by urging everybody to break the unjust rule made by the British.

Anti-arrack movement
An anti-arrack movement was started as a spontaneous movement by a group of women
against the widespread practice alcoholism in Dubagunta village of Nellore district in Andhra
Pradesh. The consumption of locally brewed alcohol, arrack, by male members of their families
compelled the women to initiate a movement. Their aim was to impose a ban on the sale
of arrack.The State government imposed taxes on the sale of arrack and collected revenues.
Hence the government was not keen to impose a ban. However, after much protest a ban was
imposed on the sale of arrack. This movement was a reflection of women empowerment at
local level. The women not only mobilised themselves on important issues but also forced the
government to act against the harmful practice.
Word Galaxy

amendment – a minor change or addition designed to improve a text, piece of

legislation, etc.
conformity – compliance with standards, rules or laws

120
dissent – a strong difference of opinion on a particular subject, especially about an official
suggestion or plan or a popular belief
legitimacy – conformity to the law or to rules

Concept Map

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ĶɠŘ__ÞǣǣsŘǼ ɠÌǼÞǣNŸŘǣǼÞǼȖǼÞŸŘʷ

ŘǼÞ˚NjNjOĨŎŸɚsŎsŘǼ ɠÌɴ_ŸɠsŘss_
NŸŘǣǼÞǼȖǼÞŸŘĶ NŸŘǣǼÞǼȖǼÞŸŘʷ
ǣŸɚsNjsÞ¶ŘʰǣŸOÞĶÞǣǼʰ ŎsŘ_ŎsŘǼ
ǣsOȖĶNjʰ_sŎŸONjǼÞOʰ
NǣsǢǼȖ_ɴ˚^ŸɠNjɴ
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sLJȖĶÞǼɴʰ¯NjǼsNjŘÞǼɴ ÝŘ_ÞŘNŸŘǣǼÞǼȖǼÞŸŘ
˚NJsɚsĶǼÞŸŘ NJȖĶsŸ¯ĵɠ
¯s_sNjĶÞǣŎ

ƼNjĶÞŎsŘǼNjɴ¯ŸNjŎŸ¯¶ŸɚsNjŘŎsŘǼ Ĩsɴ¯sǼȖNjsǣŸ¯ ǼÌsĵs¶ÞǼÞŎOɴŸ¯ĵɠ

ǼÌsÝŘ_ÞŘNŸŘǣǼÞǼȖǼÞŸŘ
ǣsƼNjǼÞŸŘŸ¯ƼŸɠsNjǣ ŎĨÞضŸ¯
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ǣsOȖĶNjÞǣŎ

¯ȖŘ_ŎsŘǼĶNjÞ¶ÌǼǣŘ__ȖǼÞsǣ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) Most of the countries in the world today have a .

i) Constitution ii) law and dissent

iii) vision iv) democracy

b) Indian Constitution .
i) promotes Hinduism as its state religion ii) promotes Islam as its state religion

iii) promotes Hinduism and Islam iv) does not promote any religion

c) In a parliamentary form of government, the real power is given to the .

i) constitutional head ii) legislature

iii) people iv) cabinet

121
 2. Fill in the blanks.
a) The was formed to draft the Indian Constitution.
b) The Indian Constitution grants fundamental to the citizens and expects
them to follow fundamental .
c) The Indian Constitution makes provisions so that a is not ill-treated by a
majority group.
d) Any change in the constitution is brought about through a .
e) The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act was passed in .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Indian Constitution i) government at the Centre and State level

b) Constituent Assembly ii) public control and distribution of all resources

c) Federalism iii) was in effect from 26th January 1950

d) Separation of Powers iv) free from external control

e) Sovereign v) Legislature, Executive, Judiciary

f) Socialism vi) was formed in 1946

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is a Constitution?
b) What is the ‘Preamble’?
c) What is fraternity?
d) What do you understand by the term ‘dissent’?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Why do you think we need a Constitution?
b) Write a brief note on the ‘making of the Indian Constitution’.
c) Explain any three key features of the Indian Constitution.
d) What did the makers of the constitution envision in the Constitution?
e) Write about any three features of the ‘preamble’ of the Indian Constitution.
f) What do you know about law and dissent? Explain with an example.

122
6. The Constitution of India has banned untouchability, dowry and other
social evils. Yet they have not been completely eradicated from our society.
Why? Give reasons to support your answer.

7. Life Skills
With the changing world and trends, do you think the Indian Constitution needs some
changes? Should it be a little futuristic? State with examples.

Do it to know it!

8. Creative Writing: Research and write an article on Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

9. Group Activity: Form groups, make a list of laws that you think should be followed in
schools. Give reasons for the same.

10. Art Frenzy: If you were to form an organization at school to maintain law and order, what
would be its logo and what would it signify? Draw the logo.

11. Panel Discussion: Form a few groups. Each group should find out information about the
Constitution of any one country. One representative of each group should participate in a
panel discussion to discuss the pros and cons of each constitution.

WEBLINKS
http://www.indiatimes.com/culture/who-we-are/8-facts-you-have-to-know-about-the-
indian-constitution-232217. html https://india.gov.in/my-government/constitution-india
As on 30/04/2019

123
 12. Fundamental Rights and Duties

Let’s Learn
 What is a right?  Rights for all
 Fundamental rights  Human Rights
 Fundamental duties

Tune In
 What do you like to do in your spare time?
 How would you feel if you were forced to do things that you do not like or somebody
would stop you from playing? Share your thoughts with your classmates.

Every country wishes that its citizens enjoy a healthy, peaceful and happy life. Constitutions of
most countries grant certain privileges and rights to their citizens.

What is a Right?
A specific act or behaviour accepted by all the people and the government is referred to as
the right of the person. Expecting a certain kind of behaviour from another person and the
government which is agreed upon by all; is also a right. For example, if a person wants to pray
in a temple, mosque or a church, society accepts this behaviour as it does not harm anybody
and brings happiness to the person concerned. The individual also expects that other people
or the government will not object to him praying or pursuing the religion he wishes to.

Fundamental Rights
Makers of the Indian Constitution realised the importance of respecting the rights of all citizens
and safeguarding them. The Indian Constitution has granted certain rights to individuals
which are known as Fundamental Rights. The six fundamental rights given to the citizens are
as follows:
 Right to Equality
 Right to Freedom
 Right against Exploitation
 Right to Freedom of Religion
 Cultural and Educational Rights
 Right to Constitutional Remedies

124
 Rapid Round
Which of the following are universally accepted behaviours? Answer in Yes or No.
1. Studying in a college/university of your choice.
2. Hitting a person if you do not like him/her.

Right to Equality
Equality is the basis of democracy all over the world. The Right to Equality ascertains that all
individuals are equal before the law. It also means that the State will not discriminate amongst
people on the basis of caste, colour, gender, religion, etc. The Indian Constitution grants equal
opportunity to people for use of wells, tanks, shops and other public places. It also states that
the government will give equal opportunity to people for employment in state institutions.
The Right to Equality abolished untouchability and the use of titles conferred by any foreign
state. Only military and educational titles may be used before one’s name, for example, Doctor,
Admiral, etc. There are two exceptions to the Right to Equality. They are as follows:
 The Right to Equality allows the government to make special provisions for women
and children.
 The government can also make special provisions for advancement of backward classes
and Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes.

Right to Freedom
A human being can lead a good quality life only if he/she is happy. Happiness is realised only
when there are no undue restrictions on people. Thus, freedom is a very important aspect of
one’s life. The Indian Constitution guarantees six different types of freedom to all its citizens.
They are as follows:
 Freedom of speech and expression
 Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms
 Freedom to form associations and unions
 Freedom to move freely throughout India
 Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India
 Freedom to take up any profession or start a business or a trade
Although the government has given ample freedom to all the citizens, it also implies that
individuals do not curb other’s freedom while enjoying their own. The Constitution also states
that ‘no person shall be deprived of his life and personal liberty except according to the
procedure as established by law’.

125
 The Constitution states that when a person
is arrested under ordinary circumstances, he/
she
 cannot be detained in custody without
being informed about the grounds of
arrest
 can be defended by a lawyer of choice
 should be produced before the nearest
magistrate within 24 hours. Fig. 12.1: Children receiving education

The Right to Education was added to the Constitution in the year 2002 through the 86th
Amendment. It guarantees free and compulsory education to children between six to fourteen
years of age. Right to Education was enforced in 2009. It is a part of the Right to Freedom.
Right against Exploitation
As the name suggests, Indian Constitution protects individuals from exploitation by others
through this right. Begar or forced labour, slavery, human trafficking is prohibited by the Right
against Exploitation. Right against Exploitation also states that children under the age of 14
are not allowed to work in a factory or do any work that is hazardous to their health.
Right to Freedom of Religion
As declared in the Preamble, India does not have a state religion. People of different castes,
colour, culture, languages and religions reside in India. Right to Freedom of Religion allows the
citizens of the country to follow and preach the religion of their choice. The Indian Constitution
allows its citizens to form institutions for religious and charitable purposes. It also allows them
to conduct their own affairs as they deem fit; as long as it does not harm others. According to
this right, educational institutions of the state are not allowed to impart religious education.

Cultural and Educational Rights

Equal opportunity to all citizens irrespective of caste, creed, culture and language is the basis of
an ideal democratic set-up. Although all the citizens of the country are free to pursue their own
culture and religion, the Indian Constitution gives special privileges to the minority sections
of society. Minorities are allowed to conserve their language and culture by establishing their
own educational institutions.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
The Indian Constitution guarantees us the fundamental rights mentioned above. What happens
if our rights are violated? The Right to Constitutional Remedies gives us the right to approach
the judiciary if our rights are violated. If anyone is found guilty of violating other’s rights,
he/she is asked by the government not to do so. This right empowers the Supreme Court and
the High Courts to issue orders or writs to enforce the fundamental rights.

126
 Rapid Round
1. Give two examples of the Right to Equality.
2. Which right is violated if children are forced to work in a factory?

Fundamental Duties
Although the Indian Constitution grants fundamental rights to its citizens, the citizens in
turn are expected to do certain things which are collectively known as Fundamental Duties.
Fundamental duties have been incorporated in the Indian Constitution through the 42nd
Amendment in 1976. The ten fundamental duties are as follows:
 Abide by the Constitution and respect
its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem
 Cherish and follow the noble ideals
that inspired our national struggle for
independence
 Uphold and protect the unity,
sovereignty and integrity of India
 Defend the country and render
national service, if and when required
 Promote harmony and the spirit of Fig.12.2: We must respect the National Flag
and the National Anthem
brotherhood amongst all citizens,
irrespective of religious, linguistic, regional and sectional diversities; give up practices
derogatory to the dignity of women
 Value and preserve our cultural heritage
 Protect and improve our natural environment including lakes, forests, rivers and wild life;
have empathy for living creatures
 Develop scientific temper, humanism, spirit of inquiry and reform
 Safeguard public property and reject violence
 Strive towards excellence in all areas of individual and collective activity, so that India as a
nation scales to higher levels of endeavour and achievement
 A parent or a guardian has to provide education to his/her child/ward between the age of
6–14 years.
The last duty was added in the Constitution in 2002.
Fundamental duties and fundamental rights go hand in hand. The citizens of the country
cannot enjoy their fundamental rights unless others abide by their fundamental duties. For
example, an individual cannot exercise his right to freedom of religion if others do not follow

127
 their duties and obstruct him from praying. Fundamental duties cannot be enforced in a court
of law. Citizens are expected to follow them to infuse a feeling of patriotism and belongingness
amongst all the citizens of a country. Rights and duties enable good interactions between
the people and give them a sense of responsibility towards themselves, other people and the
nation. Every right has a corresponding fundamental duty. For example, we have the right to
move about freely in India but it is our duty not to obstruct anyone else from doing the same.

Rights for All

After over six decades of independence, there are certain socio-cultural issues that still need to
be tackled. Although all citizens enjoy fundamental rights, special provisions have been made
for children, women and the backward classes. Let us read about the provisions made for the
children and women. We will read about the backward classes later.
Child labour
Children, as we know, deserve special
protection. The Child Labour (Prohibition
and Regulation) Act was passed in 1986, to
protect homeless and poor children from
being exploited by others. This Act prohibited
employment of children less than fourteen
years of age in eighty three hazardous
occupations such as factories, mines or as
domestic labour, etc. Post-Independence,
poverty and lack of education had forced
thousands of children into bonded labour.
Most of the children were ill-treated and
kept in inhuman conditions with inadequate
nutrition. They were not allowed to educate
Fig. 12.3: Child Labour
themselves as well.
When we talk of child labour, a special mention must be made about the efforts of Kailash
Satyarthi, a children’s rights activist. He founded an NGO, Bachpan Bachao Andolan to rescue
children from bonded labour and slavery. Efforts have been made to raise awareness about child
labour worldwide. It is mainly due to Sathyarthi’s hard work that the Child Labour (Prohibition
and Regulation) Act was passed by the Indian Government in 1986, to protect homeless and
poor children from being exploited by others. After the amendment, the Act is now known as
the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016. This Act has completely
prohibited employment of children less than fourteen years of age in all occupations.

128
Discrimination against women
Women in India enjoy equal rights as men. In spite of it, much discrimination is made against
them. The government has made special provisions for them. 33% seats in the local self
governing bodies have been reserved for women.
Human Rights
Apart from fundamental rights, there are some other rights as well that are universal in nature.
Although countries such as France, England and USA advocated the importance of rights for
all individuals, the term ‘human rights’ is a relatively new and has become famous after the
United Nations General Assembly announced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
1948. Rights of an individual or a group that is necessary for the existence of a just and equal
society is known as human rights. Human rights and interests are universal in nature as they
are pertinent for all humans, present and future.
Word Galaxy

derogatory – showing a critical and disrespectful attitude

detain – to keep a person in official custody for questioning about a crime
humanism – a rationalist outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human
rather than divine or supernatural matters

Concept Map
ËȖŎŘNJÞ¶ÌǼǣ ɠÌǼÞǣNjÞ¶ÌǼʷ
NjÞ¶ÌǼǼŸ
NjÞ¶ÌǼǼŸsLJȖĶÞǼɴ
s_ȖOǼÞŸŘ
NjÞ¶ÌǼǼŸ¯Njss_ŸŎ

NjÞ¶ÌǼ¶ÞŘǣǼ
sɮƼĶŸÞǼǼÞŸŘ
OÌÞĶ_ ĶEŸȖNj ¯ȖŘ_ŎsŘǼĶNjÞ¶ÌǼǣ
NjÞ¶ÌǼǼŸ
NjÞ¶ÌǼǣ¯ŸNjĶĶ ®ȖŘ_ŎsŘǼĶ ¯Njss_ŸŎŸ¯NjsĶÞ¶ÞŸŘ
_ÞǣONjÞŎÞŘǼÞŸŘ NJÞ¶ÌǼǣŘ_^ȖǼÞsǣ
¶ÞŘǣǼɠŸŎsŘ OȖĶǼȖNjĶŘ_
s_ȖOǼÞŸŘĶNjÞ¶ÌǼǣ

NjÞ¶ÌǼǼŸOŸŘǣǼÞǼȖǼÞŸŘĶ
¯ȖŘ_ŎsŘǼĶ_ȖǼÞsǣ NjsŎs_Þsǣ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) empowers the Supreme Court to issue orders or writs to enforce the
fundamental rights.
i) Right to Freedom ii) Right Against Exploitation
iii) Right To Equality iv) Right to Constitutional Remedies

129
 b) Right to Education was enforced in the year .
i) 2007 ii) 2008
iii) 2009 iv) 2010
c) is prohibited by the Right against Exploitation.
i) Human trafficking ii) Teaching in religious institutions
iii) Export of electrical goods iv) Following any religion

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The was announced by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948.
b) are allowed to conserve their culture through the formation of religious
and educational institutions.
c) Developing scientific temper, humanism, spirit of inquiry and reform is a .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B
a) If we are allowed to pray in a church, i) we should obey the rules of the school
temple or mosque and maintain discipline
ii) we should let others pray the way they
b) Right to freedom of expression
wish to
c) If we are allowed to move freely in a
iii) we should not hurt others’ feelings
park

d) If we are allowed to study iv) we should let others enjoy the rides too

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is a right?
b) What do you understand by the term human rights?
c) What are the fundamental rights? Name them.
d) What are the two exceptions to the Right to Equality?
e) What are fundamental duties?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) What are cultural and educational rights?
b) What do you know about the Right to Freedom? Name the six rights to freedom that
are guaranteed by the Indian Constitution.
c) ‘Right to Constitutional Remedies is the most important fundamental right’. Do you
agree? Give reasons to support your answer.

130
 d) What are the duties of an Indian citizen?
e) Do you think all the people in India enjoy all the rights? Give reasons to support
your answer.

6. What do you think are the causes that lead to child labour? Give reasons to
support your answer.

7. Life Skills
What do you think are your duties as a student?

Do it to know it!

8. Survey: Conduct a survey in your area/ building of children who are working. Find out the
problems faced by them and the reason that forced them to work. What are the ways in
which you would help them?

9. Research Work: Divide the class in a few groups. Find out information on the Narmada
Bachao Andolan and Dalit Human Rights Campaign. Share the information in class.

10. Integration
Read the following and answer the following questions:
Bholu and Sumi, both 9-year-old, lived in a small village in Uttar Pradesh. After their father
passed away, their uncle sold them to a factory owner. The children were made to work in
hazardous conditions. They were made to work for 14 hours a day and given very little food
to eat. After Bholu and Sumi ran away from there, they were forced to beg and do menial
jobs to buy food to eat.
1. Name the fundamental rights that have been violated in this story.
2. What action do you think should be taken against people who sell their children?
3. What measures should be taken to prevent such exploitation?

WEBLINKS
http://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/india_world.php
http://www.mea.gov.in/conflit-cooperation.htm
As on 30/04/2019

131
 13. Directive Principles of State Policy

Let’s Learn
 Directive Principles of State Policy  Directive Principles of State Policy
 Aims of Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights
 Types of Directive Principles  Importance of Directive
 Implementation of Directive Principles of State Policy
Principles of State Policy

Tune In
 Write down three rules that you think each student should follow in school.
 Write down three rules that you think each of us must follow when we interact with
elders or other people in a shopping mall, a park or a theatre.
 After writing the rules, you must have realised that all the rules written by you are
universal in nature. They should be followed by us irrespective of anything.

As we know, Fundamental Rights and Duties have been granted by the Constitution so that
the citizens of the country can lead a contented life. As socio-economic and political changes
are inevitable, the makers of the Indian Constitution have laid down certain principles, which if
followed, would protect the interests of the people.

Directive Principles of State Policy

As a welfare state, India is responsible for the well-being of its citizens, social, economic and
political. It seeks to promote the welfare of its citizens through a just and equal society. The
Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines for the Central and the State Governments.
The government is expected to keep the principles in mind while preparing laws. Though the
Directive Principles of State Policy are non-justiciable, that is, they cannot be enforced in a
court of law; they are essential in the governance of the country. They also act as a yardstick
for people to measure the effectiveness of the government in achieving the objectives as laid
down in the Constitution.

Aims of Directive Principles of State Policy

The Directive Principles of State Policy aim at attaining social, economic and political justice for
all the citizens so that all of them live in a happy and peaceful environment. They aim to provide
equal opportunities to all citizens to reduce inequality in income, social status and raise the
standard of living. The Directive Principles also aim to uphold international peace and security.

132
Types of Directive Principles of State Policy
Although the Constitution does not divide the Directive Principles in different sub-categories,
we shall divide them for a better understanding of the same. The different types of Directive
Principles of State Policy are:
 Socio-economic Principles
 Gandhian Principles
 Principles promoting international peace and security
 Other Principles

Socio-economic Principles
The socio-economic principles that aim
to bring about socio-economic equality in
the society are as follows:
 The State shall provide adequate
means of livelihood for both men and
women; it should provide equal pay
for equal work for men and women.
 The ownership and control of
resources should be distributed in a Fig. 13.1: Health camp organised by the Government
way that serves the common good.
 The State shall distribute wealth in a way that it does not concentrate in the hands of a few.
 The State shall try and provide free education to children up to fourteen years of age.
 The State shall try and provide humane and just conditions for work and maternity relief.
 The State shall protect the health of workers, men and children. It shall take care that
people are not forced to do jobs for economic reasons; when they do not prefer them.
 The State shall make provisions for securing the right to work, to education and to seek
public assistance in cases of sickness, old age and unemployment.
 The State shall take steps to secure participation of workers in industries.

Rapid Round
State whether the following are true or false.
1. A welfare state is responsible for the behaviour of its citizens.
2. The Directive Principles of State Policy are justiciable.
3. The Directive Principles also aim to uphold international peace and security.

133
 Gandhian Principles
Principles of the Directive Principles of
State Policy that have been inspired
by Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy are
referred to as Gandhian Principles. They
are as follows:
 The State shall take steps to organize
village panchayats and give them
enough power to manage their
own affairs and function as units of
Fig. 13.2: Village Panchayat
self-government.
 The State shall try and promote the growth of cottage industries in rural areas.
 The State shall protect the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of
society, especially, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
 The State shall take steps to prohibit the use of intoxicating drinks and drugs that are
detrimental to one’s health.
 The State shall attempt to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on scientific lines;
improve the breed and prohibit the slaughter of cattle.

Principles promoting international peace and security

The makers of the Indian Constitution aimed to foster better relations with foreign countries.
The principles that influence our foreign policy are as follows:
 The State shall promote international peace and security.
 The State shall attempt to maintain honourable relations with other countries.
 The State shall respect international law and honour treaty obligations with other countries.
 The State shall encourage settlement of international peace.

Other Principles
Some of the Directive Principles of State Policy do not fall into the categories mentioned above.
They are as follows:
 The State shall make an effort to protect and improve the environment; and safeguard the
forests and wildlife of the country
 The State shall protect and preserve monuments, places or objects of national importance
 The State shall form a uniform civil code for all the citizens of the country
 The State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive.

134
Implementation of Directive Principles of State Policy
Though a lot needs to be done, India has made considerable progress in implementing some
of the principles of the Directive Principles. Let us go through some of them.
 Right to Education Act, 2009 ensures free and compulsory education to children between
6–14 years of age.
 Village Panchayats have been set up and the Panchayati Raj system has been formalised by
the Indian Constitution.
 Many projects have been launched to save the forests and wildlife from undue exploitation.
The ‘Save the Tiger’ project is one of them.
 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have been granted reservations in schools, colleges,
the Parliament and the State Legislatures as well.
 The Judiciary has been separated from the Executive.
 Cottage industries have been established in the rural areas.
 Many welfare schemes such as Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram and Navjaat Shishu
Suraksha Karyakram have been launched for the benefit of women and children.
 The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, grants equal wages to men and women for equal work.
The Minimum Wages Act ensures a just amount of wage to the workers.

Rapid Round
1. Give two examples of Directive Principles that are inspired by Mahatma
Gandhi’s philosophy.
2. Name a project that has been launched to save wildlife.

Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights

The Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights promote welfare of the
citizens of the country though there are some basic differences amongst the two. Let us take a
look at the table given below.

Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Rights

Directive Principles are guidelines that help Fundamental Rights are rights granted to
the state to formulate laws and policies the citizens by the Constitution.
about different topics.
The State is not compelled to follow the The Fundamental Rights are guaranteed by
Directive Principles. the State. It is bound to protect the rights of
the people.

135
 Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Rights
Directive Principles are non-justiciable, that Fundamental Rights are justiciable, that is,
is, they cannot be enforced in a court of law. they can be contested in court.

Directive Principles refer to the principles Fundamental Rights refer to the rights of an
that concern the individual, state, other individual.
countries and the environment.

Importance of Directive Principles of State Policy

Directive Principles of State Policy not only act as guidelines for the government, they are
a yardstick for it too. In a democratic country like India, people can judge the effectiveness
of the government by comparing the policies and the laws made by them to the Directive
Principles laid down in the Constitution. People can pressurize the government to follow the
Directive Principles. They may not re-elect the government to power if the government fails
to do the needful. Thus, the Directive Principles enlighten the citizens about the duties of the
government and what they can expect from them.

Word Galaxy

justiciable – (of a state or action) subject to trial in a court of law

remuneration – money paid for work or a service
yardstick – a standard used for comparison

Concept Map
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Ÿ¯ǢǼǼsƻŸĶÞOɴ ǣŸOÞŸ˚sOŸŘŸŎÞO ƻNjÞŘOÞƼĶsǣ

µŘ_ÌÞŘƼNjÞŘOÞƼĶsǣ
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ƻNjÞŘOÞƼĶsǣŸ¯ǢǼǼsƻŸĶÞOɴ ƼNjÞŘOÞƼĶsǣŸ¯ǣǼǼsƼŸĶÞOɴ
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ŸǼÌsNjƼNjÞŘOÞƼĶsǣ

136
 Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) grants equal wages to men and women for equal work.

i) The Equal Remuneration Act ii) Equality Act

iii) different for each religion iv) Right to Equal Wages

b) The State shall try and provide humane and just conditions for work and maternity
relief is a directive principle that promotes justice.
i) socio-economic ii) cultural

iii) political iv) religious

c) Directive Principles act as a yardstick to measure the performance of the .

i) Chief Minister ii) Panchayati Raj

iii) Government iv) Prime Minister

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) India, as a state, is responsible for the well-being of its citizens.

b) The are non-justiciable.

c) has been formalised by the Indian Constitution.

d) Fundamental Rights refer to the rights of an .

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) The state shall attempt to maintain i) Other principle

honorable relations with other countries

b) The state shall try and promote the ii) Socio-economic principle
growth of cottage industries in rural
areas

c) The state shall take steps to separate the iii) Gandhian principle
judiciary from the executive

d) The state shall take steps to secure iv) Principles promoting international peace
participation of workers in industries and security

137
 4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) What are Directive Principles of State Policy?
b) What do you know about the Minimum Wages Act?
c) How do we categorise the Directive Principles?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) What do Directive Principles of State Policy aim to achieve?
b) Write a brief note on implementation of Directive Principles of State Policy.
c) Mention the Directive Principles that are inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophies.
d) Mention four Directive Principles that aim to promote socio-economic equality.
e) What are the Directive Principles that promote international peace and security?
f) Differentiate between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights.

6. Do you think the Directive Principles should be guaranteed by the

Constitution? Give reasons to support your answer.

7. Life Skills
According to you, which of the two Directive Principles are most important? Give reasons.

Do it to know it!

8. Research Work: Divide the class in few groups. Find out five laws passed by the government
on the basis of the Directive Principles of State Policy. (Do not include the ones included in
the chapter.)
9. Creative Writing: If you were to write some Directive Principles for your school, what
would they be? Write on a chart paper and share it with your classmates.
10. KWL Chart: Complete the table after reading the chapter.

What do You Know about What do You Want to Know What did You Learn about
the Directive Principles of about the Directive Principles the Directive Principles of
State Policy? of State Policy? State Policy?

WEBLINKS
https://knowindia.gov.in/profile/directive-principles-of-state-policy.php
https://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p04.html
As on 30/04/2019

138
 14. The Indian Parliament

Let’s Learn
 Why do we have a Parliamentary form  Bill to Law
of government?  Case Study – Payment of
 The Indian Parliament Wages Act and Maternity
 The President Benefit Act

 The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha

Tune In
 Who are the people who rule the country? Who do you think elects them? Do you
think they can bring about change in the country? How?

India being a vast country with people of different religions, castes, culture and language has
a federal form of government where the power is divided between the Central and the State
Governments. We already know that India has a parliamentary form of government, that is,
the government is formed of people who have been chosen by the citizens of the country
through Universal Adult Franchise. The government is also answerable to the Legislature, and
the powers of the constitutional head can be used in special cases only.

Why Do We Have a Parliamentary Form of Government?

Being held captive in their own country for over 200 years, a prolonged freedom struggle,
participation of people from all sections of society during the freedom struggle, inspiration
from the ideas of freedom and equality are some of the reasons behind India adopting a
parliamentary form of government. The makers of Indian Constitution felt the need for a
government who would be sensitive to the needs of the people and fulfil them as they were
deprived of the same during the oppressive British rule. The parliamentary form of government
includes three branches of the government – Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. We shall
study about the Union Legislature or the Parliament in this chapter.

The Indian Parliament

The Indian Parliament consists of the President and the two houses of Parliament, namely, the
Lower House – Lok Sabha (House of the People), and the Upper House – Rajya Sabha (Council
of States). It is said that India has a bicameral legislature as the two houses of the Parliament
consist of two houses that function independently. The two Houses of the Parliament meet at
least twice a year. The Indian Parliament makes laws on all subjects mentioned in the Union
and Concurrent Lists.

139
 Fig. 14.1: The Indian Parliament

The President
The President is the Constitutional head of the Union Legislature. The President is elected for a
term of five years by an electoral college which consists of elected members of Lok Sabha, the
Rajya Sabha and the state legislative assemblies. The President of India has constitutional and
ceremonial powers. The President takes action on the advice of the Prime Minister. President is
assisted by the Vice-President.

Rapid Round
State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The two houses of Parliament meet every three months.
2. The President is elected for a term of four years.

Lok Sabha

Qualification of membership
 The member should be an Indian citizen.
 He/she should be 25 years of age.
 He/she should not hold any office of profit in the government
 His/her name should be on the electoral list.

Composition
Lok Sabha can have maximum of 552 members out of which 530 are to be represented by
States, 20 from Union Territories and not more than 2 members can be nominated by the
President from the Anglo-Indian community.

140
 Fig. 14.2: Lok Sabha

Election
Members are elected directly by the citizens through Universal Adult Suffrage.
Term of office
Members are elected for a period of five years. The President can dissolve the Lok Sabha on
the advice of the Prime Minister. The term can be extended by the President in case of an
emergency, but only for one year.
Presiding officer
The Speaker is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha. He/she is elected by the members of
the Lok Sabha. He/she is assisted by a Deputy Speaker who is elected in the same way as the
Speaker.
Powers and functions
 Legislative powers
• Introducing bills that finally become laws is the main function of the Lok Sabha.
• The Lok Sabha can also act on subjects on the state list if agreed upon by two-thirds
members of the Rajya Sabha as well.
• Bills passed by the Lok Sabha are sent to the Rajya Sabha. If the Rajya Sabha does not
pass the bill within six months, a joint session of both houses is held. The Lok Sabha’s
decision prevails as they have double the members.
• Money bills passed to the Rajya Sabha have to be passed within 14 days, otherwise, it
is deemed to have been passed.
 Financial powers
• Only the Lok Sabha has the power to introduce Money Bills.
• Lok Sabha sanctions and passes the budget.
• It can change or abolish any tax.

141
  Power to control the Executive
• The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha. If not happy with their work,
the Lok Sabha can compel the Council of Ministers to resign by passing a vote of no
confidence against it.
 Constitutional power
• The Lok Sabha, along with the Rajya Sabha can amend the Indian Constitution.
 Electoral Powers
• The Lok Sabha takes part in the election of the President and the Vice President.
• The Lok Sabha also elects the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker.
 Judicial Power
• Members of the Lok Sabha take part in the impeachment of the President of India.
 Special power
• The Council of Ministers is answerable only to the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha can alone
vote the Council of Ministers out of office.

Rajya Sabha
Qualification of membership
 The member should be an Indian citizen.
 He/she should be 30 years of age.
 He/she should not hold any office of profit in the government.
 His/her name should be on the electoral list.

Composition
Rajya Sabha can have maximum of 250 members out of which 12 members are nominated by
the President from people who have special knowledge or practical experience in the field of
literature, science, art, sports, etc.

Election
Members are elected by the members of the State Legislative Assemblies.

Term of office
Members are elected for a period of 6 years. One-third of the members retire every two years
and the same number of members is elected again. Rajya Sabha cannot be dissolved.

Presiding officer
The Vice President is the ex-officio Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.

142
Powers and functions
 Legislative powers
• A bill becomes a law only after it is passed by the Rajya Sabha.
• The Lok Sabha can legislate on matters on the State List only after approval of two-third
members of the Rajya Sabha.
• The Rajya Sabha can initiate a bill on any subject, except for a money bill.
• The Rajya Sabha can delay a bill for six months. This power enables it to keep a check
on hurried legislations.
 Constitutional power
• The Rajya Sabha, along with the Lok Sabha can amend the Indian Constitution.
 Electoral power
• The Rajya Sabha takes part in the election of the President and the Vice-President.
 Judicial power
• Members of the Rajya Sabha take part in the impeachment of the President of India.
 Special power
• The Rajya Sabha can declare a subject to be of national importance and ask the
Parliament to legislate on it. The Rajya Sabha performs the function of the Lok Sabha,
if the latter is dissolved.

Fig. 14.3: Rajya Sabha

Did You Know

In the absence of the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker, one of the members of a six-member
panel, chosen by the Speaker, presides over the session of the Lok Sabha.

143
 BILL TO LAW

Third Reading – the

First Reading – Second Reading – member who has
the bill is each clause of the introduced the bill states
introduced by bill is discussed and that the bill ‘be moved’.
a member of changed, if required The discussion is very
Parliament in limited. After the bill is
either of the passed, it is moved to
houses the other house for its
approval

Procedure in the other house – The same

procedure of three readings is passed in
the second house as well.

Joint Sitting of the two houses – If the bill is not passed by the second house,
a joint session of the houses is held and the bill is voted upon. When both the
houses pass the bill, it is sent to the President for its approval.

President Assent – If the President does not approve of the bill, it is sent back to
the house from where it originated and the same procedure is repeated again. If
the President signs the bill, the bill becomes a law.

144
 Did You Know
The President can reject a bill only once. If it comes to him again, with or without amendments,
he is bound to sign it.

Case Study – Payment of Wages Act

The Payment of Wages Act, 1936, regulates the payment of wages to workers in railways,
oilfields, mines, factories and other industries. It protects the workers from illegal deduction
in wages and unnecessary delay in payment of wages. The main provisions of the Act are as
follows:
 The wage period should be fixed by every employer and it should not exceed a month.
 The wages should be paid on a working day. In a company of less than 1000 employees,
the wages should be paid before or on the 7th day of the last day of the wage period. In a
company with more than 1000 employees, this can be stretched till the 10th day.
 Workers should be issued wage slips that contain all the details of the wages paid to them.
 Wages can be deducted according to specified rules given in the Act; for example, fines,
absence from duty, housing accommodation provided, etc.
After the amendments, the Act is known as the Payment of Wages (Amendment) Act 2017.
Under this Act,
 Wages are to be paid in coin or cash or by cheque or by crediting it into his/her
bank account.
The Payment of Wages Act is applicable to the employees earning the wages up to
24000 per month.

Case Study – Maternity Benefits Act

The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, provides for maternity and other benefits before and after
childbirth to women working in mines, industries, shops, factories, etc. The Act aims to care for
the women undergoing motherhood and her newborn child. A woman is entitled for maternity
benefit from a firm only if she has worked there for 80 days in the last 12 months preceding
the date of her expected delivery.
Amendments were made to the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 and now known as the Maternity
Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017. The main provisions the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act,
2017, are as follows:
 The Act has extended the paid maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks out of which 8
weeks can be taken before delivery, including the date of delivery and remaining 18 weeks
post delivery.

145
  After completing the leave period of 26 weeks, women employees may avail the facility of
work from home, depending upon the nature of work, on provisions which are mutually
agreed with the employer.
 Organisations having 50 or more employees should provide creche facility.
 It is the responsibility of the employers to educate women employees about the maternity
benefits available to them.

Rapid Round
1. What is the judicial power of the Lok Sabha?
2. What are the special powers of the Rajya Sabha?
3. What happens to a bill if the President refuses to sign it?
4. What are wage slips?

Word Galaxy

assent – the expression of approval or agreement

electoral list – a list of all the citizens who are eligible to vote in an election
ex-officio – because of a person’s position in a formal group
impeachment – the action of calling into question the integrity or validity of something

Concept Map

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ɠÌɴ_ŸɠsÌɚs
OǼ
ƼNjĶÞŎsŘǼNjɴ¯ŸNjŎŸ¯
NǣsǢǼȖ_Þsǣ ¶ŸɚsNjŘŎsŘǼʷ
ōǼsNjŘÞǼɴDsŘs¯ÞǼǣ
OǼ

¯ÞNjǣǼNjs_Þض

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Ƽǣǣs_ǼŸǼÌs
ǣsOŸŘ_ÌŸȖǣs
NJĠɴ ǢEÌ
ƻNjsǣÞ_sŘǼ˂ǣǣǣsŘǼ

146
 Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) sanctions and passes the budget.

i) President ii) Prime Minister

iii) Lok Sabha iv) Rajya Sabha
b) Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a term of years.
i) eighteen ii) four
iii) five iv) six
c) The Maternity Benefit Act allows a woman to take paid maternity leave of
.
i) twenty six weeks ii) five weeks
iii) eight weeks iv) eleven weeks

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The President is the head of the Union Legislature.
b) , and are three branches of the parliamentary
form of government in India.
c) The Payment of Wages Act is applicable to the employees earning the wages upto
per month.
d) The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha take part in the election of the and
the .

3. Match the following fundamental rights to their corresponding duties.

Column A Column B

a) Lok Sabha i) Presides over the Rajya Sabha

b) Rajya Sabha ii) Presides over the Lok Sabha

c) Speaker iii) House of the People

d) Vice President iv) Council of States

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) Who makes laws on all subjects mentioned in the Union and Concurrent lists?
b) What are the qualifications required to be a member of the Lok Sabha?

147
 c) What are the electoral powers of the Lok Sabha?
d) How are the members of the Rajya Sabha elected?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Why do we have a parliamentary form of government?
b) How does a bill become a law?
c) Mention three differences between the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.
d) Write a brief note on the Payment of Wages Act.
e) What do you know about the Maternity Benefits Act?

6. We know that India has a parliamentary form of government. Do you think

that any other form of government is better suited to Indian culture and
its people? Give reasons to support your answer.
7. Life Skills
The Payment of Wages Act and Maternity Benefit Act protect workers and women. Can you
think of any other social issue which needs immediate legislation? Give reasons to support
your answer.

Do it to know it!

8. Research Work: Find out the names of Rajya Sabha members who are nominated by the
President and their field of expertise.

9. Creative Writing: If you had to prepare a law for children’s rights, what would you include?
Give reasons for the same.

10. Make a Poster: Find out if any new bills have been passed for the benefit of the workers.
Make a poster on the same

WEBLINKS

http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/Parliament_of_India.pdf
http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/find_out/guides/world/united_nations/types_of_
government/ newsid_2151000/2151570.stm
http://www.mea.gov.in/conflit-cooperation.htm
As on 30/04/2019

148
 15. The Union Executive

Let’s Learn
 The President  Council of Ministers
 The Vice-President  Civil Services
 The Prime Minister

Tune In
 Why is it important to implement laws? Discuss in class.

The Legislature has the responsibility of making laws; it is the job of the executive branch of
the government to execute the law in an orderly fashion. The Union Executive consists of the
President, the Vice President, the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. The Executive is
in charge of handling the day to day affairs of the country and run it efficiently.
The President
The President is the constitutional and ceremonial head of the country. The President acts on
the advice of the Prime Minister and his council of ministers.
Qualifications to be an Indian President
There are some prerequisites for a person to qualify as the President of India. They are as
follows:
 He/she must be an Indian citizen.
 He /she must be 35 years of age or above.
 He/she must be qualified to be a member of Lok Sabha.
 He /she should not hold any office of profit under the government.
Election of the President
The Indian President is elected by an electoral college that consists of members of both houses
of Parliament and the State Legislative Assemblies.
The President’s election involves proportional representation by the states and the National
territory of Delhi and the Union territory of Puducherry.
Tenure
The President of India is elected for a term of five years though he can be re-elected for
another term. The successor to the President must be elected before his tenure gets over. In
case of his/her death, resignation or impeachment, the Vice-President assumes the duty of the
President. The next President must be elected within six months of the date of the President’s
removal, resignation or death.

149
 Impeachment
Impeachment means the removal of a government official from his office without his consent.
One of the houses of Parliament can start the impeachment procedure of the President.
The President can be removed from office only if two-third members of both the houses of
Parliament agree to the same.
Powers of the President
Executive powers
 The President appoints the Prime Minister of the country. He/she also has the power to
appoint the governors, ambassadors and other dignitaries of the state.
 The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian defence forces, the Army,
Navy and Air Force.
Legislative powers
 The President addresses the first session of the Parliament when a government is formed
after the elections.
 A bill becomes a law only once the President has signed it.
 The President has the power to nominate 12 members to the Rajya Sabha. He/she can also
nominate two members to the Lok Sabha from the Anglo-Indian Community.
 The President can call for a joint session of both the houses of Parliament if they do not
agree on a bill.
Judicial powers
 The President has the power to reduce a sentence or grant pardon to any person sentenced
by Indian courts.
 The President appoints the judges of the Supreme Court and the State High Courts.
 The President can also consult the Supreme Court on issues of public importance.
 Criminal proceedings cannot be started against the President during his term of office.
Financial powers
 The President’s approval is required before introducing a Money Bill in Parliament.
 The President also appoints the Finance Commission to make recommendations about the
distribution of taxes between the Centre and the States.
 The President lays the Annual Financial Statement or the budget to the Parliament.
Emergency powers
 The President can declare an emergency if he is convinced that the security of the country
is threatened by war or a rebellion.

150
 The President can also declare an emergency in a state if he is satisfied that the State
cannot be run according to the provisions of the law.
 The President can also declare financial emergency if he is assured that India’s financial
stability is at risk. He can rectify it by controlling the distribution of funds to the states.

Did You Know

Pratibha Devisingh Patil, the 12th President of India, was the first woman to be elected as
President. She was in office from 2007–2012.

The Vice-President
The Vice-President is also a part of the executive branch of the
government. He assists the President. The Vice-President takes
the place of the President if the latter has passed away or till a
new President is elected.
Qualifications of the Vice-President
There are certain conditions that need to be fulfilled, for a person
to qualify as the Vice-President of India. They are as follows:
 He/she must be an Indian citizen.
Fig. 15.1: The first Vice-President
 He /she must be 35 years of age. of India – Dr S. Radhakrishnan
 He/she must be qualified to be a member of Rajya Sabha.
 He /she should not hold any office of profit under the government.
Election of the Vice-President
The Indian Vice-President is elected by an electoral college that consists of members of both
houses of Parliament. Members of the State Legislative Assemblies do not take part in the
election of the Vice-President. The Vice-President is elected through a secret ballot.
Tenure
The Vice-President of India is elected for a period of five years. He can be re-elected for another
term too. The Vice-President can remain in office even after the expiry of his term; till his/her
successor is chosen.
Impeachment
The Vice-President can be removed from office if a resolution is passed by majority of members
of Rajya Sabha. The Lok Sabha should also agree to the same. The resolution to remove the
Vice-President can be moved only if the President has been given a 14 day notice for the same.

The Prime Minister

The Prime Minister is the real head of the Union Executive in India. The President formally
appoints the leader of the majority party as the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, along with

151
 his Council of Ministers, looks after the day to day functioning of the government. In case of
a coalition government, one of the members of the alliance that has the majority in the Lok
Sabha, becomes the Prime Minister, once it is agreed upon by all.

Qualification to be the Prime Minister of India

For a person to qualify as the Prime Minister of India:
 He/she should be an Indian citizen.
 He/she should be a member of either the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha.
 He should be atleast 25 years of age as a member of the Lok Sabha and 30 years of age as
a member of the Rajya Sabha.
 He/she should not hold any office of profit under the Government of India.
Tenure: The Prime Minister remains in power through the full five year term of the Lok Sabha,
unless he and his Council of Ministers are voted out of power.
Powers and functions of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is responsible for framing the national policies of the government. The
Prime Minister is responsible for the functioning of the Executive and the Legislature. The Prime
Minister selects ministers from members of his party and allocates portfolios to them. The Prime
Minister supervises the meetings of the Cabinet and Council of Ministers. The Prime Minister
also supervises the work of other ministers. He/she can also keep some portfolios with him. The
Prime Minister also acts as a link between the President and the Council of Ministers. The Prime
Minister advises the President on all matters and the President is bound by Article 54 of the
Indian Constitution to act on the former’s advice. The President can also dissolve the Lok Sabha
on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Rapid Round
State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. If the President resigns then the Prime Minister assumes the duty of the President.
2. Members of State Legislative Assembly take part in the election of the Vice-President.
3. The President can also dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Council of Ministers
The Council of Ministers consists of members of the majority party who have been assigned
various portfolios to manage the administration of the country. The Council of Ministers are
divided into three categories – Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers. The
Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. Cabinet Ministers are those
ministers who handle the most important portfolios of the government, for example, defence,

152
external affairs, finance, etc. Ministers of State work in tandem with the Cabinet Ministers.
Although many Ministers of State have the same portfolio as the Cabinet Ministers, some of
them take independent charge of portfolios like tourism, culture, etc. Deputy Ministers assist
Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State in their work.

Civil Services
A vast country such as India with major cultural diversity cannot be effectively managed by a
small group of people. The Council of Ministers cannot look after the entire administration on
their own. They are assisted by officers of the civil service. The decisions and laws made by
the legislature are executed by officers of the civil service. The bureaucrats or the government
officers manage the affairs of the government throughout the country. The civil services, at
the central level consists of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), Indian Police Service (IPS) and
Indian Forest Service (IFS). The officers of the civil services are selected at the national level
through a body called the Union Public Service Commission located in New Delhi. They conduct
competitive examination to select the right candidates for the post of a civil service officer. The
officers of the civil services do not represent any political party. The tenure of the officers does
not depend on the fate of the government as well. The highest officer of the civil services is
known as Cabinet Secretary and his office is known as the Cabinet Secretariat.
Word Galaxy

ceremonial – (of a post or role) conferring or involving only nominal authority

or power
council – a group of people elected or chosen to make decisions or give advice on a
particular subject

Concept Map

ÝŘ_ÞŘ_ŎÞŘÞǣǼNjǼÞɚsǢsNjɚÞOsʹÝǢʺ sɮsOȖǼÞɚsƼŸɠsNj

ÝŘ_ÞŘƻŸĶÞOsǢsNjɚÞOsʹÝƻǢʺ Ķs¶ÞǣĶǼÞɚsƼŸɠsNj
NÞɚÞĶǢsNjɚÞOsǣ ƻNjsǣÞ_sŘǼ
ÝŘ_ÞŘ®ŸNjsǣǼǢsNjɚÞOsʹÝ®Ǣʺ ĠȖ_ÞOÞĶƼŸɠsNj

¯ÞŘŘOÞĶƼŸɠsNj
ǻÌsȕŘÞŸŘ
rɮsOȖǼÞɚs sŎsNj¶sŘOɴƼŸɠsNj
NEÞŘsǼōÞŘÞǣǼsNjǣ əÞOs˚ƻNjsǣÞ_sŘǼ

ōÞŘÞǣǼsNjǣŸ¯ǢǼǼs
NŸȖŘOÞĶŸ¯ōÞŘÞǣǼsNjǣ ƻNjÞŎsōÞŘÞǣǼsNj
^sƼȖǼɴōÞŘÞǣǼsNjǣ

153
 Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) is a prerequisite to become the President of India.

i) Qualification to be a member of Rajya ii) Qualification to be a member of Lok

Sabha Sabha
iii) Passing the civil service examination iv) Passing college with flying colours

b) the Union Public Service Commission located in .

i) New Delhi ii) Kolkata

iii) Mumbai iv) Chennai

c) In IFS, F stands for .

i) Father ii) Forest

iii) Further iv) Forward

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The President is elected for a term of years.
b) The acts as a link between the President and the Council of Ministers
c) IAS stands for .
d) The Vice-President is elected through a .
3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Cabinet Minister i) Cabinet Secretary

b) Bureaucrat ii) Portfolio – Tourism

c) Highest Officer of the Civil Services iii) Government Officer

d) Minister of State iv) Portfolio – Defence

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is impeachment?
b) When can the President declare an emergency in a state?
c) Write in brief about the tenure of the Vice-President?
d) Who are the Deputy Ministers?

154
5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Write about the legislative powers of the President.
b) How can the President be removed from office?
c) What are the qualifications required to be the Vice-President of India?
d) What are the power and functions of the Prime Minister?
e) Write a brief note on the Council of Ministers.
f) What do you know about the Indian civil services?

6. If the position of the Prime minister is replaced with that of the President.
How effective do you think they are?

7. Life Skills
Find out the reasons behind the Emergency of 1975. Do you think it was justified?

Do it to know it!

8. Creative Writing: The Prime Minister of India must possess great leadership qualities
to conduct the affairs of the country in an effective manner. What do you think are the
qualities required to become a good leader?

9. Research Work: Find out if emergency was ever proclaimed in your state. State the reasons
for the same.

10. Make a Collage: Find out the names of all the Presidents of India from 1947 till date with
their tenure and make a collage on the same.

11. KWL Chart: Complete the table after reading the chapter.

What do You Know about What do You Want to Know What did You Learn about
the Union Executive? about the Union Executive? the Union Executive?

WEBLINKS
http://presidentofindia.nic.in/
http://www.civilserviceindia.com/Indian-Administrative-Service.html
As on 30/04/2019

155
 16. The Indian Judiciary

Let’s Learn
 Role of a Judiciary  The Subordinate Courts
 Types of Cases  Case Study – How does a Court
 Structure of Indian Judiciary function
 The Supreme Court  Independence of Judiciary
 The High Court

Tune In
 We know that the Legislature makes laws and the Executive implements them. Who
do you think keeps a check on both these branches of the government to ensure that
they do not misuse their power?
 Let us read the following to find the answer to this question.

The word ‘judiciary’ is derived from the Latin word ‘iudiciarius’ meaning ‘of or belonging
to a court of justice’. Judiciary or the third branch of the government is probably the most
important branch of the government as it keeps a check on the Legislature and the Executive.
Judiciary protects the laws by punishing those who break them and protecting those people
who have been denied what is rightfully theirs.

Role of a Judiciary
The Judiciary functions through a chain of courts that are presided over by judges. The role of
courts can be divided into subsequent three headings:
 The Judiciary resolves disputes between people, between people and government, or
between governments.
 The Judiciary has the power to cancel laws passed by the Parliament if they violate the basic
constitutional structure.
 Citizens can approach the courts if they are of the belief that their Fundamental Rights have
been violated. The court is bound to help them in the matter concerned.

Types of Cases
A dispute that is to be resolved by a court is known as a case. Broadly there are two types of
cases, namely, civil and criminal. Civil cases refer to those that involve disputes over property,
money, inheritance, marriage, matters related to rent, etc. Criminal cases refer to those that
involve disputes over physical injury, robbery, dowry, murder, etc.

156
Structure of Indian Judiciary
The structure of the Indian judiciary is pyramidal in nature. There are three levels of courts.
There is one apex court, namely, the Supreme Court. It is the highest authority. Below the
Supreme Court are High Courts located in each State. Some Union Territories have a common
high court. Subordinate courts come at the bottom of the pyramidal structure. District courts,
nyaya panchayats and lok adalats are some types of subordinate courts. The decision of the
Supreme Court is final and binding on all other courts. The courts in India are interconnected
to one another. If a citizen feels that the decision given by the lower court is not just, he/she
can appeal to the higher court.

Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of India is the apex court of the entire Indian judiciary. It came into being
on 28 January 1950. The inaugural proceedings of the Supreme Court were carried out by Chief
Justice Harilal J Kania, along with five other Justices. Supreme Court of India comprises the
Chief Justice of India and 25 judges who are appointed by the President.
Qualifications to be a judge of the Supreme Court: Certain
preconditions are required for an individual to be eligible as a
judge of the Supreme Court. They are as follows:
 He/she should be an Indian citizen.
 He/she should have been a judge of one or more High Courts
for a minimum of five years.
 He/she should have been an Advocate of High Court for at
least ten years.
Fig. 16.1: The first Chief Justice of
 The President should consider him/her to be a distinguished
India - Harilal J Kania
jurist.
Tenure: A Supreme Court judge retires at the age of 65, unless he/she resigns or is removed
by a Presidential order.
Removal of a Supreme Court Judge: A Supreme Court judge can be removed from office
only if the President passes an order on grounds of proven ‘misbehaviour’ or ‘incapacity’. Both
the houses of the Parliament have to pass an address for the removal. The address should be
supported by two-thirds of the members who are present and voting.

Rapid Round
1. What is a criminal case? Give two examples.
2. How many judges are there in the Supreme Court of India?
3. Name any two types of subordinate courts.
4. Can a Supreme Court Judge be removed? How?

157
 Functions of the Supreme Court
The three main functions of the Supreme Court are as follows:
a) Original Jurisdiction b) Appellate Jurisdiction c) Advisory Jurisdiction

Original Jurisdiction
The Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court allows it to settle disputes between two states,
between a group of states, between the Government of India and a state. It also solves disputes
between Government of India with one or more states on one side and a few states on the other.
The Supreme Court also has the power to transfer cases from one court to another. It can
withdraw pending cases or dispose of them, if it feels that they are similar or identical to
each other.

Appellate Jurisdiction
The Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court refers to its power to hear appeals from
other courts under it. The Supreme Court can hear appeals under the following categories:
 Civil cases – The Supreme Court hears appeals in cases that involve laws that are important
to all the citizens of the country or if the High Court asks the Supreme Court to decide on
a particular case.
 Criminal cases – The Supreme Court listens to appeals in criminal cases on three conditions:
• If the High Court reverses an order of acquittal of an accused and sentences him/her
to death.
• If the High Court has taken a case from a subordinate court and sentenced the accused
to death or imprisoned him for life.
• If the High Court decides that a case if fit to be appealed in the Supreme Court.
 Constitutional cases – The Supreme Court also hears cases which involve the interpretation
of the Constitution. The case could be civil or criminal.

Advisory Jurisdiction
The Supreme Court has Advisory Jurisdiction on matters which are referred to it by the
President of India. The advice given by the Supreme Court is not binding on the President. The
President may choose to ignore such advice.
The Supreme Court has the power to punish for contempt of court as well. The Supreme Court
keeps a record of all its judgements which are binding on all the courts of India. The Supreme
Court has the authority to review any judgement made by it. It also has the power to reverse
the decision made by it but only in special cases, as mentioned in the Constitution.

158
 Did You Know
The proceedings of the Supreme Court are only carried out in English. Supreme Court Rules,
1966, is a special section under Article 145 of the Indian Constitution that regulates the
practice and procedure of the Supreme Court.

High Court
The High Court heads the judiciary of a State and is subordinate only to the Supreme Court of
India. The ruling of the High Court is binding on all lower courts in that particular state/states/
union territory, but not binding on other High Courts in the country. Some High Courts have
jurisdiction over more than two or three states too. There are 25 High Courts in India today.
Each High Court has a Chief Justice and other judges, who are appointed by the President of
India in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the State concerned.
To appoint the other judges of the High Court, the Chief Justice of the High Court is also
consulted by the President.

Fig. 16.2: Mumbai High Court

Qualifications to be a judge of a High Court: A person can attain the position of the judge
of a High Court; if he/she meets the following conditions:
 He/she should be an Indian citizen.
 He/she must have held a judicial office in India for ten years or practised as an advocate of
High Court or other subordinate courts in succession for ten years.
Tenure: A High Court judge retires at the age of 62, unless he resigns or is removed by a
Presidential order.
Removal of a High Court judge: A High Court judge can be removed from office only if the
President passes an order on grounds of proven ‘misbehaviour’ or ‘incapacity’. Both the houses

159
 of the Parliament have to pass an address for the removal. The address should be supported
by two-thirds of the members who are present and voting.
Power and Functions of the High Court: Powers and functions of the High Court are mainly
judicial and administrative. In its judicial function, the High Court not only listens to appeals
from lower courts, it can also be approached directly to preside over cases that deal with State
revenue, marriage law, etc. In its capacity of administrative function, the High Court supervises
the functioning of the subordinate courts. It can make rules for them and regulate their practice
too. The High Court can also withdraw cases from a lower court if it bears a question of law
of general importance. The High Court is also a court of record as it records all its rulings and
decisions for further use as precedents.

Did You Know

The Calcutta High Court was the first High Court to be set up in India on 01 July 1862.

Rapid Round
1. Name the three main functions of the Supreme Court.
2. Name the highest officer in a High Court.
3. What is the tenure of a High Court judge?
4. How can a High Court judge be removed?
5. Why is High Court known as a court of record?

Subordinate Courts
Since India has a very vast area and the population is increasing in great numbers, each state
and union territory of India is divided into districts for better administration. As studied earlier,
the High Court hears cases in the territory of the state/states to which it belongs. There are many
lower courts in a state below the High Court. These courts are known as Subordinate Courts.

There are three subordinate courts that look after the administration of justice in a district in a
state. They are as follows:
 Civil Courts – Civil courts deal with civil cases. The Court of the District Judge is the highest
civil court in a district.
 Criminal Courts – As the name suggests, criminal courts deal with criminal cases. The
Court of the Sessions Judge is the highest criminal court in a district.
 Revenue Courts – Revenue courts are courts that deal with cases involving taxation of any
kind. It also involves cases that deal with collection and assessment of land revenue. The
Board of Revenue is the highest court in all the revenue courts.

160
Nyaya Panchayats
Nyaya Panchayats are courts that try petty civil and criminal cases at the village level. Local
people constitute the Nyaya Panchayat. There is one Nyaya Panchayat for every 3–4 villages.
If people are not happy with the decision of the Nyaya Panchayat, they can approach the
district courts.

Lok Adalats
The word ‘lok adalat’ means ‘people’s court’. It is a voluntary organization that settles disputes
amongst people. People who have been in the legal profession and eminent social workers are
a part of the lok adalats. The Legal Services Authorities Act,1987, has legalised lok adalats. The
decision of the lok adalat is final and binding on both the parties involved in a dispute. This Act
also ensures that if a dispute is resolved, the court fees paid by the parties will be refunded.

Case Study – How does a Court Function

Let us understand how a case is moved from a lower court to higher court and ultimately to the
Supreme Court. One such case is Uphaar Cinema fire tragedy.
The Uphaar Cinema fire tragedy is one of the greatest fire mishaps in India. On 13 June 1997
fire broke at the Uphaar Cinema Theatre in Green Park, Delhi causing death of 59 people and
many injures. After initial investigation conducted by the Delhi Police and eventually by the
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) the trail against the accused began at the Session Court.
The accused were charged with punishable offences under various sections of the Indian Penal
Code (IPC). The court convicted all the accused, including the owners of the theatre.

The accused pleaded not guilty to the charges framed against them and claimed a trial. They
also filed writ petitions before the Delhi High Court against the framed charges. The court
convicted the accused guilty. They were ordered to give compensation to the relatives of
victims and the two years imprisonment. However, the sentence of two years imprisonment
was further reduced to one year.

The Association of Victims of Uphaar Tragedy (AVUT) filed petition in the Supreme Court for
enhancement of sentence given to the accused and alteration of the charge. The CBI also filed
an appeal in Supreme Court seeking enhancement of sentence of the accused.

Independence of Judiciary
Judiciary plays a very important role in the overall development of the country as they control
the distribution of rights and power amongst the citizens and organisations. Independence
also helps to keep a check on the Legislature and the Executive. Judicial independence is
guaranteed by the Indian Constitution as Judges of Supreme Court retire at the age of 65
and the High Court judges retire at 62. Judges are also granted some privileges, pension and

161
 leaves. Removal of judges also involves the approval of the President and the two houses of
Parliament. The Supreme Court, High Court and some district courts that act as a court of
record also go a long way in maintaining the independence of the Judiciary.

Word Galaxy

acquittal – a judgement or verdict that a person is not guilty of the crime with
which they have been charged
appellate – concerned with or dealing with applications for decisions to be reversed
jurisdiction – the official power to make legal decisions and judgements

Concept Map
NjsǣŸĶɚÞض_ÞǣƼȖǼsǣ
ÝŘ_sƼsŘ_sŘOsŸ¯ğȖ_ÞOÞNjɴ
NjŸĶsŸ¯ ĠȖ_ÞOÞĶNjsɚÞsɠ
ĠȖ_ÞOÞNjɴ
ȖƼÌŸĶ_ÞضĶɠŘ_
ÌŸɠ_ŸsǣOŸȖNjǼ¯ȖŘOǼÞŸŘ
sŘ¯ŸNjOÞض¯ȖŘ_ŎsŘǼĶNjÞ¶ÌǼǣ

OÞɚÞĶOŸȖNjǼǣ ǢȖƼNjsŎsNŸȖNjǼ
ǣǼNjȖOǼȖNjsŸ¯ǼÌs
ONjÞŎÞŘĶOŸȖNjǼ ^ÞǣǼNjÞOǼ ËÞ¶ÌNŸȖNjǼ ÝŘ_ÞŘĠȖ_ÞOÞNjɴ ǻÌsÝŘ_ÞŘ
ğȖ_ÞOÞNjɴ
NŸȖNjǼǣ OÞɚÞĶ
NjsɚsŘȖsOŸȖNjǼǣ ǣȖEŸNj_ÞŘǼs
OŸȖNjǼǣ ǼɴƼsǣŸ¯Oǣsǣ
Řɴɴ ƼŘOÌɴǼǣ ONjÞŎÞŘĶ

ĶŸĨ _ĶǼǣ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The Supreme Court came into existence on .

i) 15 August 1947 ii) 26 January 1950

iii) 28 January 1950 iv) 26 January 1947

b) There are Supreme Court and High Courts in India.

i) 24,1 ii) 2, 21

iii) 1, 21 iv) 1, 25

c) Judges of the Supreme Court retire at the age of .

i) 65 ii) 64

iii) 63 iv) 62

162
2. Fill in the blanks.
a) Civil cases involve disputes related to and , among others.

b) The inaugural proceedings of the Supreme Court were carried out by and
five other judges.

c) Each state and union territory is divided into for better administration.

d) and are two examples of district courts.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Revenue Court i) deals with criminal cases

b) Supreme Court ii) deals with civil cases

c) High Court iii) cases that deal with land revenue etc.

d) Court of the District Judge iv) Judges retire at the age of 62

e) Court of the Sessions Judge v) Apex Court

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is known as a case?
b) What are subordinate courts?
c) What is the procedure for removal of a Supreme Court judge?
d) What are nyaya panchayats?
e) Which was the first High Court to be set up in India? When?

5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.

a) Write in brief about the role of the judiciary.
b) The structure of the Indian judiciary is pyramidal in nature. Give reasons to support your
answer.
c) What are the qualifications required to be a judge of the High Court?
d) What do you know about the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?
e) What are the powers and functions of the High Court?
f) What do you know about the lok adalats?
g) Write about the independence of judiciary?

163
 6. In spite of India having such a detailed and organized judicial administration,
justice has been delayed in many cases. Why? Suggest ways in which we can
improve our judicial administration.

7. Life Skills
‘Justice delayed is justice denied’. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons.

Do it to know it!

8. Research Work: Form groups of 3–4 students each. Find out about a famous civil and
criminal case. Make a report on the same.

9. Class Discussion: Have a discussion in class on the ‘Importance of district courts –

advantages and disadvantages’.

WEBLINKS
http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/lok_a.htm http://www.barcouncilofindia.org/about/
about-the-legal-profession/legal-education-in-the-united-kingdom/
As on 30/04/2019

164
 17. Understanding Criminal Justice System

Let’s Learn
’’ The police and their role in ’’ Role of the Judge
investigating crime ’’ Fair trial
’’ Role of the Public Prosecutor

Tune In
’’ What would you do if you find someone violating law?
’’ Why would you do so?

You might have seen either in the movies or in real life, if someone violates law the police have
been informed. However, it is not the police who decide whether the person is guilty or not.
After a person is arrested it is the court of law that decides whether the person accused is guilty
or innocent. Let us understand the process and the roles of different individuals in the criminal
justice system.
The Police
™™ The mission of the police force is to enforce laws with impartiality and create a stress free
environment that leads to an overall growth and development of individuals within the
society and the country as a whole.
™™ The police force of India looks after the security of the country and works as a team to
protect all the citizens of the country.
™™ The police maintain law and order throughout the country and aims to promote harmony
amongst the different sections of society.
™™ The police are also responsible for the prevention, detection and investigation of crimes
and illegal activities inside the country.
™™ The police force in India has many agencies such as the Central Bureau of Investigation,
Border Security Force, and Central Reserve Police Force, etc. that are controlled by the
Central Government.
™™ The States have their own police force.
Structure of Indian Police
Although the exact structure of Indian police varies from state to state, the basic structure of
the Indian police is as follows:

165
 Senior Superintendent
of Police

Deputy Commissioner
Superintendent of Police
of Police

Additional Deputy
Commissioner of Police Senior Officers
Commissioner of Police

Director General of Assistant Commissioner

Police of Police

Structure of Indian
Police

Police Constabulary Upper Subordinates

Senior Police Constable Inspector of Police

Police Constable Sub- Inspector of Police

Asst Sub-Inspector of
Police Head Constable
Police

Fig. 17.1: Structure of Indian Police

Did You Know

A cognizable offence is one in which the police can arrest a person without a warrant,
whereas a non-cognizable offense is such in which police cannot arrest anyone without
a warrant.

Role of the police in investigating crime

The police can start the investigation of a crime with the registration of the First Information
Report (FIR) about which we will be studying in the later part of the chapter. An investigation
includes recording statements of witnesses and collecting different types of evidences. The
police need to form an opinion on the basis of the investigation.

After investigation, the police file a chargesheet that contains accusations against the offenders
in the court. The Supreme Court of India has laid down the guidelines which the police must
follow for the arrest, detention and interrogation of any person. These guidelines are known as
D. K. Basu Guidelines. Some of these guidelines are as follows:

™™ The police officials should wear clear, accurate, and visible identification as well as name
tags with their designations while carrying out the arrest or interrogation.

166
™™ The person who is arrested, detained or being interrogated has a right to inform a relative,
well-wisher or friend.

™™ The police must notify the time, place of arrest and venue of custody within 8 to 12 hours
after arrest if a relative or friend resides outside the district.

First Information Report (FIR)

When the police hear of a cognizable offence for the first time, they prepare a written document
which is known as an FIR or First Information Report. An FIR can be lodged by anyone either
verbally or in writing. It can be recorded over a telephone conversation as well. The victim of
the crime, someone on behalf of the victim, or anyone who has the knowledge that a crime has
been committed can lodge an FIR. The police are duty bound to register the FIR.

Why is an FIR important?

An FIR is important because it initiates the process of bringing the culprits to justice for the
crime they have committed. Only after an FIR is lodged, can the police initiate investigation of
the said case.

Procedure of filing an FIR

The procedure for filing an FIR is as follows:

™™ The police write down and prepare a document when they receive information of a
cognizable offense.

™™ The police then read the information written down by them.

™™ The person filing the FIR shall sign the FIR after verifying the facts written by the police.

™™ If people who cannot read or write have filed an FIR, they are required to give their left
thumb impression after they are convinced that it is a genuine report.

™™ The person filing the FIR gets a copy of the report filed by him/her.

Information mentioned in an FIR

An FIR should contain:

™™ Name and address of the person who has filed it

™™ Time, date and location of the incident being reported

™™ Facts related to the crime committed

™™ Names and descriptions of people involved in committing the crime

™™ Names of people who have witnessed the crime; if any.

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 Steps to be taken if an FIR is not registered
If a policeman refuses to lodge an FIR, the complainant can go to the next officer in charge
and request him/her to file the FIR. If an FIR is still not registered, then the complainant can
approach the judiciary, namely, the subordinate courts, High Court and the Supreme Court to
help him/her file the FIR.

Rapid Round
State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The Police aims to promote harmony amongst the different sections of society.
2. All Indian States have a combined police force.
3. An FIR can be lodged through a telephone conversation.

Role of the Public Prosecutor

A criminal offence is regarded as the offence that has been committed against the affected
victims and the society as a whole. The public prosecutor represents the government in the
court. The role of the public prosecutor begins once the police has conducted the investigation
and filed the chargesheet in the court. He/she doesn’t play any role in the investigation. He/she
must conduct the prosecution on behalf of the government. As an officer of the court, it is his/
her duty to play an impartial role. He/she is expected to present complete material facts, all the
evidences and witnesses before the court to decide the case.

Role of the Judge

The judge conducts the trial in an open court. It is his/her duty to remain impartial. The judge
hears all the witnesses and examines all the evidences presented by the defence lawyer and
the prosecutor before the court. The judge decides whether the person accused is innocent
or guilty after the close examination of the case. The verdict is in accordance with the law. The
judge pronounces the sentence if the accused is convicted. The judge may impose a fine or
send the person to jail or both depending on what the law prescribes.

Fair Trial
The most important purpose of a trial is to find out whether the accused is guilty or innocent.
A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld. Article 21 guarantees the Right
to Life and states that a person’s life or liberty can be taken away only by following a just and
reasonable legal procedure.

™™ The accused is given a copy of chargesheet and all the evidences that the prosecution
presents against the accused.

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™™ The trial is held in public view, in the presence of the accused and in an open court.

™™ If the victim and his/her family are summoned then it is their duty to appear before the court.

™™ The accused is defended by a lawyer who is provided an opportunity to cross-examine

all the prosecution witnesses. He/she is also given an opportunity to present witnesses in
order to defend accused.

™™ The judge decides the matter only on the basis of the evidences presented before the court.
The Constitution and the law both state that the police, the public prosecutor, the defence
lawyer and the judge should carry out their roles in a proper manner and impartially. This is
important in order to ensure that every citizen irrespective of their caste, class, religion and
gender should get a fair trial to the accused.

Rapid Round
1. Who represents the government in the court?
2. What is held in public view?

Word Galaxy

cross-examine – to question the witnesses to determine the truth

defence lawyer – a lawyer is appointed from the side of the accused in his/her
defence

Concept Map

senior officers

structure of upper subordinates

fair trial the Indian Police

police constabulary

Police role of the police

in investigating crime why is an
role of the Judge Understanding FIR important?
Criminal Justice
System procedure of
First Information Report filing an FIR

role of the Public Prosecutor information mentioned

in an FIR

steps to be taken if an
FIR is not registered

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 Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) offence is the one in which the police can arrest the person without
a warrant.
i) Non-cognizable ii) Cognizable

iii) Recognizable iv) Non-recognizable

b) If a policeman refuses to lodge an FIR, the complainant can go to .

i) A subordinate court ii) A High Court

iii) The Supreme Court iv) All of the above

c) FIR stands for .

i) Final Information Report ii) Final Information Report

iii) First Informant Report iv) First Information report

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) and are examples of two of the many agencies of the police
force in India.
b) The conducts the trial in an open court.
c) The have their own police force.
d) doesn’t have any role in the investigation.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Senior Officer i) Police Head Constable

b) Upper Subordinate ii) Superintendent of Police

c) Police Constabulary iii) Inspector of Police

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is an FIR?
b) Why is an FIR important?
c) Who can lodge an FIR?
d) Write in brief about a criminal offence.
e) How does the judge decide whether the person accused is innocent or guilty?

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5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Discuss the role of the police in investigating crime.
b) Draw a diagrammatic representation of the structure of Indian Police?
c) What are D. K. Basu Gidelines?
d) What is the procedure for filing an FIR?
e) Explain the role of a public prosecutor.
f) Write in detail about a fair trial.

6. If you were the Director General of Police in your state, what changes
would you like to bring in the current police force and why?

7. Life Skills
What, according you, are the values that good police/all the officials involved in or
associated with the system of criminal justice should have?

Do it to know it!

8. Research Work: Form groups of 3–4 students each. Each group should find out the
structure of the police in any two states of India. Discuss it in class.
9. Make a Chart: Find out about the uniforms of policemen in any five countries of the world,
one of them being India and prepare a chart on it.
10. Power Point Presentation: Make a power point presentation on the article/s that
guarantees the Fundamental Rights to every arrested person and present it in the class.

WEBLINKS
http://www.buzzfeed.com/danieldalton/world-police#.xuKMeX2Jn
As on 30/04/2019

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 18. Marginalisation and Social Justice

Let’s Learn
 What is marginalisation?  Social reformers and social justice
 Effects of marginalisation  Efforts for upliftment of the
 Scheduled Castes, Scheduled marginalised groups
Tribes, Minorities and Other  Are laws helpful in providing
Backward Classes social justice?

Tune In
 What questions come in your mind when you see the people shown in the pictures?

 The people shown in above pictures form an important part of Indian society.
However, they have been discriminated and deprived of their share that estranged
them from the society.

What is Marginalisation?
Social phenomena by which a group of people are accorded less importance by virtue of their
language, caste, religion, etc. are known as marginalisation. Discrimination amongst people in
socio-economic spheres of life and being denied basic rights is also an act of marginalisation.
Such sections or groups of people who have been marginalised are known as marginalised
sections or groups. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Minorities and Other Backward Classes
are the main marginalised groups in India.

Effects of Marginalisation
Marginalisation has had a negative impact on the marginalised groups. It has made the people
backward. Let us take a look at the social and economic inequalities that have crept into the
society as a result of marginalisation.
Social inequalities that have affected marginalised groups are as follows:
 Caste system – The caste system created divisions amongst the people. Higher castes

172
 exploited the so called ‘lower’ castes. The lower castes were made to serve the higher
castes. They were not given as many privileges as the higher castes. The lower castes were
not allowed to educate themselves which has led to illiteracy amongst people of the lower
castes. People belonging to the lower castes were not allowed to choose their profession.
Inter-caste marriages were also prohibited.
 Untouchability – People from the lowest strata of society were called untouchables. They
were treated as outcasts even though they were a part of the Hindu society. They were made
to do menial jobs. The untouchables were not allowed to enter the temples or interact with
people of other castes.
 Discrimination against the minorities – The term minority refers to communities that are
smaller in number as compare to the rest of the population. Such a community likely to be
oppressed or dominated by the majority. Lack of numerical strength may affect their access
to power and resources. Thus, their interests have to be protected.
 Discrimination against tribals and Dalits – Tribals or ‘adivasis’or ‘original inhabitants’ are
groups of people who have lived in forests and some continue to live in forests, even today
in the Indian Subcontinent.The Dalits and the tribal people have also suffered a great deal
as a result of marginalisation. They have faced many problems as they have been forced to
move away from their homes due to various techniques of modernisation. Construction of
dams, development projects, deforestation, mining, etc has led mostly to displacement of
the tribals. We shall read more about them later.
Economic inequalities were caused by marginalisation as all the high paying jobs were reserved
for the upper castes. The lower castes were forced to follow their ancestral occupations, even
if it was not economically productive. This led to poverty which in turn led to malnutrition
amongst the lower castes as they did not have enough money to buy adequate food.

Scheduled Castes
The framers of the Indian Constitution noted that certain races, castes or tribes in the country,
occupied the lowest rank in the normal hierarchy of Indian society. According to the makers,
such people were suffering from extreme educational, social and economic backwardness
arising out of age-old practice of untouchability, geographical isolation and lack of infrastructure
facilities. They need special consideration for safeguarding their interests and for their faster
socio-economic development. These communities were reported as Scheduled Castes.

Scheduled Tribes
There are about 500 different Scheduled Tribes or ‘Adivasis’ in India. Majority of the Scheduled
Tribes (population) reside in rural area. There are no Scheduled Tribes in Delhi, Chandigarh,
Puducherry, Punjab and Haryana. The number of the total Scheduled Tribe population living

173
 in urban areas is meagre. Religions practiced by the Scheduled Tribes are also different from
what is practiced by other sections of society, for example, they believe in worshipping nature,
animals, spirits, etc. The Scheduled Tribes have been forced to move away from their homes
due to mass deforestation as a result of urbanization. Most of the times, they have not been
rehabilitated adequately as a result of which they have lost their source of livelihood.
Minorities
Size can be a disadvantage for the smaller communities that cause marginalisation. In certain
cases, the minorities may feel insecure about their well-being, lives and assets. Therefore, the
Indian Constitution provides for the protection of minority communities to save them from the
possible cultural dominance of majority. The Constitution emphasises the need to preserve,
protect, and promote the religion, culture, language, and script of all minorities.
Other Backward Classes
Other Backward Classes refers to those backward sections of people other than Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes who, according to the Government need special mention as they
may not be adequately represented in the Government.
Social Reformers and Social Justice
Social reformers such as Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchand Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand
Saraswati, Mahatma Jyotirao Phule and Swami Vivekananda, among others; led a reform
movement that aimed to curb the social and economic inequalities that had plagued the Indian
society. Towards the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century,
Mahatma Gandhi also worked a great deal for the upliftment of the so called ‘untouchables’.
Efforts for Upliftment of the Marginalised groups
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution of India, was
instrumental in granting special privileges to the lower castes so as to promote social justice.
Article 17 of the Constitution abolished untouchability. The Indian Constitution guarantees that
citizens all over India shall not be discriminated on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion
and gender. It also allows for equal opportunity for employment in the government through
Article 16.
The Indian Constitution also allows for reservation of seats in government jobs, educational
institutions and in the Indian Parliament for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other
Backward Classes. Efforts have been made to encourage education amongst the Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Minorities and Other backward Classes. Students belonging to these
sections are being given special coaching so as bring them at par with the mainstream. Hostels
have been constructed by the Government to provide boarding and lodging at subsidised
rates. Many social workers have set up voluntary organisations to help them.

174
 Did You Know
The National Commissions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have been
constituted to protect the interests of the marginalised groups.

Rapid Round
1. Name two social reformers.
2. How many Scheduled Tribes are there in India?

Are Laws Helpful in Providing Social Justice?

Although many laws and scheme have been passed and approved by the government for the
benefit of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Minorities and Other Backward classes, much
remains to be done. The central and state governments create specific policies to implement
the Constitution in areas that have a high marginalised population.
 The reservation for the marginalised in government employment and education is significant
for them as it provides opportunities to develop new skills and vocation.
 The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
came into existence to stop the atrocities committed by the more powerful people of the
society on the less powerful people. This Act prescribes stringent punishment for those
who commit such activities. Furthermore, the activists have asked those people who have
forcibly encroached upon the lands of the tribals should be punished under the 1989 Act.
 The Dalits and tribals are still fighting for their rights through different campaigns. The
Narmada Bachao Andolan and the Dalit’s Human Rights Campaign are two of the many
campaigns initiated for their upliftment.
 The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006 was passed by the central government. This was done to undo the injustices
meted out to the forest dwellers in not recognising their rights to land and resources.
 Untouchability is not a major concern in urban areas but it still exists in rural areas due
to lack of education amongst the people. A law called the Untouchability (Offences) Act,
1955 made the practice of untouchability illegal and punishable offence. This Act has been
renamed as the Protection of Civil Rights, 1955.
 Manual scavenging is another practice that has not led to complete abolition of
untouchability. The so called ‘untouchables’ work as manual scavengers wherein they
pick up human and animal excreta with their hands and carry load on their heads. The
Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act was
passed by the government in1993 to ban the employment of people as manual scavengers.
It is further regulated by the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their
Rehabilitation Act, 2013.

175
 Literacy is the only answer to this problem. Efforts should be strengthened to enlighten the
backward classes to educate all the members of their society. The upper castes should also be
prepared to accept the backward classes as equal and not ill treat them.

Word Galaxy

atrocity – an extremely wicked or cruel act, typically one involving physical

violence or injury
excreta – waste matter discharged from the body, especially faeces and urine

Concept Map
NjsĶɠǣÌsĶƼ¯ȖĶÞŘ
ƼNjŸɚÞ_ÞضǣŸOÞĶĠȖǣǼÞOsʷ ɠÌǼÞǣ ŎNj¶ÞŘĶÞǣǼÞŸŘʷ
ǣŸOÞĶÞŘsLJȖĶÞǼÞsǣ

s¯¯sOǼŸ¯ŎNj¶ÞŘĶÞǣǼÞŸŘ

sOŸŘŸŎÞOÞŘsLJȖĶÞǼÞsǣ
ǢOÌs_ȖĶs_NǣǼsǣ

s¯¯ŸNjǼǣ¯ŸNj ȖƼĶÞ¯ǼŎsŘǼŸ¯
ǼÌs ŎNj¶ÞŘĶÞǣs_ ¶NjŸȖƼǣ ōNj¶ÞŘĶÞǣǼÞŸŘ
ǢOÌs_ȖĶs_ǻNjÞEsǣ
Ř_ǢŸOÞĶğȖǣǼÞOs

ŎÞŘŸNjÞǼÞsǣ

ǣŸOÞĶNjs¯ŸNjŎsNjǣŘ_
ǣŸOÞĶĠȖǣǼÞOs ŷǼÌsNjDOĨɠNj_NĶǣǣsǣ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) There are no Scheduled tribes in .

i) Haryana ii) Maharashtra

iii) Odisha iv) Gujarat

b) are known as Scheduled Tribes in the Indian Constitution.

i) Women ii) Social reformers

iii) Adivasis iv) Government

176
 c) The created divisions amongst the people.
i) caste system ii) marginalisation

iii) untouchability iv) mindset of the people

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) Sections of society that are affected by marginalisation are known as .
b) Majority of the reside in rural area.
c) worked for the upliftment of the so called ‘untouchables’.
d) was passed in 1993 to ban the employment of people as manual
scavengers.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Article 16 of the Indian Constitution i) A marginalised group

b) Article 17 of the Indian Constitution ii) A social reformer

c) Minorities iii) Guarantees equal opportunity for

employment in the government

d) Swami Dayanand Saraswati iv) Abolishes untouchability

4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.

a) What is marginalisation?
b) Who are the ‘untouchables’?
c) Who are the other backward classes?
d) Explain the term ‘minority’.
5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Who are the ‘Scheduled Tribes’?
b) What are the effects of marginalisation on the people?
c) What efforts have been made for the upliftment of the marginalised groups?
d) Have the laws been successful in providing social justice?
6. In spite of laws being made to curb marginalisation, why do you think India
has not managed to achieve its goal? Give reasons to support your answer.

7. Life Skills
What can we, as individuals, do to curb marginalisation? Give three examples.

177
 Do it to know it!

8. Make a Chart: Form groups of 3–4. Find out about the customs of any one of the Scheduled
Tribe in your state and prepare a chart for the same. Share it with your classmates.
9. Make a Poster: Gather information about Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and make a poster on it.
10. Survey: Conduct a survey among the two or three community helpers of your area/
building/ society and find out the status of women in their households.
11. KWL Chart: Complete the table after reading the chapter.

What do You Know about What do You Want to Know What did You Learn about
the Marginalised groups? about the Marginalised the Marginalised groups?
groups?

WEBLINKS
http://navsarjan.org/navsarjan/dalits/WhatIsUntouchability
As on 30/04/2019

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19. Public Facilities, Law and Social Justice

Let’s Learn
’’ Public facilities and the government
’’ Laws and social justice

Tune In
’’ The following are the different sources of water. Do you think the distribution of water
is equal across India? Discuss in class.

Public Facilities
In today’s world, how effective the government is can be judged by its ability to work for the
welfare of its citizen. There are many essential facilities such as water, electricity, public transport,
education which need to be provided to everyone. These are known as public facilities. Once
these facilities are provided then its benefits can be shared by numerous people.

Role of the government

The Constitution guarantees the Right to Life that is meant for all persons residing in this
country. Therefore, the government is not only responsible for implementing law but also
for providing basic facilities to its people. It is the most important duty of the government to
ensure the equal distribution of the public facilities. These facilities are associated to people’s
basic needs. Some of the public facilities can also be provided by the private companies. For
instance, distribution of electricity, constructing roads, etc. However, the government should
keep a check on them and ensure that they provide the facilities to all and at affordable prices.

How does the government get Money for public facilities?

Every year, the budget is presented in the Parliament. It is an account of the expenditures has
made on the programmes and policies of the government in the past year and how much
it proposes to spend in the coming year. The government also announces several ways to
meet the expenses. Taxes collected from the people is the main source of the revenue of the
government. This is used for various programmes for example, supplying water.

179
 Water
The right to water, is recognised by the Indian Constitution, as being a part of the Right to Life
under Article 21. This means that every individual has the right to have sufficient amounts to
water to meet his/her basic needs at a cost that an individual can afford. In order to provide this
basic facility, the government meet its expenses partly by charging price for water and partly
from the taxes that it collects. This price is set so that maximum people can afford a certain
amount of water for daily usage.
During the summer, acute crisis and shortage of water is an important issue in many cities of
India. Private company take the advantage of situation and sell water at a high price and earn
profit. It is not only availability of water but access to safe drinking water is not available to
all. Those who can afford opt for water purifiers and bottled water. In case of poor people, it
becomes practically difficult for them to have an access to sufficient and safe water.

Did You Know

The Department of Drinking Water Supply (DDWS) was established under Ministry of Rural
Development in 1999 to focus on the problems of drinking water and sanitation.

Tickle Your Brain

Chennai is suffereing from acute water crisis. What measures can be taken to save Chennai
from this crisis? Discuss in Class.

Sanitation
Apart from safe drinking water, sanitation is important to prevent water-borne diseases. Sulabh
is a non-government organisation. It has been working for more than four decades to address
the problems of sanitation of low-caste, low-income people in India. It has constructed toilets
to provide access to sanitation to people. The majority of its users who avail the Sulabh facilities
come from poor working class.

Did You Know

The Sulabh International Museum of Toilets is established in New Delhi.
This museum is dedicated to the history of sanitation and toilets. It has
a rare and wide collection of objects, pictures and facts giving detailed
information about the evolution of toilets from 2500 BCE till date.
Fig. 19.1: Sulabh Logo

Sulabh enters into contracts with local authorities or municipalities to build toilet blocks by
using government funds. Local authorities not only provide land but also funds to construct

180
the toilets. At some places, facilities for latrine and bathing are also provided. Sometimes the
maintenance costs are financed through user charges. For example, in cities ` 5/- is charged for
the use of latrines ` 10/- for both latrine and bathing. The service is also free in some places.

Public facilities are related to our basic needs and even the Constitution of India recognises the
Right to health, water, education, etc. as being an important part of the Right to Life. Therefore,
it is one of the responsibilities of the government to ensure sufficient and equal distribution
of public facilities to everyone. But in reality, the progress is far from satisfactory. There is not
only shortage in supply but also inequalities in distribution. If towns and villages are compared
to large cities and metros, then they are under-provided. Similarly, poorer localities are under-
serviced as compare to the wealthy localities. Hence, while providing any solution it is vital to
consider the fact that every Indian citizen country has a right to these facilities and that need
to be provided to them in an equitable manner.

Rapid Round
State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The Constitution guarantees the Right to Life.
2. Public facilities are not related to our basic needs.

Laws and Social Justice

Besides providing public facilities, another important role of the government is to control the
activities of the private companies by framing, implementing and upholding laws in order to avert
unfair practices and ensure social justice. In many cases, private companies, businesspersons,
contractors, etc. make much profit and deny workers their rights and even not pay them wages.
As per the law, it is wrong and illegal to deny workers their wages. There is a law on minimum
wages and the employer has to pay not less than the minimum wage to the worker.

The law on minimum wages is meant to protect the rights of the workers likewise there are
laws framed to safeguard the interests of producers and consumers. The primary motive
behind these laws is to see that the relations between the three, that is the worker, consumer,
and producer is not exploitative. The Indian Constitution guarantees the Fundamental Rights
which form the bedrock of many of these laws. The government is responsible for making
‘appropriate laws’ and even enforce them. If laws are weak and not enforced properly then it
can cause serious harm. For example, Bhopal Gas Tragedy.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy

Bhopal Gas Tragedy was world’s worst industrial tragedy that took place thirty-five years ago.
An American Company called, Union Carbide (UC) had established a factory in Bhopal city

181
 where it produced pesticides. On 02 December 1984 a highly poisonous gas, methyl-isocyanite
(MIC), started leaking from the UC plant at midnight. More than 8000 people died within three
days and thousands were maimed. Among those who survived, many people developed eye
problems, severe respiratory disorders and other disorders.

Enforcement of safety laws

Bhopal Gas Tragedy was not an accident. Even before the tragedy, there had been incidents of
gas leakage injuring several and killing a worker. UC had not paid attention to the necessary
safety measures just to cut costs. Furthermore, cheap labour was one of the reasons why foreign
companies come to India. Companies can easily get long hours of work for lower pay. Thus,
they save costs and even earn good profits. With more industries being established by local as
well as foreign businesses in India, Government being a law maker and enforcer is responsible
for implementing safety laws. It is the duty of the government to see that the Right to Life
guaranteed under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution is not violated.

Laws to protect the environment

The issue of environment was brought to the forefront by the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. The UC didn’t
spend money to clean up the toxic chemicals left behind. People who were not associated with
the plant were adversely affected by the poisonous gas that leaked. This made the people to
think about the existing laws which only covered individual worker and not those who might
be injured or affected due to such industrial accidents.

The government of India introduced several new laws on the environment. Thereafter, the
polluter was to be held responsible for causing damage to the environment. Environment is
the treasure that people over generations will share and it should not be destroyed only for
the growth and development of Industries. Hence the right to a healthy environment should
be extended to all.

Rapid Round
State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. As per the law, it is wrong and illegal to deny workers their wages.
2. Bhopal Gas Tragedy was an accident.

Word Galaxy

consumer – a person who purchases goods and services for personal use and nor
for resale
producer – a person, company, or country that makes, grows, or supplies goods for sale

182
 Concept Map
NjŸĶsŸ¯ǼÌs¶ŸɚsNjŘŎsŘǼ

ƼȖEĶÞO¯OÞĶÞǼÞsǣ
ÌŸɠ_ŸsǣǼÌs¶ŸɚsNjŘŎsŘǼ¶sǼ
ōŸŘsɴ¯ŸNjƼȖEĶÞO¯OÞĶÞǼÞsǣʷ
DÌŸƼĶµǣǻNj¶s_ɴ
ƻȖEĶÞO®OÞĶÞǼÞsǣʰĵɠ ɠǼsNj
Ř_ǢŸOÞĶğȖǣǼÞOs
sŘ¯ŸNjOsŎsŘǼŸ¯
ǣ¯sǼɴĶɠǣ ĶɠǣŘ_ ǣŘÞǼǼÞŸŘ
ǣŸOÞĶĠȖǣǼÞOs
ĶɠǣǼŸƼNjŸǼsOǼ
ǼÌssŘɚÞNjŸŘŎsŘǼ

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the appropriate option.

a) The Sulabh International Museum of Toilets is established in .
i) New Delhi ii) Kolkata
iii) Chennai iv) Mumbai
b) Sulabh is a organisation.
i) government ii) non-government
iii) private iv) public
c) A separate Department of Drinking Water Supply was established by the .
i) Government of India ii) Parliament
iii) Ministry of Rural Development iv) private companies

2. Fill in the blanks.

a) The issue of environment was brought to the forefront by the .
b) The also announces several ways to meet the expenses.
c) The has to pay not less than the minimum wage to the worker.

3. Match the columns.

Column A Column B

a) Article 21 i) To prevent water-borne diseases

b) Duty of the government ii) Form the bedrock of many laws
iii) Ensure equal distribution of the public
c) The Fundamental Rights
facilities
d) Sanitation iv) The Right to Life

183
 4. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words.
a) Write in brief about public facilities.
b) What is the main source of the revenue of the government.
c) Which company established a factory in Bhopal city to produce pesticides?
d) Why is the government responsible for making and enforcing laws?
e) Give any two examples the public facilities that can also be provided by the private
companies.
5. Answer the following questions in 50 to 70 words.
a) Write a brief note on Sulabh.
b) How does the government control the activities of the private companies?
c) Write about the Bhopal Gas Tragedy.
d) Why did the government of India introduce new laws on environment?
6. Do you really think the equal distribution of public facilities possible? Give
reasons to support your answer.

7. Life Skills
How do water and sanitation affect health?

Do it to know it!

8. Research Work: You have studied about ‘Sulabh’. Gather more information about it and
make a fact file.
9. Group Discussion: Conduct a group discussion in class on ‘the environment earlier
and now’.

10. Interview: Interview a shopkeeper, a salaried person, a factory owner and a businessman.
Find out the different types of taxes they pay to the government. Discuss your findings with
your classmates.

WEBLINKS

https://rural.nic.in/about-us/about-ministry
http://www.sulabhenvis.nic.in/Database/SulabhPublicToiletComplexes_7029.aspx
As on 30/04/2019

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