IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 25, NO.

3, JUNE 2015 5601405

Resistive-Type Superconducting Fault Current

Limiters: Concepts, Materials, and
Numerical Modeling
H. S. Ruiz, X. Zhang, and T. A. Coombs

Abstract—In recent years, major industrialized countries have

begun to be concerned about the need for developing strategies
on the integration and protection of the growing power capacity
of renewable source energies, attracting back their interest on the
development and understanding of superconducting fault current
limiters (SFCLs). The reasons for this are simple: An SFCL may
offer a rapid, reliable, and effective current limitation, with zero
impedance during normal operation, and an automatic recovery
after the fault. Nowadays, most of the R&D projects have turned
toward the study of resistive-type SFCLs due to their potential
to be small and the likely decrease in price of 2G coated con-
ductors. Thus, in this paper, we provide an updated review on
the state of the art of resistive-type SFCLs, emphasizing on the
different approaches for the numerical modeling of their local
physical properties, as well as on the already-tested experimental
concepts. Comparison between the properties and characteristics
of different resistive-type SFCLs using different superconducting
materials is presented.
Index Terms—Coated conductors, fault current limiter, power
system faults, superconducting materials.

I. I NTRODUCTION

O NE of the major challenges the US and EU Member

States will face in the coming decades is to make its
energy system clean, secure, and efficient, while ensuring its
Fig. 1. Illustration of the current profile for a fault circuit with a connected
resistive-type SFCL.
industrial leadership in low-carbon energy technologies con- the operating and transient characteristics of the electric power
tributing to the development of a sustainable economy as the system. However, with the capability of the superconductors of
uncertainty over future global economic growth elevate crude rapidly increasing its impedance, a superconducting fault cur-
oil price risk going forward [1]. To help achieve such ambitious rent limiter can overcome these weaknesses operating with little
objectives the energy system needs to evolve to accommodate, to no impedance until a fault current event occurs. Moreover,
among others, much higher levels of integration of renewable thanks to their fast transition from a low to a high impedance, as
energy, as well as to protect and or replace the currently well as to its automating resetting from the fault condition to its
installed electric power grid in a prospective market of about 50 nominal operation when the superconducting state is recovered,
billion dollars per year within 2030 [2]. As higher is the number a superconducting device can limit, in a very short time, the
of electric power systems connected to a grid higher is the value of any fault current. A schematic illustration summarizing
need to consider topological measures leading to a permanent some of the most important features on the operation of a
increase of the impedance not only at fault operation but also at resistive type SFCL is shown in Fig. 1.
nominal operation. It basically decrease the power system sta- Despite multiple concepts for the designing of SFCLs have
bility, because the preventive measures such as installing serial been conceived in the last two decades [3], resistive-type SFCLs
reactor and replacing circuit breakers or fuse devices changed are the most promising due to their potential to be smaller, and
the expected decreasing of prices for 2G coated conductors.
Manuscript received August 7, 2014; accepted December 9, 2014. Date of Thus, in this paper we aim to provide a state of the art study
publication December 31, 2014; date of current version February 5, 2015. This
work was supported by the EPSRC under Grant NMZF/064. covering the current physical understanding and latest projects
The authors are with the Department of Engineering, University of on the practical implementation of resistive-type SFCLs, called
Cambridge, Cambridge CB30FA, U.K. (e-mail: [email protected]). in what follows just SFCLs for the sake of simplicity. For other
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. concepts of superconducting fault current limiters we suggest
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TASC.2014.2387115 to the reader [3], and references therein.
1051-8223 © 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html
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 5601405 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 25, NO. 3, JUNE 2015

The paper is organized as follows. In Section II we review the TABLE I

C URRENT S TATUS OF T ESTED R ESISTIVE SFCL S
major progresses with regard to the practical implementation of
resistive-type SFCL in terms of the concepts developed and the
superconducting material used. Then, in Section III several nu-
merical models for the study of the electromagnetic and thermal
properties of resistive-type SFCL are outlined in terms of the
available mathematical formulations, computational packages,
and studied materials. Finally, a brief summary of the main
issues discussed on this paper is given.

II. P RACTICAL I MPLEMENTATION OF SFCL: F IELD T EST

S TATUS AND OTHER C ONSIDERATIONS
From the basic operational concept of a SFCL, the character-
istics and requirements of the superconducting (SC) materials
are essentially the same [3]. However, in terms of its practical
implementation an accurate sizing of the amount of material
needed is a serious challenge which depends on the physical
properties of the entire system. For instance, in the case of low
Jc materials, and assuming that the superconductor heats up
uniformly during a broad transition beyond the critical state
[4], the amount of material needed can be roughly estimated
by the need to drop the supply voltage on the SFCL once
the transition to the normal state is reached by the condition
J > Jc . On the other hand, for high Jc materials the amount
of material is mainly determined by the need to absorb the
thermal energy in a fault without irreversible degradation, but
the material volume must still be low enough for heating up
above Tc before reaching the rated time for the aperture of a of-concept test achieved in the United States in 2005 [10]. At
protective circuit breaker. demonstration scale, other bulk geometries made of Bi2212
In the case of SFCL using low temperature superconducting were tested in Switzerland reporting a medium voltage SFCL
materials (LTS) such as NbTi alloys [5], [6], very success- with a rated power of 6.4 MVA (8 kV, 0.8 kA) [11]. On the
ful projects have been carried on before the manufacturing other hand, Bi2223/Ag multifilamentary tapes have also shown
of high temperature superconducting materials (HTS) with to be feasible for the prototyping of SFCLs, but a commer-
reproducible quality. Nonetheless, despite the cost of NbTi cial implementation of these devices has not been pursued.
alloys into the superconductivity market is very competitive, in Two major research projects were conducted on the base of
general, LTS SFCL seems not be possible to be commercialized this material, and small scale prototypes were successfully
due to the high cooling cost and the difficulties to manage tested: The first project was conducted in Brazil aiming for
a cryogenic system with a nearly zero helium loss. However, the design of a SFCL with a rated power of 6 MVA (15 kV,
a HTS SFCL is intentionally designed to operate at liquid 0.4 kA), but only laboratory scale proofs for the validation of
nitrogen temperature, substantially reducing the cryogenic cost the Bi-2223/Ag concept were reported [12]. Then, into this
of the entire system. framework, the other project of relevance was conducted in
HTS materials in diverse configurations have been exten- Italy for a SFCL with a rated power of 40 kVA (500 V,
sively used for the prototyping of SFCL worldwide (Table I). 80 A) [13]. More exotic HTS materials have also been studied
In 2003, the first field test of a SFCL for medium-voltage- in the past for the prototyping of SFCL at small scale with very
level applications named CURL10 was built with melt cast promising results [14]. However, nowadays the most prominent
processed Bi2212 tubes cut into bifilar coils, showing virtu- alternatives have relied on the use of YBCO coated conductors,
ally no degradation of the material after two years test [7]. also called the second generation (2G) of HTS, due to their
Using the same bulk material, but cut into monofilar coils, larger cooling surface area (in contrast with the bulk volume
the first commercial medium voltage SFCLs were released in ratio), better performance under the electro-mechanical stress
2009 by Nexans SuperConductors GmbH for two customers and thermal shocks induced by fault currents, as well as an
[8]: Applied Superconductor Limited in UK, and Vattenfall in increased design flexibility for practical purposes.
Germany. Most recently, a SFCL with a rated power of 4.4 Before the commercial appearance of the 2G HTS conduc-
MVA (11 kV, 0.4 kA) was installed in the UK earlier 2012, tors, many efforts were done and are to continue in order to de-
and it has been operating since middle 2013 [9]. Also, a novel termine the correct combination, sizing, deposition technique,
concept of magnetic field assisted quench propagation was and physical properties of the different materials composing
developed in order to overcome the difficulties on the scaling this kind of structure (HTS, substrate, buffer, etc.). In this sense,
of the bifilar concept to high voltages, with a successful proof- the research on SFCL also played a major role and deserve to
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 RUIZ et al.: RESISTIVE-TYPE SUPERCONDUCTING FAULT CURRENT LIMITERS 5601405

be reminded. One of the first successes on the concept proof III. N UMERICAL M ODELS AND S IMULATION M ETHODS
for using YBCO thin films in SFCL was achieved by Siemens- FOR R ESISTIVE -T YPE SFCL S
Germany during the 90s, where different deposition techniques
As it has been stated, the R&D progress with the use of
and substrates were compared and tested for low, medium, and
SC materials has already shown its technical feasibility for the
high voltage rated powers [15]. In the same period other no
commercial deployment of SFCLs. However, for the further
less important designs were also proposed by companies like
commercialisation of these devices, is still of utter concern
Toshiba in Japan [16]. Then, in the next decade most of the the lack of knowledge that we have about how to control
research on SFCL based upon YBCO thin films was mainly the physical properties of the SC structures in real scenarios
dominated by Japan [17]–[20] and Korea [21] by pursuing some operating at different voltage rates and fault levels. In fact, for a
novel designs. SC material the process of going normal is not easy to model as
The first successful proof-of-concept test of a SFCL based it takes the superconductor through transient states with high
upon coated conductors was reported in 2003 in the framework electric fields where it is impossible to measure their local
of the European SUPERPOLI project [22]. In this project, physical properties. Nevertheless, some theoretical assumptions
YBCO coated stainless-steel tapes were fabricated for the de- can be made in order to understand and predict some relevant
signing of three modules connected in series with minimum features for the operating of a SFCL.
current limitation effect at 2.4 kA, successfully operating (with As there is not still consensus on the minimum level of
no material degradation) at 20 kV for prospective short-circuit complexity of the grid from the numerical point of view for
currents up to 50 kA. Other YBCO coated conductors with even specific distribution operators, below we summarize only
specific features were also tested for the same purposes in the theoretical models capable to consider the local physical
Germany [23], and with the gained experience different design- properties (thermal and electrical) of the materials involved for
ing concepts were further proposed for the use of commercial the designing of a SFCL. Thus, one of the first models that
2G HTS tapes [24]. Under this framework, Superpower Inc. attempted to describe the electro-thermal properties of a SFCL
was the first that shown the feasibility of using commercial was introduced by our group in 2002 [37], in order to study the
tapes for the manufacturing of SFCL at low and high power effects of inhomogeneities and the occurrence of weak links
grids [25]. Almost at the same time, in Korea, two different (cracks) in superconducting bulks, by assuming a 2D electrical
size coils made of American Superconductor (AMSC) tapes circuit model for thermally coupled SC grains with independent
were successfully tested for a SFCL rated on (13.2 kV, 630 A), E−J properties. This model is currently being extended to a
leading to the conceptual design of the SFCL rated on (22.9 kV, fully 3D electro-thermal model for considering more realistic
630 A) currently operating at the south-east of Seoul since scenarios with different SC structures (bulks, thin films, and 2G
2011 [26]. In Japan, a consortium formed by different compa- HTS tapes).
nies and research institutes, has successfully tested a (6.6 kV, Beyond the 1D approaches (slabs or infinitely thinner strips)
600 A) SFCL, optimizing the thickness of the silver protecting for sizing the superconducting materials, the specific density of
layer of the AMSC tape, and laminating it with a high-resistive electromagnetic losses in a SC, which is equalized to the ther-
stabilizing metal layer [27]. In the same year, AMSC, Nexans, mal dissipation energy for studying SFCLs, can be calculated
Siemens, and Los Alamos National Laboratory, have reported by exact analytical methods only in the case of a cylindrical
the successful test of a (138 kV, 1.2 kA) SFCL installed wire of infinite length (2D), which in terms of the direction of
in the Southern California Edison Grid as part of the DOE the current density is a 1D problem [38]. Thus, below we have
project called Superlimiter [28]. Continuation of this project scrutinized the different numerical models available in the liter-
was granted by the DOE (DE-FC26-07NT43243) in 2009 [29], ature in terms of the dimensionality of the sample, the number
but the final project report has not been yet released. In China, of spatial freedom degrees on the involved physical variables,
Shanghai Jiaotong University has manufactured their own 2G and consequently on the mathematical formulation used for
HTS tapes for the testing of a (10 kV, 200 A) DC SFCL-concept dealing with the electromagnetic problem. Starting with the
in 2012 [30]. On the other hand, within the German government 1D analysis, despite than these models cannot give account of
funded project called ENSYSTROB, the worldwide largest the electromagnetic or thermal response inside of the elements
operating SFCL on the base of 2G HTS conductors so far, has conforming a SFCL, neither study their detailed structure, the
been installed in the Boxberg grid, successfully operating with SFCL can be simulated into an equivalent electrical circuit deal-
a medium voltage rated power of 6.4 MVA (12 kV, 533 A) [31]. ing with all kinds of short-circuit failures, as a single non linear
Then, in the framework of the recently ended European project resistor obeying the E−J power law, E = E0 · (J/Jc)n , for
ECCOFLOW [32], a (24 kV, 1 kA) SFCL has been designed to describing the superconducting state. Into this framework, most
meet the specific requirements of two hosting utilities, Endesa of the models have been developed in terms of the time-domain
in Spain, and VSE in Slovakia, but the testing results have not transient analysis method, customarily embedded by simulation
been yet disclosed. packages such as: ATP/EMTP [39], PSCAD/EMTDC [40], and
Finally, is worth mentioning that in spite of the number of MATLAB/Simulink [41]. Proprietary packages with on-
projects on SFCL based on MgB2 wires is smaller [33]–[35], purpose advanced features for thermal transient analysis have
their low manufacturing cost featuring high n-values, further been also developed under this scheme [42], [43]. On the
the possibility of using liquid hydrogen as conductive-coolant other hand, for dealing with 2D and 3D symmetries, the nume-
[36], makes MgB2 wires highly attractive for the prospective rical modeling of SFCL based on finite element methods (FEM)
commercial deployment of this technology. has been more extensively developed due to the availability of
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 5601405 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 25, NO. 3, JUNE 2015

commercial computational packages, capable to use different when the boundary conditions for H are usually imposed far
mathematical formulations for solving the Maxwell equations, away of the material itself. However, for 2D systems with J
i.e., allowing the calculation of the specific density of power constrained to flow in only one direction reliable solutions for
losses E · J (per element), whilst, in general, the Fourier the electromagnetic problem can be achieved, whilst the heat
heat transfer problem can be solved by the Newton-Raphson transfer problem is solved via the transient conduction equation.
method. However, it is worth to mention that for a proper This strategy has been used for describing the electro-thermal
calculation of the losses in the case of a SFCL, an additional properties of single coated conductors [52], [53], stacks of 2G
assumption has to be made in order to consider the rate of HTS tapes [54], and 2G HTS coils [55], as active elements of
heat transfer at the cooling surfaces. For instance, if the SFCL the SFCL. For the sake of simplicity, COMSOL also allows the
operates into a LN2 cryogenic bath, then the numerical model 1D modeling of SFCL, with differences between the theory and
depends on the shape of the boiling-off curve for the LN2 in the experimental measurements of about 20–40% in 2G HTS tapes,
whole range of temperatures of interest, i.e., for temperatures decreasing for the case of MgB2/metal conductors [56].
greater than 77 K and lower than the melting temperature of
the superconducting material. Unfortunately, there is still not
consensus about the proper function for the boiling-off curve IV. O BSERVATIONS AND C ONCLUSION
for all the cases, because it depends on the pressure conditions,
It has been established that the integration of renewable
quality, area, and orientation of the surface of the body in
electricity into the grid market must pursue the decreasing
contact with the LN2 [44]. Thus, below we suggest to the reader
on the operation and maintenance costs of the current elec-
to consider the validity of the numerical models just in terms of
tricity networks, where the need for a promptly technology
the solution for the electromagnetic problem.
deployment of the resistive-type superconducting fault current
According to our knowledge, the first 2D FEM model for the
limiters (SFCL) is imperative. Thus, in this paper we have
study of SFCL, with SC thin films obeying the E−J power law
presented an updated review of the several successful field
[45], was developed into the framework of the so called T − Φ
tests demonstrating the technical feasibility of the resistive type
formulation which uses the current vector potential T, and the
SFCL. Likewise, from the theoretical point of view, due to the
scalar potential Φ, as state variables with ∇ × (T − T0 ) = J
remarkable challenges that imply the further optimization of
and H = T − T0 − ∇Φ, where T0 is an auxiliary potential for
these devices, we have presented a comprehensive review of the
imposing the transport current condition. The same strategy was
different existing numerical models based upon different the-
later adapted for the thermal modeling of 3D isotropic Bi2212
oretical formulations, concepts, computational packages, and
bulks in the CAST package [46] and then, for YBCO/Au thin
superconducting materials.
films in the FLUX package [47], both with constrained profiles
of current flowing in two directions only. In this sense, the
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