Unit- 1 Introduction to robotics

Part-B

1. Define Industrial robotics and explain detail automation in robotics.

Robotics & industrial automation refers to the use of control systems, computers and
information technology in handling various processes and machinery in an industry.
The ultimate aim is to replace manual labor and increase efficiency, speed, and overall
performance.

The dictionary defines automation as “the technique of making an apparatus, a

process, or a system operate automatically.”

Automation as "the creation and application of technology to monitor and control the
production and delivery of products and services.”

Using our definition, the automation profession includes “everyone involved in the
creation and application of technology to monitor and control the production and
delivery of products and services”; and the automation professional is “any individual
involved in the creation and application of technology to monitor and control the
production and delivery of products and services.”

Automation encompasses many vital elements, systems, and job functions.

Automation provides benefits to virtually all of industry. Here are some examples:

• Manufacturing, including food and pharmaceutical, chemical and petroleum,

pulp and paper.
• Transportation, including automotive, aerospace, and rail.
• Utilities, including water and wastewater, oil and gas, electric power, and
telecommunications.
• Defense
• Facility operations, including security, environmental control, energy
management, safety, and other building automation.
• And many others

Automation crosses all functions within industry from installation, integration, and
maintenance to design, procurement, and management. Automation even reaches into
the marketing and sales functions of these industries.

Automation involves a very broad range of technologies including robotics and

expert systems, telemetry and communications, electro-optics, Cyber security, process
measurement and control, sensors, wireless applications, systems integration, test
measurement, and many, many more.

Automation and robotics in Masonry prefabrication

German brickwork construction is characterized by the high percentage of private builders
and an extreme orientation to the craft trade. Machines and auxiliary devices are applied at a
larger extent on widespread level, and hardly contribute to increasing productivity, but relieve
the worker of physical load. Pre-fabricated brickwork elements are often not applied on
smaller construction sites due to lacking crane capacity. Brickwork construction in Germany
reflects two development trends: Brickwork without dislocating aids will no longer be
acceptable in the near future and therefore reduced to exceptions in modernisation,
renovation or reconstruction. The monolithic production of brickwork at the construction site
with increasingly large-format bricks and further developed dislocating aids or robots will
therefore be a continuing development. On the other hand the pre-fabricated brickwork
elements will gain increasing significance, as they represent the economic solution due to the
improved working conditions and independence of weather conditions and because they are
the more economic solution for many construction companies due to more reliable
calculations. For stationary production of pre-fabricated brickwork parts various machines
are known.

With stationary brickwork machines drastically raised production capacities can be achieved.
Moreover, they lead to considerable relief in labour and manpower savings.

Fig. 1. Prebricated Masonry

The deliberations to manufacture pre-fabricated brickwork elements have taken a whole

series of ideas in the mechanical-technical development into account so that individually
planned brickwork elements can now be manufactured in a wide variety of production plants
with semi-automatic production systems or fully automatic brickwork robots under industrial
conditions. The high capital involvement is one difficulty which production outlets of
brickwork elements have to face in view of economic fluctuations and which is caused by
establishing the expensive production systems. There is also a certain dependency on the
supplied exactness of contractor products which have to observe certain tolerances not only
in a geometric, but also in a physical respect to meet the exactness in robot dislocating. An
additional difficulty is the necessary standardization of software and hardware used by the
architects, engineers, building material manufacturers and constructing companies involved
in the building process. Prerequisite for automated construction technologies is in other
words the exact definition of all software and hardware standards as well as the respective
interfaces. In conventional on site masonry construction competitively is achieved by using
large masonry elements of weight up to 40kg. Since further productivity can hardly be
achieved by masonry wall elements produced in a similar way as a pre cast concrete elements
which has been described above. All kinds of existing masonry such as bricks lime stone etc.
can be horizontally positioned on a pallet. Reinforcement bars placed between the bricks in
order to allow safe transportation and assembly. Concrete is placed between the bricks. All
necessary wall openings such as windows, doors, water closet unit, plumbing, service pipes
and wiring are also placed between the bricks on the pallet. Interior and exterior plaster is
sprayed on the prefab masonry walls. Roof panels already contain roof windows, insulation
and roof tiles. In addition there is vertical masonry production robot which place the bricks
layer by layer in between distribute mortar and put vertical horizontal reinforcement bars.
Similar as their precast concrete panels, houses made of prefab masonry elements can be
assembled in one day. It takes one to two weeks to finish a 120m² house. Besides these
automated and robotized facility are half mechanized masonry wall prefabrication units
which are controlled by one or two workers.

Fig.2. Factory based mobile semi automated masonry wall production unit including
automated mortar distribution

Countless manufacturers use industrial robots to automate tasks, enhance worker

safety, and increase overall production output while reducing waste and operating
costs. With industrial robots becoming more prevalent in manufacturing
environments, there has been an increased demand for numerous different types of
industrial robots to fit specific applications and industries. In this post, we will explore
what types of industrial robots are available on the market, how they work, and what
applications or industries they are typically used in.

2. Explain about classification of robots based on (Nov 2019)

i) Configurations
ii) Controls
(OR)

With necessary diagrams explain the different types of robots

Cartesian Robots
Cartesian robots, which are also called linear robots or gantry robots, are industrial robots that
work on three linear axes that use the Cartesian Coordinate system (X, Y, and Z), meaning
they move in straight lines on 3-axis (up and down, in and out, and side to side). Cartesian
robots are a popular choice due to being highly flexible in their configurations, giving users
the ability to adjust the robot’s speed, precision, stroke length, and size. Cartesian Robots are
one of the most commonly used robot types for industrial applications and are often used for
CNC machines and 3D printing.

Advantages:
• Highly accurate & speed
• Less cost
• Simple operating procedures
• High payloads
• Very versatile working
• Simplifies robot and master control systems

Disadvantages:

They require a large volume of space to operate

Cylindrical Robots
Cylindrical Robots have a rotary joint at the base and a prismatic joint to connect the links.
The robots have a cylindrical-shaped work envelop, which is achieved with rotating shaft and
an extendable arm that moves in a vertical and sliding motion. Cylindrical Robots are often
used in tight workspaces for simple assembly, machine tending, or coating applications due
to their compact design.

Polar Robots
Polar Robots, or spherical robots, have an arm with two rotary joints and one linear joint
connected to a base with a twisting joint. The axes of the robot work together to form a polar
coordinate, which allows the robot to have a spherical work envelope. Polar Robots are
credited as one of the first types of industrial robots to ever be developed. Polar robots are
commonly used for die casting, injection molding, welding, and material handling.
Articulated Robots
Articulated Robots mechanical movement and configuration closely resembles a human arm.
The arm is mounted to a base with a twisting joint. The arm itself can feature anywhere from
two rotary joints up to ten rotary joints which act as axes, with each additional joint or axis
allowing for a greater degree of motion. Most Articulated Robots utilize four or six-axis.
Typical applications for Articulated Robots are assembly, arc welding, material handling,
machine tending, and packaging.

Advantages

• High speed
• Large working envelope
• Great in unique controller, welding and painting applications

Disadvantage:

Typically requires dedicated robot controller in addition to line master controller like
PLC/PC
SCARA Robots
SCARA is an acronym that stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm or
Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm. SCARA Robots function on 3-axis (X, Y, and
Z), and have a rotary motion as well. SCARA Robots excel in lateral movements and are
commonly faster moving and have easier integration than Cartesian Robots. Typically,
SCARA robots are used for assembly and palletizing, as well as bio-med application.

Advantages:

• High speed capabilities

• Perform great in short-stroke, fast assembly and pick-and-place applications
• It contains Donut Shaped work envelope

Disadvantages

SCARA robot typically requires dedicated robot controller in addition to line master
controller like PLC/PC.

Delta Robots
Delta Robots, or parallel robots, possess three arms connected to a single base, which is
mounted above the workspace. Delta Robots work in a dome-shape and can move both
delicately and precisely at high speeds due to each joint of the end effector being directly
controlled by all three arms. Delta Robots are often used for fast pick and place applications
in the food, pharmaceutical, and electronic industries.
Advantages

• Very high speed

• Contact lens shaped working envelope
• Excels in high speed, lightweight pick and place applications (candy packaging)

Disadvantages

It requires dedicated robot controller in addition to line master controller like

PLC/PCs

Classification based on Control Systems

On the basis of the control systems adopted, robots are classified into the following
categories :
(i) Point-to-point (PTP) control robot
(ii) Continuous-path (CP) control robot
(iii) Controlled-path robot

Point-to-Point (PTP) Control Robot

The PTP robot is capable of moving from one point to the other point. The locations
are recorded in the control memory. The paths are not controlled by the path guide.
Instead the desired path is traced by programming a series of points. Component
insertion, spot welding, hole drilling, machine loading, unloading and crude assembly
are some of the common applications of this type of robot.

Continuous-Path (CP) Control Point

The movement along the controlled path is performed by the CP robot. Along the
controlled path, with CP control, the robot can stop any specified point. In the robot’s
control memory, all the points must be stored explicitly. Straight-line motion is being
carried out by these types of robots. Some continuous-path controlled robots also have
the capability to follow a smooth curve path that has been defined by the programmer.
Here, the programmer manually moves the robot arm through the desired path and the
controller unit stores a large number of individual point locations along the path in
memory.

Controlled-Path Robot

In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can develop paths of different

geometry such as straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of
accuracy. Good accuracy can be obtained at any point along the specified path. Only
the start and finish points and the path definition function must be stored in the robot’s
control memory. It is important to mention that all controlled-path robots have a servo
capability to correct their path.

3. List and explain the various generations of robots. State and derive
Asimov’s laws of robotics. Also give its features and its limitations.

First generation
A first-generation robot is a simple mechanical arm. These machines have the
ability to make precise motions at high speed, many times, for a long time. Such
robots find widespread industrial use today. First-generation robots can work in
groups, such as in an automated integrated manufacturing system (AIMS), if their
actions are synchronized. The operation of these machines must be constantly
supervised, because if they get out of alignment and are allowed to keep working,
the result can be a series of bad production units.

Second generation
A second-generation robot has rudimentary machine intelligence. Such a robot is
equipped with sensors that tell it things about the outside world. These devices
include pressure sensors, proximity sensors, tactile sensors, radar, sonar, ladar, and
vision systems. A controller processes the data from these sensors and adjusts the
operation of the robot accordingly. These devices came into common use around
1980. Second-generation robots can stay synchronized with each other, without
having to be overseen constantly by a human operator. Of course, periodic
checking is needed with any machine, because things can always go wrong; the
more complex the system, the more ways it can malfunction.

Third generation
The concept of a third-generation robot encompasses two major avenues of
evolving smart robot technology: the autonomous robot and the insect robot. An
autonomous robot can work on its own. It contains a controller, and it can do
things largely without supervision, either by an outside computer or by a human
being. A good example of this type of third generation robot is the personal robot
about which some people dream. There are some situations in which autonomous
robots do not perform efficiently. In these cases, a fleet of simple insect robots, all
under the control of one central computer, can be used. These machines work like
 ants in an anthill, or like bees in a hive. While the individual machines lack
artificial intelligence (AI), the group as a whole is intelligent.

Fourth generation and beyond

Any robot of a sort yet to be seriously put into operation is a fourthgeneration
robot. Examples of these might be robots that reproduce and evolve, or that
incorporate biological as well as mechanical components. Past that, we might say
that a fifth-generation robot is something no one has yet designed or conceived.

The Three Laws of Robotics (often shortened to The Three Laws or known
as Asimov's Laws) are a set of rules devised by science fiction author Isaac Asimov.
The rules were introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround" (included in the 1950
collection I, Robot), although they had been foreshadowed in some earlier stories. The
Three Laws, quoted from the "Handbook of Robotics, 56th Edition, 2058 A.D.", are:
First Law
A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm.
Second Law
A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.
Third Law
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict
with the First or Second Law.

Practical problems
The other big issue with the laws is that it would need a significant advancement in AI
for robots to actually be able to follow them. The goal of AI research is sometimes
described as developing machines that can think and act rationally and like a human.
So far, emulating human behaviour has not been well researched in the field of AI and
the development of rational behaviour has focused on limited, well defined areas.

With this in mind, a robot could only operate within a very limited sphere and any
rational application of the laws would be highly restricted. Even that might not be
possible with current technology, as a system that could reason and make decisions
based on the laws would need considerable computational power.

Given all these issues, Asimov’s laws offer little more than founding principles for
someone wanting to create a robotic code today. We need to follow them with a much
more comprehensive set of laws. That said, without significant developments in AI,
implementing such laws will remain an impossible task. And that’s before we even
consider the potential for hurt should humans start to fall in love with robots.
 5. I) Discuss about the sensors used in the robots.

The sensor is a device that could be mechanical chemical or electrical. The working of
each sensor is based on the transduction principle which is energy conversion from
one form to another. Sensors in robot allow it to react with its environment in a
flexible way. With the help of sensors, robots are able to see and feel, and this would
help the robot to perform complex tasks. Robot sensors measure robots’ condition and
its environment and inform robots controller as electronic signals. Robots need
sensors to control themselves. In order to control their own actions, robots need to
know information about the position and the movement of its body and parts.

Robots can understand their surroundings with the help of sensors. With the help of
sensors, robots are able to protect themselves so the robots will be safe. Sensors are
the system that alerts the robots.

With the help of sensors, the sensing parameters are

▪ Direction, light
▪ Sound, frequency
▪ Temperature
▪ Object proximity: the presence of the object and the distance can be determined
▪ Physical orientation and position
▪ Magnetic and electric fields
▪ Resistance

Required features of sensors

▪ Accuracy
▪ Operation range
▪ Quick response
▪ Calibration
▪ Reliability
▪ Cost and ease of operation

There are two categories of sensors used in industrial robots they are internal and
external. Internal type is used to control the position and velocity of the manipulator’s
joints while the external is used to coordinate the operation of the robot with the other
equipment.

Commonly used sensors in robotics

Light Sensor

Light sensor is a transducer used for detecting light and creates a voltage difference
equivalent to the light intensity fall on a light sensor.

The two main light sensors used in robots are Photovoltaic cells and Photo
resistor. Other kind of light sensors like phototransistors, phototubes are rarely used.
The type of light sensors used in robotics are:

Photo resistor - It is a type of resistor used for detecting the light. In photo resistor
resistance varies with change in light intensity. The light falls on photo resistor is
inversely proportional to the resistance of the photo resistor. In general photo resistor
is also called as Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).

Photovoltaic Cells - Photovoltaic cells are energy conversion device used to convert
solar radiation into electrical electric energy. It is used if we are planning to build a
solar robot. Individually photovoltaic cells are considered as an energy source, an
implementation combined with capacitors and transistors can convert this into a
sensor.

Proximity Sensor

Proximity sensor can detect the presence of nearby object without any physical
contact. The working of a proximity sensor is simple. In proximity sensor transmitter
transmits an electromagnetic radiation and receiver receives and analyzes the return
signal for interruptions. Therefore the amount of light receiver receives by
surrounding can be used for detecting the presence of nearby object.

Consider the types of proximity sensors used in robotics are:-

Infrared (IR) Transceivers - In IR sensor LED transmit the beam of IR light and if it
find an obstacle then the light is reflected back which is captured by an IR receiver.

Ultrasonic Sensor - In ultrasonic sensors high frequency sound waves is generated by

transmitter, the received echo pulse suggests an object interruption.

In general ultrasonic sensors are used for distance measurement in robotic system.

Position sensors
Position sensors can monitors the location of the joints and give the information to the
controller by this the robot can determine the position of the end effector, the end
effector is a part of the robot

Range sensors
These sensors can measure the distance between a point in the robot and the point that
surrounds the robots. This is mostly done with the help of cameras. These sensors are
used in end effector to calculate the distance between the sensor and the work part.
Types of range sensors are sonar, laser range finder, structured light, etc, large
distance can be measured by this sensor.
Heading sensor
Heading sensors are sensors that can determine the robot’s orientation and inclination
with the given reference.

Velocity sensors
The speed of an object could be known with the help of this sensor. Due to the effects
caused by the mechanical force, gravity, etc, the desired speed and required force to
reach the speed can be computed.

Vision sensor
To pick certain devices vision sensors will be useful, robots can handle workpiece
which is randomly piled by using a 3D vision sensor

Force sensor
Parts fitting and insertion can be done by the help of this sensor robots can do precise
fitting and insertion of machine parts with the help of the force sensor. A robot can
insert parts that have the phases after matching their phases in addition to simply
inserting them

Proximity sensors
This sensor can detect the presence of an object within a specified distance. Many
sensors give feedback to the robot if it is near an object or obstruction and this can be
done by a contacting or by non-contacting methods and this type of sensors is called
proximity sensors

Contact proximity sensors

It is a device that consists of a rod that extends from one end and a switch or other
linear position which monitors the element which is located within the body of the
sensor. So when the robot manipulator moves, the sensor will be active only if the rod
came into contact with an object.

Non-contact proximity sensors

In this type, the sensors are depended on a variety of operating principles to make the
proximity determination. Reflected light, ultrasound are some of them

Accelerometers and gyroscopes

The accelerometer can measure the linear acceleration based on vibration while
gyroscopes can be able to detect the orientation by using angular momentum.

Tactile sensors
Tactile sensors help the robots to touch and feel. Tactile sensors can be used for
measuring applications and they would interact properly with the environment.

Eddy current sensors

These sensors are used as proximity switch and they operate on eddy current principle.
These sensors will use a sensing coil to induce a high-frequency current in the target.
The amplitude of the sensor-generated oscillations depends on the distance between
the metal surface and the coil. The position can be obtained by monitoring the
amplitude.
Acceleration Sensor

Acceleration sensor is used for measuring acceleration and tilt. An accelerometer is a

device used for measuring acceleration.

The two kinds of forces which affect an accelerometer is:-

o Static Force - It is the frictional force between any two objects. By measuring
this gravitational force we can determine the how much robot is tilting. This
measurement is useful in balancing robot, or for determining whether robot is
driving on a flat surface or uphill.
o Dynamic Force - It is the amount of acceleration required to move an object.
Measurement of dynamic force using an accelerometer tells about the
velocity/speed at which robot is moving.

Accelerometer is comes in different configuration. Always use the one which is most
appropriate for your robot. Some factors need to be considered before selecting
accelerometer is:

1. Sensitivity
2. Bandwidth
3. Output type: Analog or Digital
4. Number of Axis: 1,2 or 3

5. Ii) Summarize the application of tactile sensors with suitable example.

The human body has five sense elements which are used to interact with our
surroundings. Machines also need some sensing elements to interact with there
surroundings. To make this possible sensor was invented. The invention of the first
manmade sensor, thermostat, dates back to 1883. In 1940s infrared sensors were
introduced. Today we have sensors that can sense motion, light, humidity,
temperature, smoke, etc…Analog and digital both types of sensors are available today.
Sensors have brought a revolutionary change in the size and cost of various control
systems. One of such sensor which can detect touch is the Touch sensor.
Touch Sensor

Touch Sensors are the electronic sensors that can detect touch. They operate as a
switch when touched. These sensors are used in lamps, touch screens of the mobile,
etc… Touch sensors offer an intuitive user interface.

Touch sensors are also known as Tactile sensors. These are simple to design, low cost
and are produced in large scale. With the advance in technology, these sensors are
rapidly replacing the mechanical switches. Based on their functions there are two
types of touch sensors- Capacitive sensor and Resistive sensor

Capacitive sensors work by measuring capacitance and are seen in portable devices.
These are durable, robust and attractive with low cost. Resistive sensors don’t depend
on any electrical properties for operation. These sensors work by measuring the
pressure applied to their surface.
Working Principle of Touch Sensor

The Touch Sensor is sensitive to touch, pressure as well as force. The Touch Sensor
works similar to that of a simple switch.

When there is contact or a touch on the surface of the Touch Sensor. It acts like a
closed switch and allows the current to flow through it. When the contact is released it
acts similar to the opened switch and hence there is no flow of current.

In the below picture you can understand how the touch sensor works.

Working Of Different Touch Sensors

Below is the working of the two type of sensors are explained in detail.
Capacitive Touch Sensor

The Capacitive touch sensors are very popular since they are more robust, durable,
and user friendly. Moreover, it is also cost-effective when compared to resistive touch
sensors.

The capacitive sensor is made just similar to the normal capacitor. There are two
conductors separated from the insulator.

In case of the sensor, the metal plates are used as the conductors. The capacitance of
the sensor can be expressed as below.

C = ε0 x εr x A / d

Where,

ε0 represents the permittivity of free space

εr represents the relative permittivity or dielectric constant

d represents the distance the parallel plates and A represents the area of the plates.

We know that if the plate has more area the more capacitance it will produce and the
more distance between the two plates are the less capacitance will become.

In the Capacitive touch sensor, there are two parallel plates that form a capacitor with
the capacitance value represented as C0. As we touch the sensor through our finger,
our finger acts as a conductive object and hence produces a capacitance value of C T as
shown in the figure below.

In the application of a sensor, the capacitance C0 is measured continuously with the

help of the capacitance measurement circuit. There will be an uncertain increase in the
capacitance if any conductive object such as our finger touches the plate. The
capacitance measuring circuit will detect the change in the capacitance and will
convert it into a signal.
If the parallel plates have a more larger area and the thickness of the insulator is very
less then there would be the greater value of the touch capacitance (i.e. CT). Therefore
the difference of the capacitance value when the plate is touched and the plate is
untouched will be greater.

So, by controlling the size of the parallel plate and the thickness of the insulator we
can control the sensitivity of the Capacitive touch sensor.

The Capacitive touch sensor, however, has few drawbacks such as there could be a
false trigger since all it needs is to be in a contact with a conducting material and does
not require a pressure to operate.

Applications

Capacitor sensors are easily available and are of very low cost. These sensors are
highly used in mobile phones, iPods, automotive, small home appliances, etc… These
are also used for measuring pressure, distance, etc… A drawback of these sensors is
that they can give a false alarm.

Resistive touch sensors only work when sufficient pressure is applied. Hence, these
sensors are not useful for detecting small contact or pressure. These are used in
applications such as musical instruments, keypads, touch-pads, etc.. where a large
amount of pressure is applied.

Examples

Some of the examples of touch sensors available in the market are TTP22301,
TTP229, etc…
 6. I) What are grippers? Point out the use of various grippers in robot.

A gripper is a motion device that mimics the movements of people, in the case of the
gripper, it is the fingers. A gripper is a d evice that holds an object so it can be
manipulated. It has the ability to hold and release an object while some action is being
performed.

Robot grippers are the physical interface between a robot arm and the work piece.
This end-of-arm tooling (EOAT) is one of the most important parts of the robot. One
of the many benefits of material handling robots is the reduction of part damage. A
gripper comes in direct contact with your product, so it's important to choose the right
type of gripper for your operation.

There are four types of robotic grippers: vacuum grippers, pneumatic grippers,
hydraulic grippers and servo-electric grippers. Manufacturers choose grippers based
on which handling application is required and the type of material in use.

Vacuum Grippers
The vacuum gripper has been the standard EOAT in manufacturing because of its high
level of flexibility. This type of robot gripper uses a rubber or polyurethane suction
cup to pick up items. Some vacuum grippers use a closed-cell foam rubber layer,
rather than suction cups, to complete the application.

Pneumatic Grippers
The pneumatic gripper is popular due to its compact size and light weight. It can
easily be incorporated into tight spaces, which can be helpful in the manufacturing
industry. Pneumatic robot grippers can either be opened or closed, earning them the
nickname “bang bang” actuators, because of the noise created when the metal-on-
metal gripper operates.

Hydraulic Grippers
The hydraulic gripper provides the most strength and is often used for applications
that require significant amounts of force. These robotic grippers generate their
strength from pumps that can provide up to 2000psi. Although they are strong,
hydraulic grippers are messier than other grippers due to the oil used in the pumps.
They also may need more maintenance due the gripper being damaged because of the
force used during the application.

Servo-Electric Grippers
The servo-electric gripper appears more and more in industrial settings, due to the fact
that it is easy to control. Electronic motors control the movement of the gripper jaws.
These grippers are highly flexible and allow for different material tolerances when
handling parts. Servo-electric grippers are also cost effective because they are clean
and have no air lines.
Angular Grippers
Angular grippers have a specific set of specifications. These include gripping torque,
angular stroke, 180 degrees open, and gripping size.

Gripping torque is the available torque for gripping at the rated power. Torque can
be divided by distance from pivot to obtain gripping force. Note that jaw force is not
additive; two fingers each configured to grip at 10 lbs. force, for example, will provide
a total gripping force of 10 lbs.

Angular stroke is the full operational angle for each finger. This is half of total.
Fingers that open 120°, for example, will each have a stroke of 60°. 180 degrees open
implies that fingers open 90° or more each for total part clearance.

Gripping size is the grip size for actuated gripper; user may specify range. Grippers
frequently allow for custom machined fingers or jaws to be attached.

Parallel Motion Two-Jaw Gripper

This is a very simple gripper utilized in many applications. Pneumatic, electric and
hydraulic versions come in a large variety of sizes, forces, weights, and stroke ranges.
They are generally used when you are grasping parts by two parallel, flat surfaces.
They can grip a part by either the gripper’s closing or opening motion. There are also
angular two-jaw grippers with 90-degree pivoting fingers that can completely retract
and provide extra clearance that is beneficial for certain applications.

Bellows Gripper

Also used to grasp cylindrical surfaces, a bellows-style gripper utilizes an elastomer

bladder to contact the part. It is inflated with compressed air causing it to expand and
grasp the part. When the air is released, the bladder deflates and drops the part.
O-Ring Grippers

This end of arm tooling is a specialty device designed to handle O-ring seals. Similar
in operation to a three-jaw parallel gripper, the O-ring gripper has six or sometimes
eight fingers that radially expand and grab the inside diameter of the O-ring. Once
stretched, the O-ring can be placed by the machine into a groove on the end a
cylindrical shaft.

Needle Grippers

This is a somewhat rare gripper variant designed to pick up porous or woven sheet
materials, such as textiles, by penetrating the surface with multiple sharp needles.

7. ii) Point out the various types of end effectors used in robot. Explain
anyone type.
In robotics, it refers to any of various tools that can be mounted at the end of a robotic
arm and that are used to interact with or manipulate objects. It’s the part of the robot
that interacts with the environment, which is why it’s also called the “business end” of
every robot.

The structure of it depends on the task the robot will be performing and the object the
robot will be handling.

In manufacturing, a robot arm can accommodate only certain tasks without changes to
its end effector’s ancillary hardware and/or programming. If a robot needs to pick
something up, a type of robot hand called a gripper is the most functional end effector.
 If a robot needs to be able to tighten screws, however, then the robot must be fitted
with an end effector that can spin.

Common Types of End Effectors Used in Manufacturing Include:

• anti-collision sensors
• brushes
• cameras
• cutting tools
• drills
• grippers
• magnets
• sanders
• screw drivers
• spray guns
• vacuum cups
• welding guns

Common Applications of End Effector

• Pick & Place. Pick & place tasks are those where an object needs to be picked up and
placed in a different location. …
• Machine Tending. …
• Packaging & Palletizing. …
• Assembly. …
• Quality Testing & Inspection. …
• Surface Finishing.

8. i) What is robot software? List the advantage and disadvantages of off-line.

• Offline:
– write a program using a text-based robot programming language
– does not need access to the robot until its final testing and
implementation.
• On-line:
– Use the robot to generate the program
• Teaching/guiding the robot through a sequence of motions that
can them be executed repeatedly.
• Combination Programming:
– Often programming is a combination of on-line and off-line
• on-line to teach locations in space off-line to define the task or
“sequence of operations".

Online Programming

• Advantage:
– Easy
– No special programming skills or training
• Disadvantages:
– not practical for large or heavy robots
– High accuracy and straight-line movements are difficult to achieve, as
are any other kind of geometrically defined trajectory, such as circular
arcs, etc.
 – difficult to edit out unwanted operator moves
– difficult to incorporate external sensor data
– Synchronization with other machines or equipment in the work cell is
difficult
- A large amount of memory is required

Teach pendant

Features:
- To enable long cable to a good view
- Emergency stop switch
- Enabling switch
- Selection of TCP (Tool Center Point) function
- Selection of the coordinate
- Range of motion mode
- Selection of the speed of movement
- Status Display

Programming Languages

Almost every robot has its own programming language!

Off-Line Programming

Off-Line Programming:

The robot can work, while a new program is created.

Robot programs are independent of the singly or in total produced in the production of
industrial robots working.

• Programs can be developed without needing to use the robot

• The sequence of operations and robot movements can be optimized or easily
improved
• Previously developed and tested procedures and subroutines can be used
• External sensor data can be incorporated, though this typically makes the
programs more complicated, and so more difficult to modify and maintain
• Existing CAD data can be incorporated-the dimensions of parts and the
geometric relationships between them, for example.
 • Programs can be tested and evaluated using simulation techniques, though this
can never remove the need to do final testing of the program using the real
robot
• Programs can more easily be maintained and modified
• Programs can more be easily properly documented and commented.

Robot Program Development Process

• Analyze and decompose the task into a series of operations on the objects
involved, and specify their order.
• Identify and specify all the situations needed to program all the movements and
actions of the robot.
• Identify any types of repeated actions or operations and specify them as
subroutines with parameters.
• Design and develop the complete robot program and its documentation.
• Test and debug the program using a simulator of the robot and its work space.
• Test the program on the real robot.

Benefits of Off-Line Programming

1. Reduction of the robot operating time
2. Dislocation of both ends of the danger area of the robot
3. Single robot programming system
4. Integration of CAD / CAM systems
5. Simplification of complex tasks
6. Optimization of robot programs
7. Access control
 8. Cycle time analysis
9. Verification of robot programs

Robot languages have been developed for ease of control of motions of robots having
different structures and geometrical capabilities.

Some of the robot languages have been developed by modifying the existing general-
purpose computer languages and some of them are written in a completely new style.

Programming languages have been developed by the pioneer efforts of various

researchers at Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory; research laboratories of
IBM Corporation, under U.S. Air Force sponsorship, General Electric Co., Unimation
and many other robot manufacturers.

WAVE and AL:

WAVE, developed at Stanford, demonstrated a robot hand—eye coordination while it

was implemented in a machine vision system.

Later a powerful language AL was developed to control robot arms. WAVE

incorporated many important features.

Trajectory calculations through coordination of joint movements, end-effector

positions and touch sensing were some of the new features of WAVE. But the
algorithm was too complex and not userfriendly.

They could not be run in real-time and on-line. On the other hand, trajectory
calculations are possible at compile time and they can be modified during run time.

AML:

A manufacturing language, AML was developed by IBM. AML is very useful for
assembly operations as different user—robot programming interfaces are possible.
The programming language AML is also used in other automated manufacturing
systems.

The advantage of using AML is that integers, real numbers and strings can be
specified in the same aggregate which is said to be an ordered set of constants or
variables.

MCL:

US Air force ICAM project led to the development of another manufacturing control
language known as MCL by McDonnel—Douglas.

This is a modification of the popular APT (Automatically Programmed Tooling)

language used in CNC machine tools as many similar commands are used to control
RAIL:

Was developed by Automatic for robotic assembly, inspection, arc Welding and
machine vision. A variety of data types as used in PASCAL can be used.

It uses Motorola 68000 type microcomputer system; It supports many commands and
control of the vision system.

HELP:

HELP was developed by General Electric Company. It acts more or less like

RAIL.

It has the capability to control two robot arms at the same time. The structure of the
language is like
PASCAL.

JARS:

JARS was developed by NASA JPL. The base of the language is PASCAL. JARS
can be interfaced with PUMA 6000 robot for running robotic programs.

RPL:

RPL was developed at SRI International. A compiler is used to convert a program into
the codes that can be interpreted by an interpreter. Unimation PUMA 500 can be
controlled with the help of RPL. The basic ideas of LISP (an Al language) have been
organized into a FORTRAN-like syntax in RPL. It is modular and flexible.

Besides these, there are some other languages like PAL, ADA etc. PAL has been
written by Richard Paul by modifying WAVE and incorporating features of PASCAL.
But the representations of syntaxes used in the program are difficult to handle. ADA
developed by the Department of Defense (DOD) in USA is a real-time system that can
be run on several microcomputers like Zilog, VAX, Motorola 68000, etc. ADA is
convenient for controlling the robots used in a manufacturing cell.

Different textual robot languages have different attributes. Far example, VAL, HELP
and MC though powerful for many simple tasks, do not have the same structured
modular programming capability like AL, AML, JARS and ADA or VAL II. In a
manufacturing cell, multiple robots or robotic equipment work in unison. Control of
two or more operations done by the robots in a coordinated manner is complex.

• Synchronizing the motions of the robots requires necessary software commands.

AL, ADA, AML, MCL have the capability of controlling multiple arms.
• The programming language must be capable of expressing various geometric
features like joint angles, coordinate transformations such as rotation, translation, and
vector quantities. Homogeneous matrices are used to specify the rotation.
• Rotation can also be specified by Euler angles. AML, RAIL and VAL use Euler
angles while AL manipulates homogeneous matrix for control. AL is very suitable for
assembly tasks wherein many sensors are employed, though other languages like
AML and HELP are flexible enough to run various subroutines.

8. ii) Enumerate the issues related to design and control programming. Explain
the different robot layouts

While designing a robotic cell, selecting the most suitable robot for a given
industrial operation is one of the most difficult assignments because of a wide
range of physical forms such as cylindrical, SCARA, articulated, and delta. The
robot selection attributes of interest include cost, load capacity, max speed,
repeatability, accuracy, number of degrees of freedom, and man–machine interface.
In general, there is no absolute “best” of industrial robot itself. The best would
depend on the particular application as different configurations including robot and
its accessory equipment have different advantages which make them more suitable
for a certain task.

By the past researchers, numerous approaches, including multi-criteria decision-

maker methods (MCDM) and optimization techniques, have already been
proposed. Goh et al. presented a revised weighted sum model that incorporated the
values assigned by a group of experts on different evaluation factors for selecting
appropriate robots, and then applied analytic hierarchy process (AHP) for solving
robot selection problems having both subjective and objective data for alternative
robot evaluation. A revised data envelopment analysis was formulated to determine
the best robot alternative by Karsak. Parkan and Wu implemented a selection based
on the ranking order obtained by averaging the results of operational
competitiveness rating, similarly to the ideal solution and the utility
model,whereafter several kinds of model, for example, distance-based approach
(DBA), multiplicative model of multiple criteria analysis (MMMCA), multi-
objective optimization on the basis of ratio analysis (MOORA), grey-MOORA, and
others are pumped out in recent decades. And Tansel developed a two-phase robot
selection decision support system, namely ROBSEL, to help the robot selection
decisions.41

However, in real engineering scenarios, the robot configuration could broadly refer
to a robot or a configuration with robot and its accessory equipment, because, for
 example, a full-DOF (degrees of freedom) operation, like pen assembly shown
in Figure, can be implemented either by a 6-axis articulated robot, or by a
configuration with a SCARA robot and an external 2-axis positioner. Similar as the
robot selection index (RSI) introduced in Rao and Padmanabhan,42 it is necessary
to establish a measure to judge what kind of configuration can success to a given
operation of degree or extent.

9. I) Describe salient features of robot in different field Applications.

There are many jobs in industries like manufacturing, agriculture,

entertainment, etc. which require boring monotonous work that also requires a lot
of precision. In such situations, robots are better suited than humans because they
are precise, intelligent, and don’t get bored like humans! There are also tasks
like space and underwater exploration that are very dangerous and unsafe for
humans. Here also, robots are the best fit because they never get tired and there is no
chance of a robot getting killed! Because of these advantages, there are many
applications of robots in almost all the industries you can imagine. But let’s see the
top applications in these 10 industries now.

1. Security

Imagine if all the security guards are robots? Even thieves would be scared! That’s
why robots are being proposed as security agents as they can protect humans, and
they wouldn’t be in danger like human security guards would be. Currently, robotics
companies are working on pairing robot guards with human security consultants. A
very famous company in this field is Knightscope in the United States that has
autonomous security robots capable of assisting human security guards with real-
time, actionable intelligence. These robots can help with crimes such as armed
robberies, burglaries, domestic violence, fraud, hit, and runs, etc.
2. Space Exploration

There are many things in space that are very dangerous for astronauts to do. Humans
can’t roam on Mars all day to collect soil samples or work on repairing a spaceship
from the outside while it’s in deep space! In these situations, robots are a great
choice because there are no chances for the loss of human life then. So space
institutions like NASA frequently use robots and autonomous vehicles to do things
that humans can’t. For example, Mars Rover is an autonomous robot that travels on
Mars and takes pictures of Martian rock formations that are interesting or important
and then sends them back on Earth for the NASA scientists to study.

3. Entertainment

Robots are also a big draw in the entertainment industry. While they cannot exactly
become actors and actresses, they can be used behind the sets in movies and serials
to manage the camera, provide special effects, etc. They can be used for boring
repetitive tasks that are not suitable for a human as cinema is, after all, a creative
industry. Robots can also be used to do stunt work that is very dangerous for humans
but looks pretty cool in an action movie. Theme parks like Disney World are also
using autonomous robots to enhance the magical experience of their customers.

4. Agriculture

Agriculture is the sector that is the basis of human civilization. However, agriculture
is also a seasonal sector that is dependent on ideal weather conditions optimal soil,
etc. Moreover, there are many repetitive tasks in agriculture that are just a waste of
farmer’s time and can be performed more suitable by robots. These include seeding,
weed control, harvesting, etc. Robots are usually used for harvesting the crops which
allow farmers to be more efficient. An example of a robot that is used to remove
weeds in farms is the Ecorobotix. It is powered by solar energy and can be used to
target and spray weeds using a complex camera system.

5. Health Care

Robots have changed healthcare a lot. And all for the better! They can help doctors
in performing operations more precisely, be used as prosthetic limbs, provide
therapy to patients, etc. The possibilities are limitless. One example of this is the da
Vinci robot that can help surgeons in performing complex surgeries relating to the
heart, head, neck, and other sensitive areas. There are other robotic devices that are
created like exoskeletons that can be used to provide additional support for people
undergoing rehabilitation after spinal injures, strokes, etc.

6. Underwater Exploration

Robots are a great option for exploring places that humans cannot reach easily, like
the depths of the ocean! There is a lot of water pressure deep in the ocean which
means humans cannot go that down and machines such as submarines can only go to
a certain depth as well. A deep underwater is a mysterious place that can finally be
explored using specially designed robots. These robots are remote-controlled, and
they can go into depths of the ocean to collect data and images about the aquatic
plant and animal life.

7. Food Preparation

Don’t want to cook? Don’t worry, there are robots that even can cook and create
complete meals for you! These robot chefs can create food using hundreds of
different recipes. All humans need to do is choose the recipe they want and provide
the robot with pre-packaged containers of all the ingredients that are needed for that
recipe. The robot can then cook the food on its own. Moley Robotics is one such
robotics company that has created a robotic kitchen with a robot that can cook like a
master chef! So no worries if you can’t cook food. Because now a robot can!

8. Manufacturing

There are many repetitive and common tasks in the manufacturing industry that
don’t require any usage of the mind like welding, assembly, packing, etc. These
tasks can be easily done by robots while leaving the mentally challenging and
creative tasks to humans. These robots can be trained to perform these repetitive and
monotonous tasks with precision under the guidance and supervision of a human.
This option is also best for the manufacturing processes that are dangerous and may
be harmful to humans.

9. Military

Robots also have many applications in the military. They can be used as drones to
keep surveillance on the enemy, they can also be used as armed systems to attack the
opposing forces or as Medicare agents to help friendly forces. Some of the popular
robots used in the Military sector include MAARS (Modular Advanced Armed
Robotic System) which looks like a tank and contains tear gas and lasers to confuse
enemies and even grenade launcher for desperate situations. DOGO is also a tactical
combat robot that has a camera for spying on the activities of the enemy and a 9-
millimeter pistol for emergency situations!

10. Customer Service

There are robots that are developed to look exactly like humans for cosmetic
purposes. These robots are primarily used in the field of customer service in high
visibility areas to promote robotics. One such example is Nadine, a humanoid robot
in Singapore that can recognize people from previous visits, make eye contact, shake
hands, continue chatting based on previous meetings, etc. Another such customer
service robot is Junko Chihira in Japan, a humanoid robot working at the tourist
information center in Aqua City Odaiba, a shopping center on Tokyo’s waterfront.

10. ii) Discuss about micro machines in robotics.

Microbotics (or microrobotics) is the field of miniature robotics, in particular mobile
robots with characteristicdimensions less than 1 mm. The term can also be used for
robots capable of handling micrometer size components. Microbotics is that branch
of robotics, which deals with the study and application of miniature ones like mobile
robots of micrometre scale.

While the ‘micro’ prefix has been used subjectively to mean small, standardizing on
length scales avoids confusion. Thus a nanorobot would have characteristic
dimensions at or below 1 micrometer, or manipulate components on the 1 to 1000
nm size range.
-A Microrobot would have characteristic dimensions less than 1 millimeter,
-A Millirobot would have dimensions less than a cm,
-A Minirobot would have dimensions less than 10 cm (4 in), and a small robot would
have dimensions less than 100 cm (39 in).
The earliest research and conceptual design of such small robots was conducted in the
early 1970s in (then)classified research for U.S. intelligence agencies. Applications
envisioned at that time included prisoner of war rescue assistance and electronic
intercept missions.
The concept of building very small robots, and benefiting from recent advances
in Micro Electro Mechanical Systems Due to their small size, microbots are
potentially very cheap, and could be used in large numbers (swarm robotics) to
explore environments which are too small or too dangerous for people or larger
robots. It is expected that microbots will be useful in applications such as looking for
survivors in collapsed buildings after an earthquake, or crawling through the digestive
tract. What microbots lack in brawn or computational power, they can make up for by
using large numbers, as in swarms of microbots.
Microbots were born thanks to the appearance of the microcontroller in the last
decade of the 20th century, and the appearance of miniature mechanical systems on
silicon (MEMS), although many microbots do not use silicon for mechanical
components other than sensors.
One of the major challenges in developing a microrobot is to achieve motion using a
very limited power supply. The microrobots can use a small lightweight battery source
like a coin cell or can scavenge power from the surrounding environment in the form
of vibration or light energy. Microrobots are also now using biological motors as
power sources, such as flagellated Serratia marcescens, to draw chemical power from
the surrounding fluid to actuate the robotic device. These biorobots can be directly
controlled by stimuli such aschemotaxis or galvanotaxis with several control schemes
available.
Nowadays, owing chiefly to wireless connections, like Wi-Fi (i.e. in domotic
networks) the microbot’s communication capacity has risen, so it can coordinate with
other microbots to carry out more complex tasks.

• Demonstrate the robot cell construction and its working principle.

(OR)
• With neat sketch describe the multiple robot coordination in
manufacturing industries.

A work cell is a cluster of workers, equipment, and other materials that we need to
perform a specific task. It is the logical or physical arrangement of all the resources
people use in order to carry out a task, job, or activity. Designers in manufacturing
companies commonly create work cells in order to boost productivity and bring down
costs.

If you configure a work cell well, it can significantly increase how rapidly a process
progresses; it can also reduce costs and error rates.

The work cell concept comes from lean manufacturing. Lean manufacturing (lean) is
a systematic method for waste minimization within a manufacturing system in which
we do not sacrifice productivity.

Manufacturing companies commonly group several work cells together to collectively

produce a product.

Companies also use work cells for administrative tasks, and in the delivery of
services. You should design your work cell so that it can rapidly adapt as internal
processes change.

According to Accounting Tools:

“A work cell is a cluster of equipment and personnel that performs a specific task. A
properly-configured work cell can increase the speed of a process, reduce error rates,
and cut costs.”

“The concept comes from lean manufacturing, especially in regard to how nonvalue-
added steps are eliminated from a process.”
In most sectors of the economy that create work cells, especially in the manufacturing
environment, the aim is to improve the speed, quality, and cost of the process.

There are two ways we can write the term, as two words – work cell – or just one –
workcell. Writers use both terms with equal frequency in most literature and online
articles.

For work cells to function successfully, they need to be as autonomous (independent)

as possible, while at the same time seamlessly coordinated, i.e. the production process
should move smoothly from one work cell to the next.

Work cell concept in manufacturing

In order to get maximum productivity, manufacturers arrange their production-process

machines so that the process progresses seamlessly from one stage to the next.

To do this optimally, we have to arrange the machines in work cells that facilitate the
most logical progression of the goods that they are producing, from basic items such
as raw materials to the end product.

We have to arrange all the workers and other production-process materials properly
for the same reason.

In administrative procedures, i.e. the office environment, work cells help improve the
flow of communications and the utilization of shared resources.

Work cell – many types

In the manufacturing or office environment, the work cell comes in many shapes and
forms. When approaching work cell optimization, some people go for a U-shaped or
T-shaped layout, or a floating design which may have an S-shaped or X-shaped
layout.

Whatever the work cell layout is, the cell designer needs to:

– Concentrate on keeping transit times between each work station within the cell to a
minimum.

– Simplify how work and components move from one station and one cell to the next.

– Ensure that the layout is functional – it needs operators who are able to manage,
work, and supervise more than one work station.

In an article in DriveOurSuccess.com, titled – ‘Manufacturing Work Cell

Optimization: Design, Layout and Analysis’ – Ian Johnson writes:

“Before venturing into the individual cell designs, it’s important to define how you
determine the individual productivity rates emerging from each station within a work
cell. I adopt this strategy because it forces companies to witness production in
person.”

“While some companies determine their productivity rates by comparing production

volumes from a given day, week and month to the next, this approach instead focuses
on the actual rates emerging in each location and most importantly, it provides the
root causes of downtime and lost time.”
There are several work cell design shapes, including S-, Z-, U- and T-shapes. A work
station is part of a work cell.

Question: Discuss about robot machine interface with neat diagram.

Robotic Arm: Electronics. How to control the Robotic Arm

In charge of controlling this Robotic Arm there is an Arduino M0. This board
mounts a very capable ARM processor which will be controlling:

• 3x NEMA stepper motors: 2 to rotate the arm and forearm, 1 to

move up and down
• Up to 4 Servo outputs (but just 2 units used to move the gripper)
• 1x 12V voltage controllable output (for a suction pump?
electromagnet?)
• 1x SENSOR input (in the case we want to use an external
button/switch/ Temperature sensor…etc
• i2C and UART communication ports (A LIDAR sensor can be connected
to measure distances)
• MPU sensor (not used in this project)
The Power Supply

To move the motors we will need at least 9V: The minimum voltage needed by
the stepper motor drivers modules to move the motors of the Robotic Arm. As a 12V
power supply is quite common, but other power sources (9-15V) can be available too,
we decided to put a voltage regulator on the board capable of handling those input
voltages. NOTE: 12V and 2 Amperes is the recommended power source for the pyBot
Robotic Arm

Most of the current electronics modules and processors work at 3.3V but some
actuators (like servos) still need 5V to work properly, that is the reason the DEVIA
board have two voltage regulator modules, 9-15V to 5V and 5V to 3.3V

Motors + controlling them

We opted for regular NEMA17 motors as they are widely available in the MAKER / 3D
printers World. They are accurate, affordable and let you know how much they have
rotated its shaft (as long as you do not skip steps. Learn more about stepper
motors here). But how does the DEVIA control board controls them? Using stepper
motor drivers modules. These modules, which can be attached (are not integrated) to
the control board will deliver the exact amount of current to the motor´s coils making
them to move a certain quantity of steps when required.

The M0 processor of the control board will tell the motors when to spin
and how (number of steps and direction). The control board will accept many models
of stepper motor drivers. You can find many in the market and its price will depend on
many factors as: power, noise created when moving the motors, accuracy…
Regular A4988 stepper motor drivers will do the job in this project.

WIFI Module. Control the Robot remotely

The ESP8266 Wifi module will let you control the Robotic Arm from any WIFI
connected device as a smartphone/ tablet or even a computer. It will create its own
network accessible only using a password (by default: 87654321). Alternatively, you
can control the pyBot Robotic arm with just a USB cable and the control APP

i2C port. Connecting additional sensors

A “LIDAR” sensor (in this case a VL53L0X Time-of-Flight Ranging Sensor) has been
added as a way to measure, in real time (up to 20 times per second) how far the arm
from the ground is. It is quite handy as provides info about the presence of any
object under the gripper. The sensor uses the i2c bus to establish a communication
channel with the processor. A i2c bus is perfect to chain several (not too many) sensors
or modules to the M0 processor just using 4 wires (Power/Ground/SDA/SCL). It has
some minor disadvantages like sensitivity to electromagnetic interference but easily
solvable taking precautions.