B. Tech First Year EEE Unit No.

Nutan College of Engineering and Research, Talegaon Dabhade

B.Tech - First Year Engineering
Subject: Energy and Environmental Engineering ( BTES105)
Notes- Unit No.1 Conventional Power Generation
Prepared by: Prof. Bhushan Pawar

1. Steam Power Station

Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment
A steam power plant must have following equipment:
(a) A furnace to burn the fuel.
(b) Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to
convert water into steam.
(c) Main power unit such as turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform work.
(d) Piping system to convey steam and water.
(e) various auxiliaries and accessories depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the
service for which the plant is intended

The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows:
a) High pressure boiler
b) Prime mover
c) Condensers and cooling towers
d) Coal handling system
e) Ash and dust handling system
f) Draught system
g) Feed water purification plant
h) Pumping system
i) Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.

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Fig. 1.1 Layout of Steam Power Plant

1. Coal Storage: It is the place where coal is stored which can be utilised when required.
2. Coal Handling: Here the coal is converted into the pulverised form before feeding to the furnace.
A proper system is designed to transport the pulverised coal to the boiler furnace.
3. Boiler: It converts the water into high pressure steam. It contains the furnace inside or outside the
boiler shell. The combustion of coal takes place in the furnace.
4. Air-preheater: It is used to pre-heat the air before entering into the boiler furnace. The pre heating
of air helps in the burning of fuel to a greater extent. It takes the heat from the burnt gases from the
furnace to heat the air from the atmosphere.
5. Economiser: As its name indicates it economises the working of the boiler. It heats the feed water
to a specified temperature before it enters into the boiler drum. It takes the heat from the burnt gases
from the furnace to do so.
6. Turbine: It is the mechanical device which converts the kinetic energy of the steam to the
mechanical energy.
7. Generator: It is coupled with the turbine rotor and converts the mechanical energy of the turbine to
the electrical energy
8. Ash Storage: It is used to store the ash after burning of the coal.

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9. Dust Collector: It collects the dust particle from the burnt gases before it is released to the
chimney.
10. Condenser: It condensate the steam that leaves out turbine. It converts the low pressure steam to
water. It is attached to the cooling tower.
11. Cooling Tower: It is a tower which contains cold water. Cold water is circulates to the condenser
for the cooling of the residual steam from the turbine.
12. Chimney: It is used to release the hot burnt gases or smoke from the furnace to the environment at
appropriate height. The height of the tower is very high such that it can easily throw the smoke and
exhaust gases at the appropriate height. And it cannot affect the population living near the steam
power plant.
13. Feed Water pump: It is used to transport the feed water to the boiler.
14. Soot Blowers: The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited on the boiler
tubes, economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. This drastically reduces the amount of heat transfer of
the heat exchangers. Soot blowers control the formation of soot and reduce its corrosive effects.
15. Condensate Pumps: Condensate pumps are those kinds of pumps that are used to collect and
transport condensate back into a steam system for reheating and reuse, or to remove unwanted
condensate. Condensate pumps have a tank in which condensate can accumulate. The tank size
varies depending on the application. The accumulating liquid raises a float switch which energizes
the pump. The pump then runs until the level of liquid in the tank is substantially lowered.
16. Sump Pump: This pump is installed in compartments to remove the unwanted build-up of water. In
a steam power plant, the condensate pump is normally located adjacent to the main condenser
hotwell often directly below it. This pump sends the water to a make-up tank closer to the steam
generator
17. Atmospheric Relief Valves: Atmospheric relief valves provide automatic protection of costly
condenser equipment. These valves are as important as trip throttle valves, over speed governors,
and other devices for power plant protection. Atmospheric relief valves open and close
automatically.

Working of steam power station:

1) The pulverized coal is fed into the boiler where the pulverized coal is burnt into the furnace
2) Due to heat from the furnace, the water present in the boiler drum changes to the high
pressure steam.
3) From the boiler this high pressure steam is passed to the super heater where it is again
heated up to its dryness.
4) After that this super heated steam strikes the turbine blades with a high speed and the
turbine blades starts rotating to at high speed. Here the stored potential energy of the steam
is gets converted into mechanical energy.
5) A generator is coupled with the turbine rotor. As the turbine rotates, the generator also
rotate with same speed and mechanical energy of the turbine gets converted into electrical
energy.
6) Steam after hitting the turbines blades lost its most of the energy and leaves the turbine
with low pressure steam.
7) This low pressure steam enters into the condenser. Cold water circulates in the condenser
from the cooling tower. Here the low pressure wet steam is converted into water.

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8) After that condensed water with the feed water passed to the economizer where it gets
heated up by the economizer. And finally the feed water enters into the boiler by a feed
water pump to repeat the cycle.
9) The burnt flue gases from the furnace passes through the super heater, economizer and air
pre-heater. This heat of the flue gases is used to heat the steam in the super heater to its
dryness, to heat feed water in the economiser before entering into the boiler and to heat air
form the atmosphere in the air pre-heater before it enters into the furnace.
10) The ash from the furnace is transported to ash handling plant and finally to the ash storage.

Thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits:

a) Feed water and steam flow circuit.
b) Coal and ash circuit.
c) Air and gas circuit.
d) Cooling water circuit

a) Feed water and steam flow circuit.

The steam generated in the boiler passes through super heater and is supplied to the steam turbine.

Work is done by the expansion of steam in the turbine and the pressure of steam is reduced. The
expanded steam then passes to the condenser, where it is condensed.

The condensate leaving the condenser is first heated in a low pressure water heater by using the steam
taken from the low pressure extraction point of the turbine.

Again steam taken from the high pressure extraction point of the turbine is used for heating the feed
water in the H.P water heater. The hot feed water is passing through the economizer, where it is further
heated by means of flue gases. The feed water which is sufficiently heated by the feed water heaters
and economizer is then fed into the boiler.

Fig. 1.2 Feed water and steam flow circuit

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b) Coal and ash circuit:

Coal from the storage yard is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of coal handling
equipment like belt conveyor, bucket elevator, etc., ash resulting from the combustion of coal
in the boiler furnace collects at the back of the boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard
through the ash handling equipment.

Fig. 1.3 Coal and ash circuit

Coal from the storage yard is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of coal handling
equipment like belt conveyor, bucket elevator, etc., ash resulting from the combustion of
coal in the boiler furnace collects at the back of the boiler and is removed to the ash storage
yard through the ash handling equipment.
Ash disposal:
The Indian coal contains 30% to 40% ash. A power plant of 100MW 20 to 25 tones of hot
ash per hour. Hence sufficient space near the power plant is essential to dispose such large
quantities of ash

c) Air and flue gas circuit:

It consists of forced draught fan, air pre heater, boiler furnace, super heater, economizer,
dust collector, induced draught fan, chimney etc.
Air is taken from the atmosphere by the action of a forced draught fan. It is passed through
an air pre-heater.
The air is pre-heated by the flue gases in the pre-heater. This pre-heated air is supplied to
the furnace to aid the combustion of fuel. Due to combustion of fuel, hot gases (flue gases)
are formed.

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Fig. 1.4 Air and flue gas circuit

d) Cooling water circuit:
1. The condenser needs large amount of cooling water to condense the steam.
2. This cooling water is circulated from lake or river, by means of circulating water pump and
is returned back to the source.
3. If sufficient quantity of water is water is not available, it should be cooled and reused again
and again.
4. In such cases, water is obtained from a tube a tube-well or other source and stored in a
tank.
5. It is then pumped into the condenser, where it absorbs latent heat from the exhaust steam
and becomes hot and the hot water is passed to a cooling tower.
6. The cooling tower is a structure usually made up of concrete.
7. The hot water from the condenser is fed to the tower at the top and is sprayed.
8. Air flow from bottom to the top.
9. The water drops falling from the top come in contact with air, loose heat to the air and gets
cooled.

Fig. 1.5 cooling water Circuit

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The advantages of steam power plant are as follows:

1) As compared with power generating plant, it has low initial cost and hence economical.
2) Less land area is required as compared with the hydro power plant.
3) Coal is used as fuel and the cost of coal is cheaper than petrol and diesel fuel. So the power
generation cost is economical.
4) This power plant has easy maintenance cost.
5) Steam power plant can be installed in any area where water sources and transportation facility are
easily available.
Disadvantages of steam power plant are as follows:
1) The running cost of steam power plant is comparatively high because of fuel, maintenance etc
2) The overall efficiency of steam power plant, than is about 35 % to 41% which is low.
3) Due to the release of burnt gases of the coal or fuel, it contributes to the global warming to a larger
extent.
4) The heated water that is thrown in the rivers, ponds etc puts and adverse effect on the living
organism of water and disturbs the ecology.

Site Selection
The site selection of steam power plant depends upon various factors.
1. Cost of the land: The cost of the land which is selected for the installation should be minimum or
economical.
2. Population density of the land: The distance of the steam power plant from the public area should
be at appropriate distance. So that in case of any failure or hazard happen in the plant, the
population of the area near to the power plant should not be affected.
3. Availability of water sources: There should be a plenty of water sources in the selected area. Since
the power plant requires a large amount of water for the generation of steam.
4. Availability of fuel: The availability of required fuel (coal) should be there because without fuel
the plant will not work.
5. Type of land: The land which is selected for the power plant installation should be plain enough
and it is suitable for the strong foundation for the various machinery of the plant.
6. Scope for the future demand: The size of the land should be such that it is capable for the
handling of future power demand.
7. Availability of Ash handling facility: Proper ash handling facility should be available near the
power plant to minimise the adverse effect of the ash produced in the steam power plant
8. Availability of transportation facility: The transportation facility is must in the installation for the
power plant; because any material cannot be transported to the power plant form its required
location in lack of transport. There should be easy availability of proper transportation facility at the
selected site.

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Nuclear Power Plant

The Basic Principal of Nuclear Power Plant is given below:
CE↔HE ↔KE ↔ME ↔EE
The freely moving neutrons bombarded with radioactive material (U235 or Th232) the heat energy produced,
with the help of this heat energy & water a steam produced at high pressure & temperature. High pressure
steam passes towards turbine where KE is converted to ME. We know that, turbine & generator are
mechanically coupled through this combination an Electrical Energy is produced in Nuclear Power Plant

Factors governing Selection of site for the nuclear power plant

1. Availability of water : Sufficient supply of neutral water is obvious for generating steam
& cooling purposes in nuclear power station
2. Disposal of Waste: The wastes of nuclear power station are radioactive and may cause
severe health hazards. Because of this, special care to be taken during disposal of wastes
of nuclear power plant. The wastes must be buried in sufficient deep from earth level or
these must be disposed off in sea quite away from the sea share.
3. Distance from Populated Area: As there is always a probability of radioactivity, it is
always preferable to locate a nuclear station sufficiently away from populated area.
4. Transportation Facilities: During commissioning period, heavy equipments to be
erected, which to be transported from manufacturer site. So good railways and road ways
availabilities are required.
5. Skilled Person Requirement: For availability of skilled manpower to run & handle the
plant also good public transport should also be present at the site.
6. Near to Load Centre : As we know that generating stations are far away from thickly
populated area, so to reduce the transmission & distribution losses the plant should
located near to load centre.
7. Storage of Nuclear Material : the nuclear materials are radioactive, which are
dangerous to health to overcome this drawback a separate arrangement provided for
storage of material
8. Geographical Condition : the radioactive material are very dangerous to human health
& all living organisms, if due to earthquake chances occurs to blast the reactors to
avoided this the area should be free from earthquake.

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Fig. 1.6 Nuclear Power Plant

The above figure shows, the schematic arrangement of nuclear power plant. Every nuclear power
plant consists of following main parts, which are mentioned below:

1. Nuclear Reactor
2. Heat Exchanger
3. Steam Turbine
4. Condenser & Cooling Tower
5. Feed Water Heater

The nuclear reactor function is to produce heat at high temperature. For producing heat the reactor uses,
nuclear fuel these are uranium or thorium etc. when the slowly moving neutrons hits the nuclear fuel it
produces heat. This heat passes to the heat exchanger; other input to this heat exchanger is heated water.
The water is heated with the help of feed water heater. The main function of heat exchanger is to produce
steam at high pressure. This high pressure steam passes to the steam turbine. When this steam flow towards
turbine it starts rotating, the turbine & alternator are coupled mechanically. Simultaneously alternator starts
rotating and the electrical power produced. The exhaust hot steam is passes to the condenser, where it is
condensed by using cooling tower, and it is again passing to the heat exchanger through feed water heater.
This process is continued.

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Main Parts & Its Explanation of Nuclear Reactor:

1. Nuclear Fuels.
2. Moderator.
3. Control rods.
4. Reflectors
5. Shielding
6. Reactor vessel
7. Heat Exchanger
8. Coolant
9. Turbine
10. Condenser
11. Cooling Tower
12. Water Treatment Chamber.
1. Nuclear Fuel:
In Nuclear Power Plant the fuels used areUranium-233, Uranium-235, Plutonium-239. Out of the three fuel
any one of the fuel used in nuclear power plant. The fuel is required in nuclear power plant to produce a
huge amount of heat energy. The fuel are inserted in fuel rod, these fuel rods are bombarded with slow
moving neutrons. Separate provision provided for bombarded or hits the neutron to the fuel rod, this device
is known as neutron bombardment device

2. Moderator In nuclear power plant, moderator is a device, of rod shaped. Moderator is placed
near the nuclear fuel rod. The main function of moderator in nuclear power plant is reduce the
speed of neutrons (neutron at slower speed is required to produce fission) & increases the fission
processes. Moderator rod is made up of graphite or heavy water or beryllium material.

3. Control Rods: In nuclear power plant, the control rods are placed in between nuclear fuel rod,
moderator and then control rod. These control rods are operated either automatically or manually.
(To start or stop the chain reaction). In nuclear power plant the main function of control rod is to
control the chain reaction. If the control rod is inserted then it absorbs the freely moving neutrons
& stop the chain reaction, if it is no inserted chain reaction is in process, means chain reaction
continued. The steady rate or to stop the chain reaction is maintained through control rods. The
control rods are made up of cadmium, boron (alloyed with steel or aluminum).

4. Reflector: Before shielding, the reflector is placed. The reflector is used to surround the reactor
core. The reflector will also help to bounce the escaping neutrons back to the reactor core & it
conserve the nuclear fuel.

5. Shielding: Shielding is the also important part of nuclear power plant, shielding is in other
words protecting. In nuclear reactor, first one is nuclear fuel rod then moderator, control rod &
reflector. Through this shielding is provided. When the chain reaction starts, heat energy start to

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produce. During this period lots of radiation or rays are produced, these are very harmful; to avoid
this shielding is provided in reactor.

6. Reactor vessel: After shielding the next layer is a reactor vessel. This vessel encloses reactor
core, reflector, shielding. It is used to protect complete nuclear reactor. Few holes are provided in
the top portion of reactor vessel to insert control rods & at lower side of this vessel fuel &
moderator assembly are placed

7. Heat Exchanger: The main function of heat exchanger in nuclear power plant is the boiled the
cold water and produces steam at high temperature & pressure. Heat exchanger is used in nuclear
power plant, to exchange the heat i.e. it consists of one input to feed the cold water & output to
flow of hot steam. The heat exchanger receives the heat from reactor, this heat is continuously
circulated through pipe, before it is re-entered to the reactor it is filter. By using this heat a heat
exchanger boils the cold water produces steam at high temperature & Pressure. Further this steam
passes to the steam turbine for generation of electrical power.

8. Coolant: The coolant becomes a cold metal. In coolant the gases are used like carbon dioxide,
air, hydrogen etc. the heats from the heat exchanger are re-circulated to the reactor through pump
after filtration. During filtrations the unwanted impurities in the coolant are removed.

9. Turbine: We know that, the turbine is a mechanical device and it is mechanically coupled with
alternator. In case of nuclear power plant turbine receives steam from heat exchange at high
pressure, and it rotates at high speed then alternator also rotates, this way electrical power
produced. The exhaust steam from turbine passes to condenser for further use.

10. Condenser: The condenser receives an exhaust hot steam from turbine; with the help of water
it is cooled. Water taken from available water sources e.g. river and is filtered in water treatment
plant. This water is re-circulated to heat exchanger through feed water heater & Pump.

11. Cooling Tower: The cooling towers are used to convert the hot water or steam exhausted from
turbine into normal water. That is, its temperature decreases at normal temperature.

12. Water treatment chamber: The water treatment chamber provides filter water to the cooling
tower, condenser through available water source. It also reduces unwanted impurities in the stored
water.

Advantages of Nuclear Power Station:

1) A nuclear power station occupies much smaller space compared to other conventional
power station of same capacity.
2) This station does not require plenty of water; hence it is not essential to construct plant near
natural source of water.

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3) This also does not required huge quantity of fuel; for e.g. 1 kg of uranium produces a heat
which is equivalent to 4300 tonnes of coal.
4) It is possible to locate the plant near to load center
5) If bulk power is produced it is economical.
6) Clean operation, no ash is produced.
7) Area required is very less.
8) Independent of geographical conditions.
9) Saving of natural resources such as coal, oil, gas etc.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

1) The fuel is not easily available and it is very costly.
2) Initial cost for constructing nuclear power station is quite high.
3) Erection and commissioning of this plant is much complicated.
4) The fission by products is radioactive in nature, and it may cause high radioactive
pollution.
5) The maintenance cost is higher and the man power required to run a nuclear power plant is
quite higher since specialty trained people are required.
6) Sudden fluctuation of load cannot be met up efficiently by nuclear plant.
7) It is very big problem for disposal of this by products. It can only be disposed deep inside
ground or in a sea away from sea share.
8) Enrichment technology is essential for fuel processing & fabrication.
9) Maintenance cost is very high.
10) Waste disposal is problematic.
11) For variable load it is not suitable.
12) Construction is complicated

Selection of Site For Nuclear Power Plant

The various factors to be considered while selecting the site for nuclear plant are as follows
1. Availability of water. At the power plant site an ample quantity of water should be
available for condenser cooling and made up water required for steam generation.
Therefore the site should be nearer to a river, reservoir or sea.
2. Distance from load center. The plant should be located near the load center. This will
minimise the power losses in transmission lines.
3. Distance from populated area. The power plant should be located far away from
populated area to avoid the radioactive hazard.

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4. Accessibility to site. The power plant should have rail and road transportation facilities.
5. Waste disposal. The wastes of a nuclear power plant are radioactive and there should be
sufficient space near the plant site for the disposal of wastes.

3. Gas Turbine Power Plants

The fundamental working principle of a gas turbine power plant is same as that of a steam turbine
power plant. The only difference is there that in steam turbine power plant we use compressed
steam to rotate the turbine, but in gas turbine power plant we use compressed air to turn the
turbine.
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine.
It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion
chamber in-between.

Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed with air and ignited. In the
high pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The
products of the combustion are forced into the turbine section. There, the high velocity and volume
of the gas flow is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which
powers the compressor and, for some turbines, drives their mechanical output. The energy given
up to the turbine comes from the reduction in the temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas.

Advantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant

1) Construction wise a gas turbine power plant is much simpler than a steam turbine power
plant.
2) The size of a gas turbine power plant is smaller than that of a steam turbine power plant.
3) A gas turbine power plant does not have any boiler like component, and hence, the
accessories associated with the boiler are absent here.
4) It does not deal with steam hence it does not require any condenser hence no cooling tower
like structure is needed here.
5) As design and construction wise gas turbine power plants are much more straightforward
and smaller, the capital cost and running cost are quite less than that of an equivalent steam
turbine power plant.
6) The constant loss is quite smaller in gas turbine power plant compared to a steam turbine
power plant because in the steam turbine power plant boiler has to run continuously even
when the system does not supply load to the grid.
7) A gas turbine power plant can more instantly be started than an equivalent steam turbine
power plant.
Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant
1) The mechanical energy created in the turbine is also utilised to run the air compressor.
Since a major portion of mechanical energy created in the turbine is utilised to run the air

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compressor the overall efficiency of gas turbine power plant is not as high as an equivalent
steam turbine power plant.
2) The exhaust gases in gas turbine power plant curries significant heat from the furnace.
This also causes the efficiency of the system low further.
3) To start power plant pre-compressed is required. So before actual starting of the turbine air
should be pre-compressed this requires an auxiliary power supply for starting a gas turbine
power plant. Once the plant is started there is no more need of supplying external power
but at starting point external power is essential.
4) The temperature of the furnace is quite high in a gas turbine power plant. This makes the
system lifespan smaller than that of an equivalent steam turbine power plant.
5) Because of its lower efficiency, a gas turbine power plant cannot be utilized for commercial
production of electricity instead it is normally used to supply auxiliary power to other
conventional power plants such as hydroelectric power plant.

Layout of gas turbine power plant

The gas turbine power plants which are used in electric power industry are classified into two
groups as per the cycle of operation.
(1) Open cycle gas turbine.
(2) Closed cycle gas turbine.

Open cycle gas turbine

Fig. 1.7 Open cycle gas turbine

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The heated gases coming out of combustion chamber are then passed to the turbine where it
expands doing mechanical work. Part of the power developed by the turbine is utilized in driving
the compressor and other accessories and remaining is used for power generation.

Since ambient air enters into the compressor and gases coming out of turbine are exhausted
into the atmosphere, the working medium must be replaced continuously. This type of cycle is
known as open cycle gas turbine plant and is mainly used in majority of gas turbine power plants
as it has many inherent advantages.

Advantages
1. Warm-up time is very less.
2. Low weight and size.
3. Almost any hydrocarbon fuels can be used.
4. Open cycle plants occupy comparatively little space.
6. Very economical when compared to other plants.
7. Independent of separate cooling medium.

Disadvantages

1. The part load efficiency of the open cycle plant decreases rapidly as the considerable
percentage of power developed by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
2. The system is sensitive to the component efficiency; particularly that of compressor.
3. The open cycle plant is sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature, pressure
and humidity.
4. The open-cycle gas turbine plant has high air rate compared to the other cycles.
5. It is essential that the dust should be prevented from entering into the compressor.
6. The deposition of the carbon and ash on the turbine blades is not at all desirable as it also
reduces the efficiency of the turbine.

Closed cycle gas turbine

In closed cycle gas turbine plant, the working fluid (air or any other suitable gas) coming out
from compressor is heated in a heater by an external source at constant pressure.

The high temperature and high-pressure air coming out from the external heater is passed through
the gas turbine. The fluid coming out from the turbine is cooled to its original temperature in the
cooler using external cooling source before passing to the compressor.
The working fluid is continuously used in the system without its change of phase and the
required heat is given to the working fluid in the heat exchanger.

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Fig. 1.8 Close cycle gas turbine

Advantages

1) The closed cycle plant is not sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature,
pressure and humidity.
2) The closed cycle avoids erosion of the turbine blades due to the contaminated gases and
fouling of compressor blades due to dust.
3) The need for filtration of the incoming air which is a severe problem in open cycle plant is
completely eliminated.
4) Load variation is usually obtained by varying the absolute pressure and mass flow of the
circulating medium, while the pressure ratio, the temperatures and the air velocities remain
almost constant.
5) The density of the working medium can be maintained high by increasing internal pressure
range, therefore, the compressor and turbine are smaller for their rated output. The high
density of the working fluid further increases the heat transfer properties in the heat
exchanger
6) As indirect heating is used in closed cycle plant, the inferior oil or solid fuel can be used in
the furnace and these fuels can be used more economically because these are available in
abundance.
7) The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful life.

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Disadvantages

1. The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling water is

required in the pre-cooler.
2. Higher internal pressures involve complicated design of all components and high quality
material is required which increases the cost of the plant.
3. The response to the load variations is poor compared to the open-cycle plant.
4. It requires very big heat-exchangers as the heating of workings fluid is done indirectly.

Selection of Site for Gas Turbine Power Plants:

The following factors should be considered while selecting a site for gas turbine power
plant:

1. Distance from Load Centre: The site should be as near to the load center as possible
so that the trans-mission costs and losses are minimized.
2. Availability of Land: The land should be available at cheap rate in order to keep the
capital cost of the plant low.
3. Availability of Fuel: The fuel should be easily avail-able and at reasonable rate.
5. Availability of Transportation Facilities: The trans-portation facilities should be
available.
6. Distance from Populated Area: The site should be away from thickly populated area
because of noisy operation.
7. Type of Land: The land should be of high bearing capacity to withstand the load of
the plant and also the vibrations transmitted to the foundations from compressors and
turbines.

4.Hydro power plant

In hydroelectric power station the kinetic energy developed due to gravity in a falling water from
higher to lower head is utilized to rotate a turbine to produce electricity. The potential energy
stored in the water at upper water level will release as kinetic energy when it falls to the lower
water level. This turbine rotates when the following water strikes the turbine blades. To achieve a
head difference of water hydroelectric electric power station are generally constructed in hilly
areas. In the way of the river in hilly areas, an artificial dam is constructed to create required water
head. From this dam water is allowed to fall toward downstream in a controlled way to turbine
blades. As a result, the turbine rotates due to the water force applied to its blades and hence the
alternator rotates since the turbine shaft is coupled with alternator shaft.

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Primary components required to construct a hydroelectric power plant.

1. Dam
2. pressure tunnel
3. surge tank
4. valve house
5. penstock
6. Powerhouse.

Dam: The dam is an artificial concrete barrier constructed across the way of the river. The
catchment area behind the dam creates a huge water reservoir.

The pressure tunnel: The pressure tunnel takes water from the dam to the valve house.

Surge tank: The surge tank is also a protective accessory associated with hydroelectric power
plant. It is situated just before the valve house. The height of the tank must be greater than the
head of the water stored in the water reservoir behind the dam. This is an open top water tank.

The valve house, there are two types of valves available. The first one is main sluicing valve and
the second one is an automatic isolating valve. The sluicing valves control the water flowing to the
downstream and automatic isolating valves stop the water flow when the electrical load is
suddenly thrown off from the plant. Automatic isolating valve is a protecting valve does not play
any direct role control the flow of water to the turbine. It only operates during emergency to
protect the system from burst out.

The penstock: it is a steel pipeline of suitable diameter connected between the valve house and
powerhouse. The water flows down from upper valve house to lower powerhouse through this
penstock only.

Powerhouse: there are water turbines and alternators with associated step up transformers and
switchgear systems to generate and then facilitate transmission of electricity.

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Fig. 1.9 Layout of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Advantages:
1) Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.
2) If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity generation. The
water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand is high.
3) Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation of
electricity for many years / decades.
4) The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure / pleasure
activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions in their own right.
5) The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
6) The build up of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed, when the
water is released to produce electricity.
7) When in use, electricity produced by dam systems do not produce green house gases. They
do not pollute the atmosphere.

Disadvantages:

1. Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high standard.
2. The high cost of dam construction means that they must operate for many decades to
become profitable.
3. The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is destroyed.
4. People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must move out. This
means that they lose their farms and businesses. In some countries, people are forcibly
removed so that hydro-power schemes can go ahead.
5. The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage. For example, the building
of the Hoover Dam in the USA triggered a number of earth quakes and has depressed the
earth’s surface at its location.

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6. Although modern planning and design of dams is good, in the past old dams have been
known to be breached (the dam gives under the weight of water in the lake). This has led to
deaths and flooding.
7. Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country usually means that the water
supply from the same river in the following country is out of their control. This can lead to
serious problems between neighbouring countries.
8. Building a large dam alters the natural water table level. For example, the building of the
Aswan Dam in Egypt has altered the level of the water table. This is slowly leading to
damage of many of its ancient monuments as salts and destructive minerals are deposited in
the stone work from ‘rising damp’ caused by the changing water table level.

Site selection of hydroelectric power plant

1. Availability of Water: Since in such power stations potential energy of waterfall or kinetic
energy of flowing stream is utilized for generation of electric power, therefore such stations
should be built where there is adequate water available at good head or huge quantity of water
is flowing across a given point.

Previous records of rainfall must be studied and minimum and maximum quantity of water
available during the year should be estimated. After allowing for losses due to evaporation and
seepage the net quantity of water avail-able for power generation can be estimated.

2. Water Storage: Since storage of water in a suitable reservoir at a height or building of dam
across the river is essential in order to have continuous and perennial supply during the dry season,
therefore, convenient accommodation for the erection of a dam or reservoir must be available.

The storage capacity can be determined from the hydrograph or from mass curve or by using
analytical methods. For selec-tion of site for the dam a careful study of the geology and
topography of the catchment area is required to see whether the natural foundations can be used to
the best advantage.

3. Water Head: The available water head depends upon the topography of the area. Availability of
head of water has considerable effect on the cost and economy of power gen-eration. An increase
in effective head reduces the quantity of water to be stored and handled by penstocks, screens and
turbines and, therefore, capital cost of the plant is reduced. In order to determine the most effective
and economical head it is necessary to consider all possible factors which affect it.

4. Distance from Load Centre: Hydroelectric power plant is usually located far away from the
load center. Hence for economical transmission of elec-tric power, the routes and the distances
need active consid-erations.

5. Accessibility of the Site: Adequate transportation facilities must be available or there should be
possibility of providing the same so that the necessary equipment and ma-chinery could be easily
transported.

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6. Water Pollution: Polluted water may cause exces-sive corrosion and damage to the metallic
structures. Hence availability of good quality water is essential.

7. Sedimentation: Gradual deposition of silt may re-duce the capacity of the storage reservoir and
may also cause damage to the turbine blades. Silting from forest areas is negligible but the regions
subject to violent storms and not protected by vegetation contribute lot of silt to the run-off. In
some cases, this factor alone may render an otherwise suitable site unsuitable.

8. Large Catchment Area: The reservoir must have a large catchment area so that level of water
in the reservoir may not fall below the minimum required in dry season.

9. Availability of Land: The land available should be cheap in cost and rocky in order to
withstand the weight of the large building and heavy machinery.

10. There should be possibility of stream diversion dur-ing period of construction.

5.Thermoelectric Power Generation

Principle of Thermoelectric Power Generation: Thermoelectric power generation process is
based on the Seebeck effect which states that loop of dissimilar metals will develop an emf if the
two junctions are kept at different temperatures. This principle is already being used in
thermocouples for measurement of temperature. However the recent advances in material
technology have made possible experimental thermo-elec-tric generators of a few kW size.

The simplest thermo--electric power generator consists of a thermocouple, com-prising a

P-type and N-type thermo-element connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. Heat
is pumped into one side of the couple and rejected from the opposite side. An electrical current is
produced, propor-tional to the temperature gradient between the hot and cold junctions.

The net useful power output is given as:

Pout = I2R watts
Where I is the current flowing through the circuit in amperes and R is the external load
resistance connected across output terminals of the thermo-electric generator in ohms.

The current in the circuit is given by:

I = αΔT /(Rin + R) amperes…
where α is Seebeck coefficient in V/k, ΔT is the temperature difference between hot and cold
junctions in degrees abso-lute, K and Rin is the internal resistance of thermoelectric generator in
ohms.

The magnitude of potential difference depends on the pair of conductor materials and on the
temperature difference of the junctions.

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Thermoelectric Materials in Thermoelectric Power Generation:

The efficiency of thermoelectric generator depends upon suitable properties of the elements. It was
later in 1909 and 1911 that Altenkirch showed that good thermoelectric materials should have
large Seebeck coefficients, high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity. A high
electrical conductivity is necessary to minimise Joule heating, while a low thermal conductivity
helps to retain heat at junctions and maintain a large temperature gradients.
These three properties were later embodied in the so-called figure-of-merit, Z.
Since Z varies with temperature, a useful dimensionless figure-of-merits can be defined as ZT. The
thermal conductivity of thermoelectric materials can be reduced by introducing suitable impurities.

The requirements of thermoelectric materials are:

1. The mobility of current carriers (electrons or holes) should be as high as possible. The
electrical conductivity can be raised by introducing suitable impurities.
2. One element should be purely P-type and the other N- type. The semiconductor material
should have low ionization energy and narrow forbidden band.
3. The thermo elements should have variable impurity content so that electron concentration
should depend upon the operating temperature.
4. The thermoelectric material should be corrosion resistant, should have high mechanical
strength and elasticity so that it does not crack due to thermal stresses.
5. The bridge material should have high thermal and electrical conductivities and stability
against thermal stresses.
6. The use of variable properties of thermoelectric elements becomes very significant when
thermoelectric pile or cascaded operation is required. The operating temperature may be
different.

Thermoelectric Power Generator:

Thermo-generators are the devices that convert heat (temperature differences) directly into
electrical energy. For the most part, this term is synonymous with “thermoelectric generator” and
rarely used. Older Seebeck-based devices used bimetallic junctions and were bulky while more
recent devices use semiconductor P-N junctions that can have thicknesses in the millimeter range.
These are called solid state devices and unlike dynamos have no moving parts other
than sometimes a fan. Fuel such as natural gas, propane or kerosene can thus be used for
generating dc which can be converted into ac by using inverter.

The principle of thermoelectric generation is shown in Fig.. The electrodes I and II are bridged at
hot junction and are connected to the output terminals at the cold junction. The hot junction is kept
at high temperature by concentrating sun rays on it. The cold junction is kept cold by water
cooling. The electric current is set up due to difference in temperatures of hot and cold junctions
and completes its path through the external load circuit.

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Fig. 1.10 Principle of thermoelectric power generator

Though it is based on direct conversion of heat into electric power but its efficiency is quite low (1
to 3%). Like any heat engine its efficiency depends upon the temperatures of the hot and cold
junctions. A two stage device with hot and cold junction temperatures of 1,500 K and 300 K has
been developed to give an overall efficiency of 13%. A lot of research is being done to find new
materials capable of working at high temperatures. Special attention is being paid to
semiconductor materials.

The voltage and electrical power output can be increased by increasing the temperature difference
between the hot and cold ends. In order to achieve higher potential difference many generators
have to be connected in parallel. For in-creasing the useful power output, parallel and series
connec-tions are used as shown in Fig. 7.8. The direct current gen-erated can be changed into
alternating current by using in-verter. The alternating voltage is then increased to the de-sired
value with a transformer.

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Fig. 1.11 Cascading of thermoelectric generators

Thermoelectric generators have been built with power outputs ranging from a few watts to
kilowatts. An important application is the use of radioactive decay heat to generate power in space
and other remote locations.

Semiconductors are good thermal insulators, so these can be used as the basis for thermal
converter designs capable of withstanding large temperature gradients and hence generating larger
thermo emfs. At present, semi-conductor materials like lead telluride, zinc antimonite, bismuth
telluride, germanium silicide and the various selenides produce power with an efficiency of about
10%.

Ternary compounds (such as silver-antimony telluride, lead- tin telluride) and quaternary
compounds composed of bismuth, tellurium, selenium and antimony, called as neelium, are
promising ones and higher efficiencies are expected to be achieved in the future, Extensive studies
are currently being carried out with the aim to develop semiconductors capable of operating at high
temperatures. Basically, thermal converters can employ liquid semicon-ductors. However, the
main drawback of using liquid semiconductors is that the rate of heat transfer from the hot to cold
junction is increased by convection.

Energy used for heating the hot junction of the ther-mal converter may be energy content of
chemical fuels or heat generated in nuclear reactors besides solar radiant energy.

Advantages of thermal converters are:

1. Absence of moving parts

2. Non-involvement of high pressures and use of any heat source.

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3. They are readily serviceable and quiet in operation.

4. reliability
5. compactness
6. portability
7. Ease of use.

The main drawbacks of thermal converters are:

1. high cost
2. low efficiency
3. low outputs.

Applications of Thermoelectric Power Generation:

These are widely employed as power sources on space crafts, submarines, missiles, beacons, and
other equipment of different kinds.
The thermoelectric generators are recognized as very con-venient direct energy conversion
systems. These are quite suitable for remote and space applications and promising systems for
waste heat recovery.

1. Nuclear Reactor with Thermoelectric Fuel Elements: A thermoelectric generator, as

incorporated in the fuel ele-ments of a nuclear reactor. This will help in obtaining large
outputs.
2. Combined Thermoelectric and Steam Power Plant: Thermoelectric generator can be
employed as topping plant to a steam power plant. The overall efficiency of the com-bined
plant will increase due to higher source temperature. The scheme is shown in Fig.

Fig.1.12 combined thermoelectric and steam power plant

3. Decay Heat of Radioactive Isotopes:

The decay heat of radioisotopes has been used for the operation of small (0.1 kW)
thermoelectric generators. Based on heat of decay of Strontium 85, remote
generators for signalling have been used.

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4. Solar Energy: A combination of thermoelectric gen-erator and solar collector can

be used to generate electrical energy from solar energy

6.Thermionic generator
Principle of Thermionic Converter:
A thermionic generator (converter) converts heat energy di-rectly to electrical energy by utilizing
thermionic emission effect. All metals and some oxides have free electrons which are released on
heating. In a thermionic converter, electrons act as the working fluid in place of a vapour or gas. In
this device electrons are emitted from the surface of heated metal. The energy required to extract
an electron from the metal is known as work function and expressed in electron volts (eV). The
work function depends upon the nature of metal and its surface condition.
The principle of thermionic converters is illustrated in Fig. In a thermionic converter two
electrodes are placed in a container containing an ionised gas or cesium vapour to reduce the space
charge. The cathode is heated by concentrating the rays on it. On heating of cathode the electrons
are emitted from it and travel to anode. The cathode and anode are connected externally through
the load circuit.

Fig. 1.13 Principle of Thermionic Converter

The electrons return back to cathode through the external circuit and the current flows through the
external circuit as shown in the figure. The heat energy is converted directly into electrical energy
through a process similar to that in a steam plant where water is evaporated in a boiler and the
steam is condensed after doing the useful work in an engine.

With the discovery of materials that provide adequate electron emission rates without getting
melted, the performance of the system has been largely improved. This device is being designed
for space power applications where high temperature operation is advantageous. Such converters
or generators are suitable for use with nuclear reactor or radioisotope heat sources.

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A thermionic generator is like a cyclic heat engine and its maximum efficiency is limited by
Carnot’s law. It is a low-voltage, high current device where current densities of 20-50 A/cm2 have
been achieved at voltage from 1 to 2 V. Thermal efficiencies of 10-20% have been realized.
Higher values are possible in future.

Thermionic generators can be used for large power generation. The fuel elements of a nuclear
reactor may be very suitable high temperature heat source for thermionic generator. This can be
surrounded by cooled anode and the in between space can be filled with ionized cesium vapour.

The energy of high temperature gases can be partly converted into electricity if the riser tubes of
the boiler are provided with cathode and anode of a thermionic generator with the interspace filled
with ionized cesium vapour.

In principle any heat source, fossil or nuclear fuel, a radioactive material or solar energy can be
used in a thermionic generator.

Many applications have been suggested for remote locations on the earth and in space as the
device are robust and reliable in unattended operation.

Thermionic Emitter (Cathode): The metal used for emission of electrons is known as an emitter
or cathode. The cathode is heated in an evacuated space to emit electrons. If the cathode is heated
in open air it would burn because of presence of oxygen in air.

Cathode should have the following properties:

1. The work function of the cathode should be low, so that small amount of energy is required
for the emission of electrons.
2. Cathode should have high melting point, so that it may withstand high temperature without
melting.
3. Cathode should have high mechanical strength.

Limitations of Thermionic Converter:

Thermionic converter is a direct energy conversion device with no moving parts. It is very robust,
and does not require any supervision for operation. It is very suitable for remote and space
applications.
It suffers from the following limitations:

1. The operating temperature of cathode is very high, so costly materials like tungsten,
rhenium are required for cathode.
2. Special shields of ceramic are required for protection of cathode from corrosive
combustion gases
3. The collector may also have to be made of molybdenum coated with cesium.
4. Ionised cesium vapour has to be filled in the interspace to reduce the space charge barrier
to promote electron emission from the cathode.

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Applications of Thermionic Converter:

1. Thermionic Converter in a Nuclear Reactor: The fuel element containing the fissile material
carries the cathode surrounded by the anode. The interspace is filled with ionized cesium gas. The
anode is cooled by the coolant from outside. Some of the energy released by nuclear fission is
directly converted into electrical energy by thermionic conversion. The remaining heat is used in
conventional bottoming steam plant. The overall efficiency of the plant, therefore, increases.

2. Thermionic Converter in the Riser Tube of a Boiler: The riser tubes of a boiler receive heat
by radiation from combustion gases. The riser tube is provided by a cathode and anode of a
thermionic converter. The interspace is filled with ionized cesium vapour. The use of the hot
combustion gases to produce extra power before the steam cycle improves the overall plant
efficiency.

3. MHD Thermionic-Steam Power Plant: The waste heat from the MHD generator at about
1,900°C is used to heat the cathode of thermionic converter. The heat from the anode is used in the
boiler of a steam power plant. The overall efficiency of the plant will, therefore increase.

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B.Tech First Year EEE Unit No.2

Nutan College of Engineering and Research, Talegaon Dabhade

B.Tech - First Year Engineering Semester: I
Subject: Energy and Environmental Engineering (BTES105)

Notes- Unit No.2 Renewable Power Generation

Syllabus: Solar, Wind, Biogas and Biomass, Ocean Thermal energy conversion (OTEC), Tidal,
Fuel cell, Magneto Hydro Dynamics (MHD): Schematic arrangement, advantages and
disadvantages

Conventional sources of energy:

1. Conventional sources of energy are the natural energy resources which are present in a limited
quantity and are being used for a long time.
2. They are called non-renewable sources as once they are depleted, they cannot be generated at
the speed which can sustain its consumption rate.
3. They are formed from decaying matter over hundreds of millions of years.
4. These resources have been depleted to a great extent due to their continuous exploitation.
5. It is believed that the deposits of petroleum in our country will be exhausted within few
decades and the coal reserves can last for a hundred more years.
6. Some common examples of conventional sources of energy include coal, petroleum, natural
gas and electricity.
Some important conventional energy sources are discussed below:
1. Coal:
Coal is a major conventional energy sources. It was formed from the remains of the trees and ferns
grew in swamps around 500 millions year ago. The bacterial and chemical decomposition of such
plant debris (which remained buried under water or clay) produced an intermediate product known
as peat which is mainly cellulose (C6H10O5)n. Due to progressive decomposition by heat and
pressure, the cellulose lost moisture H2 and Oz and got converted in to coal as per the given
equation

The average formula of coal is (C3/H4/)n. Out of the 6000 billion tons coal stocks under earth crust,
200 tons have been exploited the present society. The coal reserves are found in the states like
Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, M.P. and A.P.
2. Petroleum and natural gases:
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly alkanes and cycloalkanes. It occurs
below the earth crust entrapped under rocky strata. In its crude form, the viscous black liquid is
known as petroleum and a gas in contact with petroleum layer which flows naturally from oil wells

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is termed as natural gases. The composition of natural gas is a mixture of mainly methane,
(95.0%), small amounts of ethane, propane and butane (3.6%) and traces of CO2 (0.48%) and N2
(1.92%).
A liquid mixture of propane and butane can be obtained from natural gas or refinery gases
at room temperature under a pressure of 3-5 atmospheres. This is stored and distributed in 40-100
litre capacity steel cylinders.
The crude petroleum after being refined and purified, are available as petrol, diesel, kerosene,
lubricating oil, plastic etc. for commercial and domestic use. In India, the oil deposits are found at
Ganga-Brahmaputra Valley, Bombay high, plains of Gujarat, Thar Desert of Rajasthan and area
around Andaman Nicobar islands.

On the world basis, petroleum deposits are found at Saudi Arab, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, USA, Mexico,
Russia etc. As per the current survey, it is found that world petroleum deposits are diminishing at a
very faster rate. If preventive steps are not taken, the existing petroleum will be available
maximum up to 40 years.
3. Fuel woods:
The rural peoples require fuel wood or fire Wood for their day to day cooking which are obtained
from natural forests and plantations. Due to rapid deforestation, the availability of fire wood or fuel
wood becomes difficult. This problem can be avoided by massive afforestation (plantation) on
degraded forest land, culturable waste land, barren land grazing land etc.
4. Hydropower:
Energy obtainable from water flow or water falling from a higher potential to lower potential, is
known is hydro- power. It is a conventional and renewable form of energy which can be
transmitted to long distance through cables and wires.
5. Nuclear energy:
A small amount of radioactive substance (U235) can produce a lot of energy through the process of
nuclear fission. For example, one ton of uranium can provide energy which is much higher than
three million tons of coal or 12 million barrels of oil. In order to obtain nuclear energy, nuclear
reactors are required. There are around 300 nuclear reactors all over the world. India has only four
nuclear power stations (reactors).
The nuclear energy can be used in production of electrical energy, as a fuel for marine vessel and
space crafts and for the generation of heat in chemical processing plants.
Thorium is recovered from monazite sand found in the state of Kerala. Due to the higher energy
releasing tendency of these radioactive substances, these can be used in nuclear reactors to release
energy crisis. But the radioactive substances are exhaustible and can be used to develop nuclear
weapons of mass destruction. In addition, dumping or radioactive wastes cause serious
environmental hazards.

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Non-conventional sources of energy:

1. Non-conventional sources of energy are the energy sources which are continuously
replenished by natural processes.
2. These cannot be exhausted easily, can be generated constantly so can be used again and
again, e.g. solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, biomass energy and geothermal energy
etc.
3. The energy obtained from non-conventional sources is known as non-conventional energy.
4. These sources do not pollute the environment and do not require heavy expenditure.
5. They are called renewable resources as they can be replaced through natural processes at a
rate equal to or greater than the rate at which they are consumed.

Some nonconventional, renewable and inexpensive energy sources are described below:
1. Solar energy:
Solar energy, a primary energy source, is non-polluting and inexhaustible.
There are three methods to harness solar energy:
1. Converting solar energy directly into electrical energy in solar power stations using photo
cells or photovoltaic cells or silicon solar cell.
2. Using photosynthetic and biological process for energy trapping. In the process of
photosynthesis, green plants absorb solar energy and convert it into chemical energy, stored
in the form of carbohydrate.
3. Converting solar energy in to thermal energy by suitable devices which may be
subsequently converted into mechanical, chemical or electrical energy.
Since solar energy is non-ending and its conversion to some other energy form is nonpolluting,
attention should be paid for the maximum utilization of solar energy.
2. Wind energy:
Wind is air in motion. The movement of air takes place due to the convection current set out in the
atmosphere which is again due to heating of earth’s surface by solar radiation, rotation of earth etc.
The movement of air occurs both horizontally and vertically.
Since wind has a tremendous amount of energy, its energy can be converted into
mechanical or electrical energy using suitable devices, now days, wind energy s converted in to
electrical energy which is subsequently used for pumping water, grinding of corns etc.
3. Tidal energy:
The energy associated with the tides of the Ocean can be converted in to electrical energy. France
constructed the first tidal power plant in 1966. India could take up Ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) and by the process it will be capable of generating 50,000 mW of electricity,
to meet the power requirements of remote oceanic islands and coastal towns.
4. Geothermal energy:
The geothermal energy may be defined as the heat energy obtainable from hot rocks present inside
the earth crust. At the deeper region of earth crust, the solid rock gets melted in to magma, due to
very high temperature. The magma layer is pushed up due to some geological changes and get

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concentrated below the earth crust. The places of hot magma concentration at fairly less depth are
known as hot spots. These hot spots are known as sources of geothermal energy.

5. Bio-mass based energy:

The organic matters originated from living organisms (plants and animals) like wood, cattle dung,
sewage, agricultural wastes etc. are called as biomass. These substances can be burnt to produce
heat energy which can be used in the generation of electricity. Thus, the energy produced from the
biomass is known as biomass energy.
There are three forms of biomass:
(i) Biomass in traditional form:
Energy is released by direct burning of biomass (e.g. wood, agricultural residue etc.)
(ii) Biomass in nontraditional form:
The biomass may be converted in to some other form of fuel which can release energy. For
example carbohydrate can be converted into methanol or ethanol which may be used as a liquid
fuel.
(iii) Biomass for domestic use:
When organic matters like cow dung, agricultural wastes, human excreta etc. subjected to bacterial
decomposition in presence of water in absence of air, a mixture of CH4, CO2, H2, H2S etc. is
produced. These gases together are known as biogas. The residue left after the removal of biogas is
a good source of manure and biogas is used as a good source of non-polluting fuel.
6. Biogas:
Biogas is an important source of energy to meet energy, requirements of rural area. The gas is
generated by the action of bacteria on cow dung in absence of air (oxygen). There are two types of
biogas plants namely. Fixed done type and floating gas holder type
These plants are commonly known as Gobar gas plants because the usual raw material is cow dung
(Gobar). The methodology involves in the process is to prepare a slurry of cow dung with water.
Sometimes form waters can also be added to the slurry.
7. Petro plants:
In order to release the pressure on mineral oils (a nonrenewable resource), the scientists have
discovered some potential plant species from which liquid hydrocarbons can be extracted. The
liquid hydrocarbons present in such plants can be converted in to petroleum.
8. Dendrothermal energy (Energy plantation):
Due to rapid deforestation and overgrazing, a number of denuded wastelands are formed. On these
wastelands, fast growing trees and shrubs may be planted which will provide fuel wood, charcoal,
fodder, etc. Through gasification, these plants can produce a lot of energy.
9. Baggasse based plants:
Bagggasse is generated as a waste product in sugar mills. This can be utilised to produce electrical
energy. As per available data, the sugar mills in India can generate about 2000 mW surplus
electricity during crushing season.
10. Energy from urban waste:
Sewage and solid municipal wastes can also generate energy on their suitable treatments.

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Differences between conventional and non-conventional sources of energy are as follows:

Sr No Conventional sources of energy Non-conventional sources of energy

1 These sources of energy are not abundant, These sources of energy are abundant in
present in limited quantity, e.g. coal, nature, e.g. solar energy, wind energy, tidal
petroleum, natural gas. energy, biogas from biomass etc.
2 They have been in use for a long time. They are yet in development phase over the
past few years.
3 They are not replenished continuously. They are replenished continuously by
They are formed over a million years. natural processes.
4 They are called non-renewable sources of They are called renewable sources of
energy. energy.
5 They can be exhausted completely due to They cannot be exhausted completely.
over-consumption except for hydel
power.
6 They pollute the environment by emitting They are environment-friendly, do not
harmful gases and also contribute to pollute the environment.
global warming.
7 They are commonly used for industrial They are used commonly used for household
and commercial purposes. purposes.
8 Heavy expenditure is involved in using Using these sources is less expensive.
and maintaining these sources of energy.
9 They are used extensively, at a higher rate They are not used as extensively as
than the non-conventional sources. conventional sources.

Energy Scenario in India

As of Feb 2023, Renewable energy sources, including large hydropower, have a combined
installed capacity of 174.53 GW.
The following is the installed capacity for Renewables:
1. Wind power: 41.9 GW
2. Solar Power: 63.3 GW
3. Biomass/Co-generation: 10.2 GW
4. Small Hydro Power: 4.93 GW
5. Waste To Energy: 0.52 GW
6. Large Hydro: 46.85 GW
7. India has set a target to reduce the carbon intensity of the nation’s economy by less than
45% by the end of the decade, achieve 50 percent cumulative electric power installed by
2030 from renewables, and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070. Low-carbon
technologies could create a market worth up to $80 billion in India by 2030.
8. India‘s target is to produce five million Tonnes of green hydrogen by 2030. Green
Hydrogen target is set at India’s electrolyzer manufacturing capacity is projected to reach 8
GW per year by 2025. The cumulative value of the green hydrogen market in India could

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reach $8 Bn by 2030 and India will require at least 50 gigawatts (GW) of electrolyzers or
more to ramp up hydrogen production.
9. India currently has a total renewable energy capacity of 168.96 GW (as on 28th February
2023) with about 82 GW at various stages of implementation and about 41 GW under
tendering stage. This includes 64.38 GW Solar Power, 51.79 GW Hydro Power, 42.02 GW
Wind Power and 10.77 GW Bio Power
10. 59 solar parks of aggregate capacity 40 GW have been approved in India.
11. Solar Parks in Pavagada (2 GW), Kurnool (1 GW) and Bhadla-II (648 MW) included in top
5 operational solar parks of 7 GW capacity in the country.
12. The world’s largest renewable energy park of 30 GW capacity solar-wind hybrid project is
under installation in Gujarat.
13. India offers a great opportunity for investments in RE sector; $196.98 Bn worth of projects
underway in India.
14. Wind Energy has an offshore target of 30 GW by 2030 with 3 potential sites identified.

Solar Energy
Solar power is energy from the sun. Although the sun is 150 million kilometers away it is still
extremely powerful. The amount of energy it provides for the earth in one minute is large enough
to meet the earth’s energy needs for one year. The problem is in the development of technology
that can harness this ‘free’ energy source.
A relatively minor additional loss is due to Earth’s atmosphere and clouds, which absorb or
scatter as much as 54 percent of the incoming sunlight. The sunlight that reaches the ground
consists of nearly 50 percent visible light, 45 percent infrared radiation, and smaller amounts of
ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Flat Plate Solar Collectors
Construction: These are the main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:
1. Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy
2. Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but prevents
radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
3. Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
4. Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place
5. Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses

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Fig. 2.1 Flat Plate Solar Collector

Working
1. Flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing) on top and a
dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom.
2. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss.
3. Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up,
changing solar energy into heat energy.
4. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipes attached to the absorber plate.
5. Absorber plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain
heat better than ordinary black paint.
6. Absorber plates are usually made of metal typically copper or aluminum because the metal
is a good heat conductor.
7. Copper is more expensive, but is a better conductor and less prone to corrosion than
aluminum.
8. In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized
approximately one-half- to one-square foot per gallon of one-day's hot water use.
Advantages of the flat-plate collectors:
1. Easy to manufacture
2. Collect both beam and diffuse radiation
3. Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment is required)
4. Little maintenance
Disadvantages of the flat-plate collectors:
1. Larger in weight
2. Suitable only for low temperature applications
3. Low collector efficiency for solar radiations
4. High initial cost
Applications:
1. In residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills.
This generally means a situation with a large family, or a situation in which the hot water
demand is excessive.

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2. Commercial applications include Laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and
eating establishments.
3. For space heating
4. Kitchens that require large quantities of hot water.

Parabolic Trough Collector Systems

Fig.2.2 Parabolic Collector

Fig.2.3 Parabolic trough Power Plant

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1. Parabolic trough technology is used in solar thermal plants. The potential of this type of
concentrating collectors is very high and can provide output fluid temperatures in the range
up to 500°C.
2. Parabolic trough is the linear-focus collector, which consists of a cylindrically curved
parabolic mirror, which reflects the sunlight onto a tubular receiver positioned in the focus
line of the parabola.
3. The tubular receiver contains the fluid that absorbs heat and transfers it via circulation to
the boiler or another device to produce steam.
4. Rows of parabolic mirrors are mounted in parallel on either a north-south axis or an east-
west axis (there are pros and cons to each orientation based on location and energy
production requirements) and move to track the sun across the sky.
5. The tubes are very carefully designed to absorb solar radiation and transfer the heat to the
heat exchange fluid passing through the tube.
6. Fluid is pumped through the absorber tubes that are connected in series and parallel.
7. Some systems employ an insulated storage tank to enable power generation when the solar
resource is either intermittent (due to something like cloud cover) or unavailable (typically
during the early evening hours).
8. The heat transfer fluid is then passed through the storage tank, if it exists, and then pumped
to heat exchangers to transfer the heat to water (except in the case of direct steam
generation where water is already the heat transfer fluid and a heat exchanger is not
needed) to generate steam for expansion in a steam turbine to generate electricity.
9. Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name of the world’s largest parabolic
trough solar thermal electricity generation system, developed by Luz in southern
California, USA. SEGS is the second largest solar thermal power plant in the world at 354
MW The three largest plants in the world currently range in size from 250 MW to 354 MW
and are all located in the US. The next twelve largest plants in the world range in size from
100 MW to 200 MW and are all located in Spain.

While solar collectors are most cost-effective in sunny, temperate areas, they can be cost effective
virtually anywhere in the country so should be considered.

Photovoltaic (PV) Solar Plant

All photovoltaic (PV) cells create electricity when exposed to sunlight by converting photons into
electrons without creating any environmental problems such as pollution and waste. These
photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon (Si),
which is currently the most commonly used.

The three general types of photovoltaic cells made from silicon are:

1. Mono-crystalline Silicon – also known as single-crystal silicon

2. Poly-crystalline Silicon – also known as multi-crystal silicon
3. Thin Film Silicon

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1. Mono-crystalline Silicon – It is a type of photovoltaic cell material manufactured from a

single-crystal silicon structure which is uniform in shape because the entire structure is
grown from the same crystal. High purity silicon is melted in a crucible
A single-crystal silicon seed is dipped into this molten silicon and is slowly pulled out from the
liquid producing a single-crystal ingot.

The ingot is then cut into very thin wafers or slices which are then polished, doped, coated,
interconnected and assembled into modules and final into a photovoltaic array. These types of
photovoltaic cells are also widely used in photovoltaic panel construction.

Compared to non-crystalline cells, the uniform molecular structure of the silicon wafer makes it
ideal for transferring loose electrons through the material resulting in a high energy conversion
efficiency. The conversion efficiency for a mono-crystalline cell ranges between 15 to 20%.

Not only are they energy efficient, mono-crystalline photovoltaic cells are highly reliable for
outdoor power applications due to their wafer thickness. However, to make an effective PV cell,
the silicon has to be “doped” with other elements to make the required N-type and P-type
conductive layers.

2. Poly-crystalline Silicon It is also known as multi-crystalline silicon, is cast to produce a

silicon ingot. The silicon molecular structure consists of several smaller groups or grains of
crystals, which introduce boundaries between them. Poly-crystalline PV cells are less
energy efficient than the previous mono-crystalline silicon PV cells because these
boundaries restrict the flow of electrons through it by encouraging the negative electrons to
recombine with the positive holes reducing the power output of the cell.

The result of this means that a poly-crystalline PV cell only has an energy conversion
efficiency of between 10 to 14%. However, these types of photovoltaic cell are much less
expensive to produce than the equivalent single mono-crystalline silicon due to their lower
manufacturing costs.

3. Thin Film Solar Cell

Thin Film Solar Cells are another photovoltaic types of cell which were originally developed for
space applications with a better power-to-size and weight ratio compared to the previous
crystalline silicon devices. As their name implies, thin film photovoltaics are produced by printing
or spraying a very thin semiconductor layer of photovoltaic silicon material onto a glass, metal or
plastic foil backing substrate.

By applying these materials in thin layers, the overall thickness of each photovoltaic cell is
substantially smaller than an equivalent cut crystalline cell, hence the name “thin film”. As the PV
materials used in these types of photovoltaic cells are sprayed directly onto a glass or metal

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substrate, the manufacturing process is therefore faster are cheaper making thin film PV
technology more viable for use in a home solar system as their payback time is shorter.

However, although thin film materials have higher light absorption than equivalent crystalline
materials, thin film PV cells suffer from poor cell conversion efficiency due to their non-single
crystal structure, requiring larger sized cells. Semiconductor materials used for the thin film types
of photovoltaic cell include: Cadmium Telluride, Amorphous Silicon and Copper Indium
diSelenide or CIS.

Construction of Solar Power Plant:

Main parts of the Photovoltaic (PV) Solar Plant are
1. Solar Panels: The solar panels that convert sunlight into electricity, generating a direct
current (DC)
2. Solar Cells
a. Photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is a specialized semiconductor diode that converts visible light
into direct current (DC). Some PV cells can also convert infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV)
radiation into DC electricity. Photovoltaic cells are an integral part of solar-electric energy
systems.

b. The first PV cells were made of silicon combined, or doped, with other elements to affect
the behavior of electrons or holes (electron absences within atoms).
c. Other materials, such as copper indium diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and
gallium arsenide (GaAs), have been developed for use in PV cells.
d. There are two basic types of semiconductor material, called positive (or P type) and
negative (or N type).
e. In a PV cell, flat pieces of these materials are placed together, and the physical boundary
between them is called the P-N junction.
f. The device is constructed in such a way that the junction can be exposed to visible light,
IR, or UV.
g. When such radiation strikes the P-N junction, a voltage difference is produced between the
P type and N type materials. Electrodes connected to the semiconductor layers allow
current to be drawn from the device.
h. Large sets of PV cells can be connected together to form solar modules, arrays, or panels.

3. Battery
Batteries are used to produce the power back or store the excess energy produced during
day, to be supplied during night.

4. D.C. to A.C. Converter (Inverter)

Solar panels produce direct current which is required to be converted into alternating
current to be supplied to homes or power grid.

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Fig. 2.4 Working of Photovoltaic Solar Power Plant

Working of Solar Power Plant

1. As sunlight falls over solar cells, a large number of photons strike the p-type region of
silicon.
2. Electron and hole pair will get separated after absorbing the energy of photon. The electron
travels from p-type region to n-type region due to the action of electric field at p-n junction.
3. The diode is reversed biased to increase this electric field. So this current starts flowing in
the circuit for individual solar cell.
4. The current of all the solar cells of a solar panel is combined to get a significant output.
Solar power plant has a large number of solar panels connected to each other to get a large
voltage output.
5. The electrical energy coming from the combined effort of solar panels is stored in the
Lithium ion batteries to be supplied at night time, when there is no sunlight.

Advantages of Photovoltaic (PV) Solar Plant

1. Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do not use fuel other
than sunshine,
2. PV systems do not release any harmful air or water pollution into the environment, deplete
natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.
3. Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually unobtrusive.
4. Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on rooftops of existing
buildings.
5. It operates reliably for long periods of time with virtually no maintenance.
6. Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need to be imported from
other regions of the country or across the world. This reduces environmental impacts
associated with transportation and also reduces our dependence on imported oil. And,
unlike fuels that are mined and harvested, when we use solar energy to produce electricity
we do not deplete or alter the resource.
7. A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy requirements.

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Disadvantages of Photovoltaic (PV) Solar Plant

1. Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV production process.
These environmental impacts are minor and can be easily controlled through recycling and
proper disposal.
2. Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than conventional sources of energy
due in part to the cost of manufacturing PV devices and in part to the conversion
efficiencies of the equipment. As the conversion efficiencies continue to increase and the
manufacturing costs continue to come down, PV will become increasingly cost competitive
with conventional fuels.
3. Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production dependent on the sun.
Solar facilities may produce no power at all some of the time, which could lead to an
energy shortage if too much of a region's power come from solar power.
4. Power production is quite low as compared to nuclear or other resources to produce power.
5. The energy storage options are not efficient and moreover costly if efficient.
6. It requires a lot of land to be captured forever.
7. Initial cost of installation is too high

Applications
1. Solar power plant is powering cities in most efficient manner.
2. Solar panels could be used to generate electricity individually for each house especially in
remote areas.
Wind Power Plant
Introduction:
Wind energy is renewable source of energy and available all around the globe. So to harness this
natural resource in the best possible way wind turbines are designed .Wind turbine can operate
from 15km/hr to 90km/hr of wind speed, and are being vastly used all around the world. The wind
power plant are used for the generation of electricity in high wind area with the help of wind
turbines.
What Creates Wind?
Almost 2% of the solar energy coming to the earth is converted into wind energy. It is due to the
uneven heating of the earth surface that causes different low pressure zones and air molecules
move from high pressure zone to low pressure zone thus creates the wind. The rotation of the earth
and surface irregularities causes the wind to follow a random path all around the earth. This
flowing of this wind is extracted at wind power plant to rotate generators that produces electricity.
Types of Wind Turbines
1. Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)
2. Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
It is a turbine in which the axis of rotation of rotor is parallel to the ground and also parallel to
wind direction.

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Fig. 2.5 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

They are further divided into two types
(i) Upwind turbine
(ii) Downwind turbine
(i) Upwind Turbine
a) The turbine in which the rotor faces the wind first are called upwind turbine.
b) Today most of the HAWT is manufactured with this design.
c) This turbine must be inflexible and placed at some distance from the tower.
d) The basic advantage of this turbine is that, it is capable of avoiding wind shade behind the
tower.
e) It requires yaw mechanism, so that its rotor always faces the wind.

(ii) Downwind Turbine

The turbine in which the rotor is present at the downside of the tower is called downwind turbine.
In these types of wind turbines, the wind first faces the tower and after that it faces the rotor
blades.
a) Yaw mechanism is absent in this turbine. The rotors and nacelles are designed in such a
way that the nacelle allows the wind to flow in a controlled manner.
b) It receives some fluctuation in wind power because here the rotor passes through the wind
shade of the tower. In other words the rotor is present after nacelle of the tower and this
create fluctuation in the wind power.

Advantages of HAWTs

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1. It has self-starting ability. It does not require any external power source to start.
2. It has high efficiency as compared with the HAWT.
3. Capable of working in high wind speed condition.
4. In the case of slow wind condition, its angle of attack can be varied to get maximum
possible efficiency.
5. Since all blades of this turbine work simultaneously, so it is capable of extracting
maximum energy form the wind

Disadvantages of HAWTs

1. Its initial installation cost is high.

2. It requires large ground area for its installation.
3. Because of its giant size of blades and towers, it becomes difficult to transport it to the
sites.
4. High maintenance cost.
5. Creates noise problem.
6. It cannot be installed near human population.
7. It is not good for the bird’s population. They are killed by its blades rotation.

2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

Fig. 2.6 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

It is a turbine in which the axis of rotation of the rotor is perpendicular to the ground and also
perpendicular to the wind direction.
1. It can operates in low wind situation.
2. It is easier to build and transport.

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3. These types of Wind turbines are mounted close to the ground and are capable of handling
turbulence in far better way as compared with the HAWT.
4. Because of its less efficiency, it is used only for the private purpose.

Advantages of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

1. It is simple in design and easy to construct and transport.
2. It can be easily installed to desired location.
3. It requires less ground area for its installation.
4. Initial installation cost is very less as compared with the HAWT.
5. It can work in turbulent wind condition.
6. It is omni-directional and hence do not need to track winds.
7. They are smaller in size and hence can be used for domestic or private purpose easily.
8. They have low maintenance cost as compared with the HAWT.

Disadvantages of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

1. It is less efficient. The efficiency of this turbine is about 30-35%.
2. They are not self-starting. A small powered motor is needed to start it.
3. Guy wires may required to support this turbine.
4.
Difference between Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine and Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
S.no Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
1. In HAWTs, the axis of rotation of the In VAWTs the axis of rotation of the
rotor is Horizontal to the ground. rotor is perpendicular to the ground.
2. Yaw mechanism is present. Absence of Yaw mechanism.
3. It has high initial installation cost. It has low initial installation cost.
4. They are big in size. They are small in size.
5. Its efficiency is high. It has low efficiency.
6. It requires large ground area for It requires less ground area for
installation. installation.
7. High maintenance cost. Low maintenance cost as compared
with HAWT.
8. They are self-starting. They are not self-starting.
9. They are unable to work in low wind They are capable of working in low
speed condition. wind speed condition.
10. Difficult in transportation. Easy in transportation.
11. They are mostly used commercially. They are mostly used for private
purpose only.
12. It cannot be installed near human It can be installed near human
population. population.
13. It is not good for the bird’s It is good for the bird’s population.
population.

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Principle of Wind Turbine

All the wind turbines used today are horizontal axis machine with 3 bladed rotor spinning in a
vertical plane. Wind energy is used to rotate these blades, which are mounted at a height of almost
40 meters. Thus converting kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy. This mechanical
energy is then converted to electrical energy using generator.

Fig. 2.7 Wind Turbine

It’s a horizontal axis machine with 2-3 rotor blades that spins in a vertical plane, these blades are
mounted on a hub and this hub is connected to a box called nacelle.

1. Nacelle– It is named after the furring of an aircraft engine. It is a fable glass tube that contains
the gearbox, brakes and a generator. However for turbines generating up to 2MW/unit high voltage
transformer is also placed in nacelle itself. Also it has got direction and speed sensors mounted as
back as possible on nacelle to prevent them from the dirt coming from blades.

2. Gearbox– Shaft connected to hub directly goes into gearbox and it increase its rpm to require
level .it is the heaviest part in the nacelle.

3. Brakes– Brakes are used when wind is blowing above critical level to same turbine from
damage .Brakes is mounted just behind the gearbox.

4. Generator- It converts the energy of fast rotating shaft into electrical energy, and finally the
high voltage transformer converts it to high voltage to be ready to go in transmission lines.

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5. Tower- It‘s the cylindrical structure on which nacelle is mounted. For a sub megawatt turbine
generating upto 400-600 watts of power its height may vary from 25m to 45 meter. However the
diameter of this cylinder reduces as we go up the tower. The transmission cable from generator
comes down inside this tower to the high voltage transformer. Tower also has a ladder inside it
with wooden platforms at different heights. The platform connected to the nacelle is called the yaw
platform.

6. Yaw Platform- It is a steel platform at the top of the tower and helps the nacelle to yaw in the
direction of the wind. It has also got brakes in some high end wind turbines to maintain the
direction of the nacelle.

Working of Wind Power Plant

Fig. 2.8 Working of Wind Power Plant

1. Blades of the wind turbine work as an airfoil of different cross-sections all along the length.
When fluid (air) moves over this airfoil it generates a lift force thus making the blade to
rotate at its axis. The generator is also connected to the rotor shaft starts rotating and
produces electricity.
2. Rotating blades can get us electricity. But the wind speed keeps on changing with time so
we get a fluctuation in power. To overcome this, threshold velocity is decided at which
turbine will start rotating, below that brakes are used to prevent the blades from rotating.
And for high wind velocity brakes are applied to prevent turbine from damage.
3. Motors and sensors are used to rotate the blades about their axis so that they can adjust
according to the varying direction of wind and to extract maximum power out of wind.
4. Blades are also rotated to stop the turbine from rotating, means they are oriented in such a
way that no lift will be generated even with the blowing wind.

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5. In a wind power plant ,turbines are required to be interconnected to get the best out of
them .They are connected to each other by a medium voltage power collection system
usually around 35.5 kV along with a communication network, that helps them to
communicate.

Biogas and Biomass

Introduction:
Biomass and biogas are related to each other. Biogas is produced from biomass. In other words,
biomass is the starting material or the raw material for the production of biogas. The major
component of biomass is carbon. Therefore, biogas is also composed of a carbon component.
Biogas is composed of different gases. Biogas is produced by the breakdown of organic matter.
There are many differences between biomass and biogas; the main difference between biomass and
biogas is that biomass is a solid material whereas biogas is a mixture of gaseous compounds.

Biomass:
1. Biomass is the biological material that is derived from living organisms. It can be defined
as the total mass of organisms in a given area or volume. This term is applicable to both
plant and animal-derived material. Biomass is considered as a source of fuel derived from
organic materials. It is a renewable and sustainable source of energy. Biomass can be used
to produce electricity or other forms of energy.
2. Some sources of biomass are wood and waste derived from wood, forest debris, animal
manure, agricultural crops, and waste, etc. The largest component of biomass comes from
wood. Biomass includes plant and animal matter that can be converted into important
chemicals, including biofuels.
3. Biomass may include all biological materials of living organisms. For example, sugarcane
is the biomass used for the production of bioethanol.
4. Biomass can be converted into other types of energy. This conversion can be done by
burning. For example, burning wood gives energy in the form of heat and light. Biomass
can also be decomposed in order to form biogas. This decomposition can occur as a natural
process or an industrial process using digesters
5. Moreover, biomass can be converted into biodiesel, bioethanol, etc. through fermentation.
For this process to occur, vegetable fat and animal fat is used as a raw material.

Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion, or the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria in the absence of oxygen,
occurs naturally in liquid manure systems. The lack of oxygen and abundance of organic matter in
liquid manure provide the proper conditions for anaerobic bacteria to survive. Unfortunately,
uncontrolled anaerobic decomposition can cause the foul odors sometimes associated with liquid
manure storage and spreading. However, controlled anaerobic decomposition not only can reduce

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the odors in liquid manure systems, but also can turn odorous compounds and organic matter into
energy. The effluent remaining after controlled anaerobic decomposition, equal in volume to the
influent material, is liquefied, low in odor, and rich in nutrients. This digested material is
biologically stable and will resist further breakdown and odor production when stored under
normal conditions.
Anaerobic bacteria transform manure and other organic material into biogas and a liquefied
effluent during the three stages of biogas production. In the liquefaction stage, liquefying bacteria
convert insoluble, fibrous materials such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins into soluble
substances. However, some fibrous material cannot be liquefied and can accumulate in the digester
or can pass through the digester intact. Water and other inorganic material also can accumulate in
the digester or pass through the digester unchanged. Undigested materials make up the low-odor,
liquefied effluent. Most of the liquified, soluble compounds are converted to biogas by the acid-
and methane-forming bacteria during steps 2 and 3 of biogas production. In the second stage of
anaerobic digestion, acid-forming bacteria convert the soluble organic matter into volatile acids--
the organic acids that can cause odor production from stored liquid manure. Finally, methane-
forming bacteria convert those volatile acids into biogas--a gas composed of about 60 percent
methane, 40 percent carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, and
ammonia. Not all volatile acids and soluble organic compounds are converted to biogas; some
become part of the effluent.

Fig. 2.9 stages of biogas production

Biogas
Biogas is a flammable gas. Therefore, it is combustible. It forms a blue flame when combusted.
This is a good source of energy. The major components of biogas include methane and carbon
dioxide. Biogas can be named according to the place where it is produced.
Biogas is used as a fuel and is a biofuel. Biogas can be produced from
different types of organic matter. Therefore, it can be used to treat municipal wastewater, industrial
wastewater, etc. Biogas can be used in several ways including the production of gas, electricity,
heat, and transportation fuels

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Fig.2.10 Biogas Plant

Working
1. Organic input materials such as foodstuff remnants, fats or sludge can be fed into the
biogas plant as substrate.
2. Renewable resources such as corn, beets or grass serve as feed both for animals such as
cows and pigs as well as for the micro organisms in the biogas plant.
3. Manure and dung are also fed into the biogas plant.
4. In the fermenter, heated to approx. 38-40 °C, the substrate is decomposed by the micro
organisms under exclusion of light and oxygen. The final product of this fermentation
process is biogas with methane as the main ingredient. But aggressive hydrogen sulphide is
also contained in the biogas. A fermenter made of stainless steel has the clear advantage
that it withstands the attacks of the hydrogen sulphide and is usable for decades.
Furthermore, a stainless steel fermenter provides the opportunity to operation the biogas
plant also in the thermophile temperature range (up to 56 °C).
5. Once the substrate has been fermented, it is transported to the fermentation residues end
storage tank and can be retrieved from there for further utilisation.
6. The residues can be utilised as high quality fertiliser. The advantage: Biogas manure has a
lower viscosity and therefore penetrates into the ground more quickly. Furthermore, the
fermentation residue quite often has a higher fertiliser value and is less intense to the
olfactory senses.
7. But drying it and subsequently using it as dry fertiliser is also an option.
8. The biogas generated is stored in the roof of the tank and from there it is burned in the
combined heat and power plant (CHP) to generate electricity and heat.
9. The electric power is fed directly into the power grid.

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10. The heat generated can be utilised to heat building or to dry wood or harvest products,
Processing of biogas, Gas supply to the national grid or gas filling stations

Advantages of biogas
1. Ecofriendly: Biogas is evolved through anaerobic digestion that means no oxygen is need
for its production. No form of combustion is evolved thus no greenhouse gases are
released. Thus biogas is environment friendly.
2. Renewable: Biogas is a renewable source of energy. All the products used such as
garbage, sewage, residues of crop, manure and green manure are and will be available in
plenty. So biogas can be produced on a regular basis.
3. Reduce soil pollution: All the products used in the production of biogas are ecofriendly
and are biodegradable. Mixed with soil, it becomes manure and increases the fertility of the
soil thus reducing soil pollution.
4. Low investment: Biogas can be developed at home with a very low cost and investment.
The raw materials used can be obtained free of cost. The gases evolved can be easily used
for cooking and generating electricity. If biogas is compressed, natural gas can be obtained
and used to power automobiles.
5. Healthier generation: The byproducts of biogas generation can be used as organic manure
(digestate) which is rich in nutrients. This can be used as a perfect supplement for chemical
fertilizers thus reducing health complications.
6. Employment: The biogas industry has created a large number of employment
opportunities in many countries. Umpteen number of people are hired for raw material
collection and biogas generation.
7. Healthy cooking alternative: Biogas is a healthy cooking alternative and it’s economical
too. This helps women and children especially in the rural areas from firewood collection.
Cooking on gas stove is always a healthier better option as compared to cooking over an
open fire.
8. Improves water quality: Anaerobic digestion reduces and deactivates pathogens and
parasites. This in turn reduces water pollution and water born diseases.
9. Reduces fossil fuel use: The uses of fossil fuels like oil, coal and gas can be reduced to a
great extend as the use of biogas is increased. This has further helped countries like India
and china as they have invested a lot in biogas plants and its development.

Disadvantages of biogas
1. Contains impurities: The biofuel used for automobiles contains impurities that can cause
erosion to the metal parts. This increases the maintenance cost of the vehicles. This is more
suitable for household purposes.
2. Cannot meet demand: Biogas is in great demand because of its low cost. But
unfortunately the technologies now are not that efficient so produce as much to meet the
requirements. In most of the countries, the government is not willing to invest more on
these biogas plants.

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3. Not suitable for all areas: Biogas can be used in areas where raw materials are available
in plenty. Mostly these are available in plenty in rural areas. So it’s only practical to build
biogas plant in rural areas.
4. Not economically attractive: Since the raw materials used are cheaply available it is not
economically attractive.
5. Affected by weather: Like most of the renewable source of energy, biogas also has
temperature effects. The ideal condition for bacteria to act is warm climate. So it is difficult
to set up a biogas in areas where the climate is cold.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

1. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a technology for generating renewable
energy that uses the temperature differential between the deep cold and relatively warmer
surface waters of the ocean to generate baseload electricity.
2. The technology is viable primarily in equatorial areas of the earth where the year round
temperature differential between the deep cold and warm surface ocean waters is greater
than 20 ⁰C (36 ⁰F).
3. An OTEC facility continuously requires large volumes of both warm and cold water to
generate electricity. A 100 megawatt (MW) OTEC facility would likely require 10-20
billion of gallons of water per day. There are several types of OTEC systems; this
document describes the most likely initial commercial OTEC facility: an offshore, closed-
cycle system.

Fig. 2.11 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Closed-Cycle OTEC Power System:
1. Eighty percent of the sun’s solar energy is absorbed into the surface of the world’s oceans,
and it is replenished daily regardless of weather patterns.

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2. In a closed cycle OTEC system, water flows through a large pipe and heat exchanger,
which heats a liquid with a low boiling point, such as ammonia.
3. As the boiling ammonia creates steam, it turns a turbine generator to produce electricity.
4. A second pipe extracts cool deep water from the ocean, which condenses the steam back to
liquid form.
5. As the ammonia is recycled, the process repeats, creating unlimited clean energy 24 hours a
day, 365 days a year.
6. This process is known as the Rankine cycle, commonly found in typical oil, coal, or
nuclear power generation plants.
7. The difference with OTEC is that it uses the solar energy from the ocean – no fossil fuels
are used in OTEC’s power generatio
8. Cold Water Pipe: A unique feature of an OTEC facility is the cold water pipe. The pipe
must be able to withstand the rigors of the marine environment in order remain attached the
OTEC platform. In order to obtain the temperature differential required for the system (20
⁰C), the pipe must be able to withdraw cold water at a depth of approximately 3300 feet
(1000 meters). To accommodate the large cold water flows, the size of the pipe for a 100
MW facility may be approximately 33 feet (10 meters) in diameter. The construction,
deployment, and installation of the cold water pipe have remained an engineering
challenge.

Advantages of OTEC system:

1. Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable and pollution free.
2. Unlike other forms of solar energy, output of OTEC shows very little daily or
seasonal variation.
3. Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the
thermocline, could be accomplished with minimum environment impact.
4. Electric power generated by OTEC could be used to produce hydrogen.
5. Tropical and sub-tropical island sites could be made free from pollution caused by
conventional fuels for electricity generation.
6. OTEC system might help in enrichment of fishing grounds due to the nutrients from
the unproductive deep waters to the warmer surface waters.
7. A floating OTEC plant can generate power even at mid sea and can be used to
provide power for off shore mining and processing of manganese nodules.
Limitations of OTEC system
1. Capital investment is very high.
2. Due to small temperature difference in between the surface water and deep water,
conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4%.
3. Low efficiency of these plants coupled with high capital cost and maintenance cost makes
them uneconomical for small plants.
4. Capital cost is very high.
5. Efficiency of energy conversion is very low.

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6. Needs very large sized turbines due to use of low pressure of steam having high specific
volume in case of open cycle.
7. It uses expensive power working fluids in case of closed cycle.
8. Cost of electric power generation per kWh is very high

Tidal Power
Tidal Power is another form of hydro power that utilizes large amounts of energy within the
oceans tides to generate electricity. Tidal Energy is a “renewable energy source”, as the Earth uses
the gravitational forces of both the moon and the sun every day to move vast quantities of water
around the oceans and seas producing tides.
As the Earth, its Moon and the Sun rotate around each other in space, the gravitational movement
of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth causes millions of gallons of water to flow
around the Earth’s oceans creating periodic shifts in these moving bodies of water. These vertical
shifts of water are called “tides”.

Fig. 2.12 Alignment of the Moon and Sun on Tides

High tide: When the earth and the moons gravity lines up with each other, the influences of these
two gravitational forces becomes very strong and causes millions of gallons of water to move or
flow towards the shore creating a “high tide” condition.
Low tide: when the earth and the moons gravity are at 90o to each other, the influences of these
two gravitational forces is weaker and the water flows away from the shore as the mass of water
moves to another location on the earth, creating a “low tide” condition.
This ebbing and flowing of the tides happens twice during each period of rotation of the earth with
stronger weekly and annual lunar cycles superimposed onto these tides.
Spring tides: When the moon is in perfect alignment with the earth and the sun, the gravitational
pull of the moon and sun together becomes much stronger than normal with the high tides

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becoming very high and the low tides becoming very low during each tidal cycle. Such tides are
known as spring tides (maximum). These spring tides occur during the full or new moon phase.
Neap tides: The other tidal situation arises during neap tides (minimum) when the gravitational
pull of the moon and the sun are against each other, thus cancelling their effects. The net result is a
smaller pulling action on the sea water creating much smaller differences between the high and
low tides thereby producing very weak tides. Neap tides occur during the quarter moon phase.
Then spring tides and neap tides produce different amounts of potential energy in the movement of
the sea water as their effects differ from the regular high and low sea levels and we can use these
tidal changes to produce renewable energy. So we can say that the tides are turning for alternative
energy.
The constant rotational movement of the earth and the moon with regards to each other causes
huge amounts of water to move around the earth as the tides go in and out. These tides are
predictable and regular resulting in two high tides and two low tides each day with the level of the
oceans constantly moving between a high tide and a low tide, and then back to a high tide again.

Working principle of Tidal power plant: Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of
the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of
potential energy which is used for power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level,
it is called flood tide. When the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.

Working: The arrangement of this system is shown in figure 2.8The ocean tides rise and fall and
water can be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam is
constructed separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is obtained
between the basin and sea.

Fig. 2.13 High Tide

During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and
generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.
During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the
basin is more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator power.

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Fig. 2.14 Low Tide

The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal. For the
generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some minimum tide height
and suitable site.
Advantages of Tidal Power Plant
1. It is pollution free.
2. Energy is freely available.
3. Power is ensured around the year.
4. It is unaffected by the unpredictability of monsoon.

Disadvantages of Power Plant

1. The capital cost of the plant is high.
2. Every location is not suitable for installing such a system.
3. Sedimentation of basins is a problem.
4. Sea water is very corrosive.
5. Marine life is affected.

Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is a device that generates electrical power through a chemical reaction by converting a
fuel (hydrogen) into electricity. Although fuel cells and batteries are both considered
electrochemical cells and consist of similar structure, fuel cells require a continuous source of fuel
and oxygen to run; similar to how an internal combustion engine needs a continuous flow of
gasoline or diesel.

Types of Fuel cells

1. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells—also called proton exchange membrane fuel cells—
deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume compared with other
fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes
containing a platinum or platinum alloy catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and
water to operate. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or
reformers.

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PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C (176°F). Low-temperature
operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in less wear on system
components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst (typically
platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The
platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning, making it necessary to
employ an additional reactor to reduce carbon monoxide in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from
a hydrocarbon fuel. This reactor also adds cost.

PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary applications.
PEM fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in vehicle applications, such as cars, buses, and heavy-
duty trucks.

2. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system directly or can be
generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and
hydrocarbon fuels. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol,
which is usually mixed with water and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel cell
systems because methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen—though less than gasoline or
diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to transport and supply to the public using our current
infrastructure because it is a liquid, like gasoline. DMFCs are often used to provide power for portable
fuel cell applications such as cell phones or laptop computers.

3. Alkaline Fuel Cells

4. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
6. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
7. Reversible Fuel Cells

Working: A fuel cell needs three main components to create the chemical reaction:
an anode, cathode and an electrolyte. First, a hydrogen fuel is channeled to the anode via flow
fields. Hydrogen atoms become ionized (stripped of electrons), and now carry only a positive
charge. Then, oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode, where it combines with electrons returning
from the electrical circuit and the ionized hydrogen atoms. Next, after the oxygen atom picks up
the electrons, it then travels through the electrolyte to combine with the hydrogen ion. The
combination of oxygen and ionized hydrogen serve as the basis for the chemical reaction.

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Fig. 2.15 Fuel Cell

A polymer electrolyte membrane permits the appropriate ions to pass between the anode and the
cathode. If the electrolyte gave free control for all electrons or ions to pass freely, it would disrupt
the chemical reaction. At the end of the process the positively charged hydrogen atoms react with
the oxygen to form both water and heat while creating an electrical charge.

Advantages of Fuel Cells

1. It offers an effective method of energy storage.
2. This technology offers a high level of energy efficiency.
3. The emissions from a hydrogen fuel cell are virtually zero.
4. Vehicles using a hydrogen fuel cell achieve a better fuel economy rating.
5. Greater level of consistency with hydrogen fuel cells.
6. It is possible to create hydrogen fuel cells with a neutral emissions cost.
7. A hydrogen fuel cell provides us with energy flexibility.
8. Hydrogen fuel cells are a safe technology for us to use in virtually any situation.
9. The risk of chemical exposure can be reduced by using hydrogen fuel cells.

Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells

1. Hydrogen fuel cells do not work in every situation as of yet.
2. The temperature of a hydrogen fuel cell is to be regulated to maximize its use.
3. There are still some risks to the environment to consider with hydrogen fuel cells.
4. The cost to store hydrogen is expensive enough that it is prohibitive for most people.
5. There are transportation losses to consider with hydrogen as well.
6. It costs more to transport hydrogen than it does most other fuels.
7. This technology is not widely available right now.

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8. A premium price is to be pay to purchase equipment with hydrogen few cells.

9. It is not currently a complete renewable energy resource.

Applications of Fuel Cells:

Fuel cells are used in both stationary and motive power applications for:
1. Cars, trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles
2. Material handling equipment
3. Act as a primary power source for high-volume data centers or commercial, industrial, and
residential buildings
4. Backup power source to critical computer and communications networks
5. Generating power on-site

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Power Generation

Working Principle of MHD Generation

If an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field, an emf is induced in it which poduces an
electric current. In Magneto Hydrodynamic Generator (MHD) solid conductor is replaced by
gaseous conductor i.e. ionized gas .
High velocity ionoised gas is passed through the powerfull magnetic field ad generated current is
taken out from the electrodes. Temperature of high velocity ionized gas is around 3000°C

Fig. 2.16 MHD Power generation Principle

Lorentz Law describes the effect of charged particle moving in constant magnetic field as ,
F = q (v x B)
Where,
F = Force acting on charged particle
V = Velocity of the particle
q= Charge of the particle
B = Magnetic field

The main Parts of MHD generation are:

1. Combustor
2. MHD Generator
3. Air pre heater

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4. Inverter
5. Heat exchanger
6. Steam generator
7. Steam turbine
8. Compressor
9. Nozzle
10. Electrode

Combustor is used to burn fossil fuels for generating high temperature gas.
Expansion nozzle is used reduce the gas pressure resulting into increase in plasma speed.
Electrodes are used to collect the power. The electrodes are usually made of graphite and
the duct of boron nitride.

MHD Generators are classified into two types,

1. Open cycle MHD system
2. Closed cycle MHD system

Open cycle MHD system

Fig. 2.17 Open cycle MHD System

1. A high pressure, high temperature combustion gas is forced through a strong magnetic
field.
2. Coal is processed and burnt in the combustor at a high temperature of about 2,600°C and
pressure of about 12 atmospheres with pre-heated air to form the plasma.
3. Then a seeding material, such as potassium carbonate, is injected to the plasma in order to
increase the electrical conductivity.

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4. The resulting mixture having an electrical conductivity of about 10 siemens/m, is expanded

through a nozzle, so as to have high velocity, and then passed through the strong magnetic
field (5-7 T) of the MHD generator.
5. During the expansion of gas at high temperature, the positive and negative ions move to the
electrodes and so constitute an electric current.
6. This current is dc and an inverter is employed for its conversion into ac.
7. The gas leaving the MHD generator is still very hot. The heat from the exhaust gases of the
MHD generator is utilised in preheating the air supplied to the combustor.
8. The seed material is recovered from the gas for successive use and harmful emissions (such
as nitrogen and sulphur) are removed from the gas, for pollution control, and the gas is
finally discharged to the atmosphere through a stack.
Power generated by the MHD system is given as:
ρ = σB2 v2K (1 – K) W/m3
Where,
σ = specific electrical conductivity of gas in siemen/ metre,
B = magnetic field strength in Tesla (Wb/m2)
v = velocity of gas in m/s and
K = the ratio of external load voltage to open-circuit voltage.

Closed Cycle MHD System:

Fig. 2.18 Closed cycle MHD generator

1. Here plasma converter uses ionized gas (Argon or Helium) seeded with Cesium.
Sometimes liquid metal converter are also used which uses metal vapour or metal in liquid
form.
2. Coal is burnt in combustor with air to generate heat. This heat is transferred to working
fluid (Argon) in heat exchanger (HX 1)

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3. The combustion by product is passed to the air preheater for recovery of part of heat from
combustion product. N2 and SO2 are removed from combustion by poduct and discharged
to the atmosphere.
4. The hot argon plasma is selected with cesium to increase its electrical conductivity and
passed to the MHD generator which produces the electrical current. This DC power is
converted into AC power by using inverter and supplied to the grid
5. Heat is again recovered from the working fluid by using heat exchanger (HX 2). In (HX 2)
recovered heat is used to produce steam from water. This is used to run steam generator to
produce power
6. As working fluid is circulated in closed loop therefore it is called closed NHD system.

Advantages of MHD generator:

1. The On and Off time is about second.
2. There are no moving parts, it’s very reliable to use.
3. The MHD generator has high thermal efficiency.
4. The size of the parts is small it is a direct conversion device.
5. Lesser thermal pollution
6. Capital cost required for MHD generator is less as compared to coal power plant.
7. Land needed for MHD power plant is less
8. Lower energy loss
Disadvantages of MHD generator:
1. They need high pure super conductor.
2. Working temperature is very high as about 200 degree kelvin to 400 degree kelvin.
3. The components get high corrosion due to high working temperature.

Application of MHD generators

1. The MHD generators are used to power submarines and aircraft's.
2. The MHD generators are used for electrical power production for domestic applications.
3. They can also be used as power plants in industry and uninterrupted power supply system.

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 Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak Mandal’s

NUTAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH,
Under Administrative Support of Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

Department OF First Year Engineering

Semester: I

SUBJECT: Energy Environment Engineering

Unit No.4
Air Pollution

Subject Teacher: Prof. Bhushan Pawar

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-24

Page 0 of 17
 Environment:

1. The environment is the surroundings in which we live.

2. It consists of everything around us such as sunlight, air, water, rains, soil, mountains, etc.
3. The surroundings are subjected to constant change by the factors that are majorly contributed
by human activity. For example, climate change. A change in one component has a certain
impact on other components depending upon the severity.

Impacts of the environment on human health:

1. The environmental hazards are physical, chemical, and biological hazards.

2. Examples of physical hazards are airborne particles, humidity, equipment design, radiations,
etc.
3. Examples of biological hazards are viruses, microbial agents, insects, rodents, animals and
plants, etc.
4. Examples of chemical hazards are pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, lead, acids, chlorine,
and other caustic substances.
5. There are a minute amount of chemicals and toxins in the daily food we eat, the breathing
air, and our drinking water.
6. The effects of these environmental hazards include cancers, respiratory system disorders
asthma, allergies, and other illnesses.
7. Many infectious diseases in this environment are all carried by pathogens.

Air Pollution Definition

“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc.
into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.”

What is Air Pollution?

• Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and
humans drastically.

• There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease

in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous
composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global
warming.

Page 1 of 17
 Types of Air Pollutants
There are two types of air pollutants:
Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-
dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary
pollutant.

Difference between primary and secondary pollutants

Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants

Secondary pollutants are the result of chemical
Primary pollutants are directly emitted from the
and photochemical reactions of primary
sources to the atmosphere
pollutants
Primary pollutants can affect living things Secondary pollutants can affect living things
directly and indirectly (by forming secondary directly. Athough, they can also affect
pollutants) indirectly via some intermediate
They are usually unstable pollutants They are usually stable or inert
These pollutants damage living organisms These pollutants damage the ecological system
These pollutants can be control by reducing These pollutants are complicated to stop because
anthropogenic emissions of the interlinked chemical reactions
Examples of primary pollutants are; particulate Examples of secondary pollutants are;
matter (PM), hydrocarbons (CH), carbon tropospheric ozone (O3), peroxy nitrates
monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen (PAN), acid rain, nutrient enrichment
oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds compounds, photochemical oxidants,
(VOCs), and heavy metals, etc secondary particulate matter (SPM), etc

Causes of Air Pollution

1.Burning of Fossil Fuels
The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released
by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
2.Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment.
These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.
3.Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides,
pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.
Page 2 of 17
4.Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds,
hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.
5.Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of
equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but
also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
6.Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air.
The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It
not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:
1. Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans.
The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted
areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or
indirect effects of air pollution.
2. Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of
the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s
temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
3. Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in
the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain
which damages human, animal and plant life.
4. Ozone Layer Depletion
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the
atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not
prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye
problems among individuals.
5. Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the
animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to
the extinction of a large number of animal species.

Page 3 of 17
 Air Pollution Control
Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:
1.Avoid Using Vehicles
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public
modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also
conserves energy.
2. Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch
off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the
individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a
greater level.
3.Use of Clean Energy Resources
The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various
countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a
cleaner environment.
Other air pollution control measures include:
1. By minimizing and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be
controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions
of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with
other less polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol
and diesel are being replaced by CNG –Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are
mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air,
most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of
vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain
existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimized.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have
process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants
and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of
high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

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 Major air pollutants, their impact and sources

1. Ammonia (NH3)

Sources: Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent odour. Its main source are agricultural
processes, particularly in fertilizer production and livestock waste management. Indoor causes
include cigarette smoke and cleaning solutions.

Effects : Ammonia irritates the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory tract if inhaled in small amounts
due to its corrosive nature and is poisonous in large quantities. It pollutes and contributes to the
eutrophication and acidification of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, ammonia forms
secondary particulate matter (PM2.5) when combined with other pollutants in the atmosphere.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO)

Sources:
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless toxic gas. It is emitted directly from
vehicles and combustion engines. Indoors, carbon monoxide is produced by boilers, fireplaces,
ovens, cooker hoods, central vacuum systems, tobacco smoke, and propane heaters. Other sources of
the gas are power plants, biomass burning, forest fires, and the wood industry.

Effects: Upon entering the bloodstream, carbon monoxide inhibits the body’s ability to carry oxygen
to organs and tissues. As such, extremely high concentrations can cause death. Infants, the elderly,
and those with heart and respiratory diseases are particularly susceptible to carbon monoxide
poisoning.

3. Nitric oxide (NO)

Sources:
Nitric oxide, also called nitrogen monoxide, is a colourless, toxic gas formed through the combustion
processes of coal and petroleum. Main sources include motor vehicles and thermal power plants.

Effects
Nitric oxide dissolves in atmospheric water vapour to form acid that damages vegetation, buildings
and materials, which contributes to the acidification of terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. It also combines with VOCs to create ground-level ozone (O3).

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 4. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Sources:
Nitrogen dioxide is formed through the oxidation of nitric oxide (NO) from combustion processes
such as diesel engines and coal, oil, gas, wood, and waste plants.

Effects
Nitrogen dioxide has an adverse effect on the respiratory systems of both humans and animals,
increasing risks of stroke. Just like nitrogen monoxide, it dissolves in water vapour to create acid
rain. Nitrogen dioxide contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone (O3), and forms secondary
particulate matter (PM2.5) when combined with other atmospheric compounds such as ammonia.

5. Ozone (O3)
Sources:
Ground-level ozone is a pale blue gas with a pungent smell. It is mainly formed through the
photochemical reactions of other pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and volatile
organic compounds from strong sunlight and UV radiation. Indoor sources stem from electric
motors in household appliances including copiers and laser printers. Effects
Ozone is suspected to have carcinogenic effects. It leads to reduced lung function and respiratory
diseases, with exposure linked to premature mortality. Apart from its impact on the human body,
ozone also damages vegetation, contributing to a decrease in crop productivity and forest decline.
Ozone accelerates the deterioration of rubbers, dyes, paints, coatings, and various textiles, and is
also a major component of smog.
6. Particulate matter (PM)
Sources: Particulate matter consists of airborne liquid and solid particles. Primary particulate matter
is emitted from a direct source, including power plants, vehicle traffic, construction sites, and indoor
stoves and heaters. On the other hand, secondary particulate matter is formed as a result of chemical
and physical reactions with various compounds, including sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), and ammonia (NH3).

Effects: Particulate matter has been linked to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases such as
asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema. The extent of health damage caused by particulate matter is
determined by the size of the particles. Particles with a mass median diameter of less than 10
microns is called PM10, while particles with a mass median diameter of less than 2.5 microns is
called PM2.5. PM2.5 are also called fine particles. Newer classifications can also include PM0.1, so-
called ultra-fine particles. The smaller the particle, the higher the health risk, due to their ability to
penetrate deep into the respiratory and circulatory systems, causing damage to the lungs, heart, and
brain.

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 7. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Sources:
Sulphur dioxide is a toxic gas with a pungent smell. It mainly arises from the combustion and
refining processes of coal, oil, and metal-containing ores, but also from transport-related emissions
such as shipping.

Effects:.
Sulphur dioxide is an irritant, and can cause respiratory diseases in humans and animals. It forms
acid rain when dissolved in water, which damages vegetation, buildings and materials, and
contributes to the acidification of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Sulphur dioxide also forms
secondary particulate matter (PM2.5) when combined with other compounds such as ammonia in the
atmosphere.

8. Volatile organic compounds (VOC)

Sources: Volatile organic compounds refer to a large group of carbon-containing substances
including hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids. Outdoor sources include emissions
from incomplete combustion processes and volatile industry byproducts. VOCs are particularly
concentrated indoors due to internal sources from interior products and building materials such as
furniture, plastics, carpets, wallpapers, cleaning materials, lacquers, solvents, and tobacco smoke.

Effects:. As such, the indoor impact of VOCs has greater health implications since people spend
time predominantly in buildings. While individual VOC levels tend to be moderate with no expected
health effects, concentrations rise to concerning levels after construction works and renovations.
Many individual VOCs have been shown to have toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic effects on
humans. Symptoms include headaches, fatigue, loss of productivity, sleep disorders, and respiratory
diseases, which altogether could be summarized as “Sick Building Syndrome”. The more reactive
VOCs combine with nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to form ground-level ozone (O3), and contribute to
creating secondary particulate matter (PM2.5) as well.

Photochemical Smog

Photochemical smog, also known as summer smog, is a type of smog that is produced when
UV light originating from the sun interacts with the oxides of nitrogen present in the
atmosphere.
This type of smog usually manifests as a brown haze and is most commonly seen in highly
populated cities that are placed in relatively warm climates.
photochemical smog is most prominently visible during the mornings and afternoons.

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 How is Photochemical Smog Formed?
1. Photochemical form is formed by a complex series of chemical reactions involving
sunlight, oxides of nitrogen, and volatile organic compounds that are present in the
atmosphere as a result of air pollution.
2. These reactions often result in the formation of ground level ozone and certain airborne
particles. The formation of photochemical smog is closely related to the concentration of
primary pollutants in the atmosphere. It is also related to the concentration of secondary
pollutants (in some cases).
3. Common examples of primary pollutants that contribute towards photochemical smog
include oxides of nitrogen such as nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and nitrous oxide and
most VOCs (volatile organic compounds).
4. Common examples of secondary pollutants that contribute towards the formation of
photochemical smog include aldehydes, tropospheric ozone, and peroxyacyl nitrates
(often abbreviated to PAN).
5. During peak-traffic hours in the morning, large amounts of nitrogen oxides and volatile
hydrocarbons are released into the atmosphere. These pollutants can be traced to
automobile emissions and industrial discharge. Some of these hydrocarbon pollutants
rapidly undergo oxidation by the hydroxyl groups in the atmosphere, resulting in the
formation of peroxy radicals. These peroxy radicals go on to convert nitric oxide into
nitrogen dioxide.
What are the Effects of Photochemical Smog?
1. Photochemical smog has a number of negative effects on the environment and human
beings.
2. The chemicals contained within it, when combined with hydrocarbons, form molecules
which cause eye irritation.
3. The atmospheric radicals interfere with the nitrogen cycle by stopping ground level ozone
from being eliminated. Ground level ozone can prove to be extremely toxic to human
beings.
4. Decreased vision and shortness of breath.

Sick Building Syndrome

Sick Build Syndrome (SBS) is a condition in which a person suffers from adverse health effects
or becomes infected with chronic disease from the building in which they work or reside. No
specific illness or cause of it can be identified.

Symptoms of Sick Building Syndrome

1. Eye, nose, throat irritations

2. Headache
3. Fatigue

Page 8 of 17
4. Irritability
5. Asthma
6. Chest tightness and wheezing
7. Skin dryness
8. Gastrointestinal complaint
9. In addition, individual symptoms may also be reported which may or may not be connected
to the symptoms mentioned above.

10. At times the symptoms may ease should the person leave the particular room or apartment.
But depending upon the severity of the syndrome there might be chances of long-term
health effects.

What are the causes of Sick Building Syndrome?

Common products such as
1. Paint
2. Insulation
3. rigid foam
4. Particle Board, plywood,
5. duct liners
6. exhaust fumes
7. other chemical contaminants from indoor or outdoor sources • biological contaminants can
be trapped inside by an AC system.
8. Traffic noise
9. Poor lighting
10. Level of pollution in an area
11. Bacterial spores
12. fungal spores
13. mold spores
14. Pollen and viruses
15. Workload and work conflict are significantly associated with general symptoms (headache,
abnormal tiredness, sensation of cold or nausea).
16. While crowded workspaces and low work satisfaction are associated with upper respiratory
symptoms.
17. Laminate flooring can cause more exposure to chemicals and more resulting SBS symptoms
compared to stone, tile, and cement flooring.
18. Recent redecorating and new furnishings
19. having pets
20. the presence of cockroaches.
21. faulty architectural designs which lead to buildings having less ventilation is the root cause
of the rise in SBS cases.

Page 9 of 17
 Prevention of SBS

1. Use of National Building Code of India, stresses on natural ventilation as well as mechanical
ventilation.
2. This basically meant spaces that were mechanically ventilated or air conditioned
3. Different standards for ventilation are drafted for air conditioned spaces which are now
responsible for spiking the concentration of the virus indoors.
4. Regular inspections to indicate for presence of mold or other toxins
5. Adequate maintenance of all building mechanical systems
6. Use of Toxin-absorbing plants
7. Roof cleaning for removal of algae, mold
8. Using ozone to eliminate the many sources, such as VOCs, molds, mildews, bacteria,
viruses, and even odors.
9. Replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting.
10. Use of uPVC windows which offer top acoustic and thermal comfort.
11.
Types of Emission Control Systems

1. Scrubbers
Scrubbing is a physical procedure that removes particles and gasses from industrial pollutants
before they are discharged into the environment.

Industrial scrubbers are divided into two categories: dry and wet scrubbers.

2. Air Filters
Air filters are pollution-control devices that use a specific type of filtering medium, such as
cloth, sintered metal, or ceramic, to collect and remove dry particles and pollutants from air

Page 10 of 17
 flowing through them, such as dust, chemicals, microorganisms, and so

3. Cyclones
Dry particulate matter is separated from gaseous emissions by cyclone dust collectors. They
catch and remove particles using centrifugal force. When a gas stream enters a cyclone, they
spiral around the cylindrical chamber.

4. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs)

ESPs use transformers to generate a significant static electrical potential difference between the
charging electrodes and the collecting plates. When gas streams pass between the two

Page 11 of 17
components, an electrical charge is introduced to the particles, attracting the particulate matter to

the collecting plates

5. Mist Collectors
These devices utilize thin mesh-like filters to separate liquid droplets from gas and collect them in a
separate chamber for processing and, in some cases, recovery and reuse.

6. Incinerators
Incinerators use combustion technologies to convert pollutants into non-toxic byproducts. They
are frequently used in various industrial applications to control gas emissions and preserve air

quality.
7.Catalytic Reactors
Catalytic reactors, also known as selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems, are air pollution
control devices commonly employed to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions caused by the
combustion of fossil fuels in industrial applications.

Page 12 of 17
 Applications of Emission Control Systems
1. Emission control systems can transform these pollutants into water vapor and carbon
dioxide, which may then be safely discharged or recirculated into the environment.
2. These systems are used in the automotive, pharmaceutical, medical, microelectronic,
bio-safe laboratories, and aerospace sectors, to name a few.
3. These control systems are found in power plants and metallurgical facilities.
4. A pollution control system is used in oil and gas refineries.
5. Air pollution control systems are used in chemical manufacturing because of the gases
and contaminants in the environment.
6. Many facilities use continuous emissions monitoring systems to help manage and
monitor dangerous discharges, making reporting to federal and state supervisory bodies
easier.

Greenhouse effect
Gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of a greenhouse.
These heat-trapping gases are called greenhouse gases.
During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the sunlight.
At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat is trapped by
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm

Page 13 of 17
Earth's atmosphere traps some of the Sun's heat, preventing it from escaping back into space at
night.

No Green House Gas Principal Source

1 Carbon Dioxide Fossil fuels, Deforestation

2 Methane Live stocks, fossil fuels, wetlands

3 Nitrous oxide Fertilizers, live stock wastes

4 Chlorofluro carbons Refrigerants, solvents

5 Hydrochloro fluro carbons Air conditioners, refrigerants, plastic foams

6 Carbon tetra chloride Cleaning solvent

Humans impacting the greenhouse effect

Human activities
1. Use of fossil fuels
2. Deforestation by burning of grasslands for raising crops
3. Cultivation of rise in paddies
4. Use of inorganic fertilizers

Effects of Global warming

1. Changes in climate
2. Effect on agricultural productivity
3. Effect on water resources
4. Effect on terrestrial ecosystems
5. Effect on human health
6. Effect on sea level

Ways to Green House Gases Emission

1. Buy Energy efficient products
2. Use less Air conditioning
3. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Page 14 of 17
 4. Save electricity
5. Drive less and drive smart
6. Tree Plantation
7. Encourage others to conserve

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

Ambient air quality refers to the condition or quality of air surrounding us in the outdoors.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards are the standards for ambient air quality set by the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) that is applicable nationwide. The CPCB has been conferred this
power by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.

Ambient Air Quality Standards in India

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 was enacted by the Central Government
with the objective of arresting the deterioration of air quality.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 describes the main functions of the Central
Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) as follows:
1. To advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the
quality the air and the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
2. To plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention,
control and abatement of air pollution.
3. To provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Pollution Control Board.
4. To carry out and sponsor investigations and research related to prevention, control
and abatement of air pollution.
5. To collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data related to air pollution;
and
6. To lay down and annul standards for the quality of air
The mandate provided to the CPCB under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act empowers it to set standards for the quality of air.

The current National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

Time Ecologically
Industrial,
Pollutant Weighted Sensitive Area
Residential,
Average (notified by
Rural and
Central
Other Area
Government)
Page 15 of 17
 Annual* 50 20
3
SO2, μg/m
24 hours** 80 80

Annual* 40 30
3
NO2, μg/m
24 hours** 80 80

Annual* 60 60
PM10, μg/m3
24 hours** 100 100

Annual* 40 40
PM2.5, μg/m3
24 hours** 60 60

8 hours** 100 100

O3, μg/m3
1 hour** 180 180

Annual* 0.50 0.50

Lead (Pb),
μg/m3 24 hours** 1 1

8 hours** 2 2
CO, mg/m3
1 hour** 4 4

Annual* 100 100

Ammonia
(NH3) μg/m3 24 hours** 400 400

Benzene Annual* 5 5

Benzopyrene
(BaP) –
particulate Annual* 1 1
phase only,
ng/m3

Arsenic (As),
Annual* 6 6
ng/m3

Nickel (Ni),
Annual* 20 20
ng/m3

Page 16 of 17
B.Tech First Year EEE Unit No.5

Nutan College of Engineering and Research, Talegaon Dabhade

B.Tech - First Year Engineering Semester: I
Subject: Energy and Environmental Engineering (BTES105)

Notes- Unit No.5 Water Pollution

Syllabus: Water pollution- effects- control measures- Noise pollution –effects and control measures,
Disposal of solid wastes, Bio-medical wastes-Thermal pollution – Soil pollution -Nuclear hazard.

Water pollution
Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas, underground water or oceans
by substances, which are harmful for living beings. Industrialisation and population explosion are two
important factors for water pollution.

Water may be called polluted when the following parameters stated below reach beyond

a specified concentration in water.

i) Physical parameters. Colour, odour, turbidity, taste, temperature and electrical conductivity constitute
the physical parameters and are good indicators of contamination.

For instance, colour and turbidity are visible evidences of polluted water while an offensive odour or a
bitter and difference than normal taste also makes water unfit for drinking.

ii) Chemical parameters: These include the amount of carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, fluorides, nitrates,
and metal ions. These chemicals form the total dissolved solids, present in water.

iii) Biological parameters: The biological parameters include matter like algae, fungi, viruses, protozoa
and bacteria. The life forms present in water are affected to a good extent by the presence of pollutants. The
pollutants in water may cause a reduction in the population of both lower and higher plant and animal lives.
Thus, the biological parameters give an indirect indication of the amount of pollution in water.

Water Pollution – Sources

Water pollutants refer to the substances which are capable of making any physical, chemical or biological
change in the water body. These have undesirable effect on living organisms. As mentioned earlier, the
water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes is discharged with some undesirable
impurities in it. This contamination leads to the pollution of water, which is generally called the fresh water
pollution. Fresh water pollution may be classified into two types:
surface water pollution and ground water pollution.

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B.Tech First Year EEE Unit No.5

Surface Water Pollution

When pollutants enter a stream, river or lake these gives rise to surface water pollution.

The surface water pollution has a number of sources. These can categorised as:

i. Point and Non-point Sources

ii. Natural and Anthropogenic Sources

(i) Point and Non-point Sources

The well-defined sources that emits pollutants or effluents directly into different water bodies of fresh
water are called point sources. Domestic and industrial waste are examples of this type. The point sources
of pollution can be effectively checked. On the other hand, the non-point sources of water pollution are
scattered or spread over large areas. This type of sources deliver pollutants indirectly through
environmental changes and account for majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes. For example, the
contaminated water that runs off from agriculture farms, construction sites, abandoned mines, enters
streams and lakes. It is quite difficult to control non-point sources.

(ii) Natural and Anthropogenic Sources

As mentioned earlier, an increase in the concentration of naturally occurring substances is
also termed pollution. The sources of such an increase are called natural sources. Siltation (which includes
soil, sand and mineral particles) is one such natural source. It is a common natural phenomenon, which
occurs in most water bodies. Indiscriminate deforestation makes soil loose and flood waters bring silt from
mountains into streams, rivers and lakes. On the other hand, the human activities that result into the
pollution of water are called anthropogenic or man made sources of water pollution. For example, domestic
(sewage and waste water), industrial and agricultural wastes that goes into the rivers, lakes, streams and
seas are anthropogenic sources. Certain materials that are leached from the land by run-off water and enter
the various water bodies also belong to this category. The anthropogenic sources of water pollution are
shown in Fig.

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B.Tech First Year EEE Unit No.5

Fig. Anthropogenic sources of water pollution

Ground Water Pollution

When the polluted water seeps into the ground and enters an aquifer it results into ground water pollution.
The most of our villages and many townships, ground water is the only source of drinking water.
Therefore, pollution of groundwater is a matter of serious concern. Groundwater gets polluted in a number
of ways. The dumping of raw sewage on soil, seepage pits and septic tanks cause pollution of groundwater.
Fig. 3. The porous layers of soil hold back solid particles while the liquid is allowed to pass through. The
soluble pollutants are able to mix with the groundwater. In addition to these, the excessive use of
nitrogenous fertilizers and unchecked release of toxic wastes and even carcionogenic substances by
industrial units many ressult in slow trickling down through the earth’s surface and mixing with the
groundwater. This problem is very serious especially in areas where water table is high (i.e., where water is
available near surface of earth). The ground water can move over large distances by virtue of the large
empty space available below the earth’s surface. This way if some impurities seep into the ground water at
one point, they may be observed at a different point far removed from the point of source. In such a case it
is difficult to estimate the source of water pollution. However, suspended impurities and bacterial
contaminants are removed in the process of seepage by the soil acting as an absorbent and filter, and water
acting as a solvent. Since the movement of groundwater through the porous rock is very slow, pollutants
which get mixed with the groundwater are not readily diluted. Furthermore, groundwater does not have
access to air (in contrast to surface water) therefore, oxidation of pollutants into harmless products in
groundwater does not occur.

Water Pollutants

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B.Tech First Year EEE Unit No.5

These can be broadly put under the following types.

(i) Sewage Pollutants (Domestic and Municipal Waste)
(ii) Industrial Pollutants
(iii) Agricultural Pollutants
(iv) Radioactive and Thermal Pollutants

(i) Domestic and Municipal Pollutants : The sewage contains garbage, soaps, detergents, waste food and
human excreta and is the single largest sources of water pollution. Pathogenic (disease causing)
microogranisms (baccteria, fungi, protozoa, algae) enter the water system through sewage making it
infected. Typhoid, chloera, gastroenteritis and dysentery are commonly caused by drinking infected water.
Water polluted by sewage may carry certain other bacteria and viruses cannot grow by themselves, but
reproduce in the cells of host organisms. They cause a number of diseases, such as, polio, viral hepatitis
and may be cancer which are resistant to like the organic matter are oxygen demanding substances. They
are responsible for deoxygenation of water-bodies which is harmful for aquatic life. Other ingedients which
enter the various water bodies are the plant nutrients, i.e., nitrates and phosphates. They support growth of
algae, commonly called algal bloom(blue-green species). This process is called eutrophication and is
discussed in details in the next section.

(ii) Industrial Pollutants : Many industries are located near rivers or fresh water streams. These are
responsible for discharging their untreated effluents into rivers like highly toxic heavy metals such as
chromium, arsenic, lead, mercury, etc. along with hazardous organic and inorganic wastes (e.g., acids,
alkalies, cyanides, chlorides, etc.). River Ganges recives wastes from textile, sugar, paper and pulp mills,
tanneries, rubber and pesticide industries. Most of these pollutants are resistant to breakdown by
microorganisms (called nonbiodegradable), therefore damage the growth of crops and the polluted water is
unsafe for drinking purposes. Factories manufacturing plastic, caustic soda and some fungicides and
pesticides release mercury (a heavy metal) along with other effluents in nearby water body. Mercury enters
the food chain through bacteria, algae, fish and finally into the human body. The toxicity of mercury
became evident by the Minamata Bay tragedy in Japan during the period 1953-60. Fish died due to
mercury consumption and those who ate fish were affected by mercury poisoning and quite a few died. The
milder symptoms of mercury poisoning are depression and irritability but acute toxic effects can cause
paralysis, blindness, insanity, birth defects and even death. The high concentration of mercury in water and

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B.Tech First Year EEE Unit No.5

in fish tissues results from formation of soluble monomethylmercury ion, (CH3 , Hg+) and volatile
dimethylmercuty [(CH3) 2 Hg] by anaerobic bacteria in sediments.

(iii) Agricultural Waste: Manure, fertilizers, pesticides, wastes form farms, slaughterhouse, poultry
farms, salts and silt are drained as run-off from agricultural lands. The water body receiving large
quantities of fertilizers (phosphates and nitrates or manures becomes rich in nutrients which leads to
eutrophication and consequent depletion of dissolved oxygen. Consumption of water rich in nitrates is bad
for human health especially for small children. Pesticides (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, malathion, carbaryl etc.)
are used to kill insect and rodent pests. Toxic pesticide residues enter the human body through drinking
water or through food chain (biomagnification). These compounds have low solubility in water but are
highly soluble in fats. For example, the concentration of DDT in river water may be very low but some fish
over a period of time accumulate so much of DDT that they become unfit for human consumption. The use
of pesticides in our country is increasing very rapidly. Some of these chemicals which are highly toxic
become metabolised by animals that graze on fields. Therefore, these poisonous chemicals have been often
observed in the humanfood chain. The presence of these chemicals in humans even in minute amounts can
cause hormonal imbalance and may lead to cancer.
(iv) Physical Pollutants: Physical pollutants can be of different types. Some of them are discussed below :
(a) Radioactive Wastes : Radionucleides found in water are radium and potassium-40. These isotopes
originate from natural sources due to leaching from minerals. Water bodies are also polluted by accidental
leakage of waste material from uranium and thorium mines, nuclear power plants and industries, research
laboratories and hospitals which use radioisotopes. Radioactive materials enter human body through water
and food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain vital organs. They cause tumours and cancer.
(b) Thermal Sources: Various industries, nuclear power plants and thermal plants require water for
cooling and the resultant hot water is often discharged into rivers or lakes.
This results in thermal pollution and leads to the imbalance in the ecology of the water body. Higher
temperature lowers the dissolved oxygen level (which is very essential for marine life) by decreasing the
solubility of oxygen in water. Fish and other aquatic organism can get affected by a sudden change in water
temperatures.
(c) Sediments : Soil particles carried to streams, lakes or oceans form the sediments. The sediment become
polluting due to their large amount. Soil erosion defined as the soil carried by flood water from crop land,
is responsible for sedimentation. The sediments may damage the water body by introducing a large amount
of nutrient matter.

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B.Tech First Year EEE Unit No.5

(v) Petroleum Products: Petroleum products are widely used for fuel, lubrication, plastics manufacturing,
etc. and happen to be poisonous in nature. Crude oil and other related products generally get into water by
accidental spillage from ships, tankers, pipelines etc. Besides these accidental spills, oil refineries, oil
exploration sites and automobile service centres pollute different water bodies. Oil slick which floats on the
water surface causes death of marine life and severely affects the ecosystem of the ocean.
No Pollutant Sources of Pollutants Effects and Significance
1. Pathogens Sewage, human and animal, Depletion of dissolved oxygen in
wastes, natural and urban runoff water (foul odour) health effects
from land, industrial waste (outbreaks of water borne
diseases)
2. Organic Automobile and machine waste, Disruption of marine life
pollutants tanker spills, offshore oil leakage Toxic effects (harmful for aquatic
Oil and grease Chemicals used for better yield life), possible genetic defects and
Pesticides and from agriculture cancer; kills fish Eutrophication,
weedicides Industrial and household waste aesthetics
Plastics
Detergents

3. Inorganic Agricultural runoff Algal bloom and eutrophication,

pollutants nitrates cause
Fertilizers methemoglobenemia
(phosphates and
nitrates)

4. Acids and alkalies Mine drainage, industrial wastes, Kill fresh water organisms, unfit
natural and urban runoff for drinking, irrigation and
industrial use.
5. Radioactive Natural sources, uranium mining Cancer and genetic defects
materials and processing, hospitals and
research laboratories using
radioisotopes

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6. Heat Cooling water for industrial, Decreases solubility of oxygen in

nuclear and thermal plants water, disrupts aquatic ecosystems
7. Sediments Natural erosion, runoff from Affects water quality, reduces fish
agricultural land and construction population
sites

Water Pollution and Some Biological Effects

The natural source of water in the form of precipitation or rain is the purest form available in nature.
However after reaching the surface and then underground it gets contaminated by a number of pollutants.
There are some biological factors also mentioned earlier responsible for spoiling the quality of water.
These include the lower plants like algae and bacteria which are the causes of nutrient accumulation in
aquatic systems. This nutrient accumulation gives rise to a condition called eutrophication explained
below.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a process by which a water body slowly becomes rich in plant nutrients such as nitrates
and phosphates due to soil erosion and run off from the surrounding land. Let us try to understand this
phenomenon. A water system like a lake or any reservoir may get a large inflow of organic matter from
domestic wastes and run off from the surrounding land. Increasing human population, intensive agriculture
and rapid industrial growth have led to an increasing release of domestic waste, agricultural residues,
industrial wastes and land run-off into various water bodies. Nutrients are released from organic waste by
aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria which start decomposing it. Dissolved oxygen is consumed in this
process. As more and more organic matter enters a water body, more is the deoxygenation of the water
body and larger is the production of nutrients. These nutrients fertilize an abnormal growth of algae and
other large water plants such as duckweed. As more plants grow, some of them die also due to larger
oxygen demand and therefore oxygen deficiency in the water body (i.e., deoxygenation of the water body).
Such a water body is said to be eutrophied and the process is called eutrophication. The word
eutrophication is derived from the Greek word which means well nourished as (eu:true, trophos:feeding)
Eutrophication of a water body results due to the release of large amount of nutrients by the action of
aerobic bacteria on organic wastes entering a water body naturally or by human activity. The above
discussion leads us to a concept called biological oxygen demand (BOD). Let us try to understand by the
description given below.

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Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) The quality of oxygen used up by microorganisms at 27ºC and in
darkness during 3 days in breaking down organic wastes in a water body is called its biological oxygen
demand (BOD). It can be explained in the following manner. You know that there are many organic
compounds or waste present in a water body. The microorganisms present in the system act upon this waste
for their own consumption and growth. In the process the metabolic activity requires oxygen which is met
by the dissolved oxygen present in water. It is this amount of oxygen which is defined as biological oxygen
demand (BOD). The BOD value of an aquatic system depends upon:
1. the type and amount of organic waste
2. the organisms acting on it
3. temperature and pH
The greater the amount of organic waste in the water body, the greater is the amount of oxygen required to
break it down biologically and therefore higher is the BOD value of water. This value is a good measure in
evaluating the degree of pollution in a water body. The less polluted water shows comparatively low value
of BOD. Its value is used as a criterion for managing water pollution of a water body. An evaluation is
made by determining oxygen concentration in water before and after incubation at 20ºC in dark for 5 days.

Biomagnification
A variety of toxic chemicals move through food chains. Toxic pesticides may be sprayed for controlling
insect pests, fungi, herbs, but they concentrate in the food chain and harmto other (non target) organisms.
For example, DDT was sprayed in the U.S. to control mosquitoes at a concentration expected to be
harmless to non target organisms like fish and birds. DDT accumulated in the marshes and planktons.
Planktons were eaten by fish and the fish had a higher concentration of DDT in its body. Further, when
birds ate the fish, they accumulated still higher concentration. This increase in concentration of
accumulated toxic chemicals as one goes higher in the food chain is termed biomagnification.
Biomagnification has at times threatened the reproduction and survival of carnivores (secondary
consumers) who occupy the highest level of the food chain.

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Water Pollution – Some Control Measures

Waste water generated by household activity, industries or garbage landfills is called sewage which is
classified as the municipal water pollution. Sewage contains solid matters in the form of suspended
colloidal and dissolved organic matter, detergent, mineral matter, nutrients and gases. Sewage is one of the
major causes of water borne diseases and therefore the treatment of sewage is one of the important tasks.
For a long time treatment of municipal waste in the form of sewage involved mainly of the removal of
suspended solids, oxygen demanding materials and harmful bacteria. Now the disposal of the solid residue
from sewage has been improved by applying municipal treatment processes. The treatment of this waste
water is carried out in the following three stages:
(i) Primary treatment (ii) Secondary treatment, and (iii) Tertiary treatment
Primary Treatment: When the waste water is to be dumped off into a river or flowing steam, the
treatment is carried out by sedimentation, coagulation and filtration. This is known as primary treatment. If
the water is required for drinking purposes, it has to undergo further treatment called secondary and tertiary
treatments. The following steps are performed to do primary treatment of water:
(i) Sedimentation: This step is carried out in large tanks specially built for this purpose in sewage
treatment plant. The polluted water is allowed to settle so that silt, clay and other matter settle to be bottom
and water is slowly allowed to move out. Fine particles do not settle and are thus required to be removed in
the next step.
(ii) Coagulation: Fine particles and colloidal suspension are combined into large particles by a process
called coagulation. This step is carried out by the addition of special chemicals called coagulants
(flocculants) such as potash alum. The large particles either settle to the bottom or are moved in the next
step.

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(iii) Filtration: Suspended particles, flocculants, bacteria and other organisms are filtered by passing the
water through a bed of sand or finely divided coal or through some fibrous materials. The total impurities
collected in these steps are called sludge. It is used as a valuable fertilizer. On composting (i.e. the action of
anaerobic bacteria), it releases sludge gas. It consists mainly of methane gas which is used for cooking
purposes.
Secondary or Biological Treatment: The water after primary treatment is not fit for drinking purposes
and has to undergo further treatment. This is done through secondary or biological treatment. A commonly
used method is to allow polluted water to spread over a large bed of stones and gravel so that the growth of
different microorganisms needing nutrients and oxygen is encouraged. Over a period of time a fast moving
food chain is set up. For example, bacteria consume organic matter from the polluted water; protozoa live
on bacteria. Every form of life including algae and fungi help in the cleaning up process. This is called
secondary treatment of water. It involves the following processes (i) Softening : By this treatment
undesirable cations of calcium and magnesium are removed from hard waters. Either water is treated with
lime and soda ash to precipitate Ca2+ ions as carbonates or it is passed through cation exchangers. This
makes water soft.
(ii) Aeration: In this process, soft water is exposed to air by forcing air through it to add oxygen to water.
This encourages bacterial decomposition of organic matter into harmless products such as carbon dioxide
and water. The addition of oxygen reduces carbon dioxide. sulphide etc.. The water is as yet not fit for
drinking purposes. The pathogenic and other microorganisms need to be killed. This is done in the next
treatment.
Tertiary Treatment : The tertiary treatment is actually disinfecting water. Chlorine is the most commonly
used disinfectant used for killing bacteria. However, chlorine also reacts with traces of organic matter
present in water and forms undesirable chlorinated hydrocarbons (toxic and potentially carcinogenic). It is
therefore desirable to reduce the organic matter in water before passing chlorine gas. Other methods of
disinfection such as ultraviolet radiation, ozone gas treatment or reverse osmosis are preferred over
chlorine treatment. But these methods are more expensive. Fig.34.3 gives a clear picture of the process of
sewage treatment in total. In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series of screens, chambers
and chemical processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. During primary treatment a large percentage of
suspended solids and inorganic material is removed from sewage. The secondary stage reduces organic
material by accelerating natural biological processes. Tertiary treatment is done when water is to be reused.
Here 99% of solids are removed and various chemical processes are used to ensure that water is free from
infecting materials

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Fig. Sewage Treatment

Noise Pollution
The word noise is derived from the Latin word ‘Nausea’, which means sickness in which one feels the need
to vomit. Noise is the unpleasant and undesirable sound which leads to discomfort in human beings.

The intensity of sound is measured in decibels (dB).

The faintest sound that the human ear can hear is 1 Db. Due to increasing noise around the civilizations,
noise pollution has become a matter of concern. Some of its major causes are vehicles, aircraft, industrial
machines, loudspeakers, crackers, etc. When used at high volume, some other appliances also contribute to
noise pollution, like television, transistor, radio, etc.

Types of Noise Pollution

Following are the three types of pollution:

 Transport Noise
 Neighbourhood Noise
 Industrial Noise

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1. Transport Noise

It mainly consists of traffic noise which has increased in recent years with the increase in the number of
vehicles. The increase in noise pollution leads to deafening of older people, headache, hypertension, etc.

2. Neighbourhood Noise

The noise from gadgets, household utensils etc. Some of the main sources are musical instruments,
transistors, loudspeakers, etc.

3. Industrial Noise

It is the high-intensity sound which is caused by heavy industrial machines. According to many researches,
industrial noise pollution damages the hearing ability to around 20%.

Causes and Sources of Noise Pollution

Following are the causes and sources of noise pollution:

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1. Industrialisation: Industrialisation has led to an increase in noise pollution as the use of heavy
machinery such as generators, mills, huge exhaust fans are used, resulting in the production of
unwanted noise.
2. Vehicles: Increased number of vehicles on the roads are the second reason for noise pollution.
3. Events: Weddings, public gatherings involve loudspeakers to play music resulting in the
production of unwanted noise in the neighbourhood.
4. Construction sites: Mining, construction of buildings, etc add to the noise pollution.

Noise Pollution Examples

Following are the examples of noise pollution:

1. Unnecessary usage of horns

2. Using loudspeakers either for religious functions or for political purposes
3. Unnecessary usage of fireworks
4. Industrial noise
5. Construction noise
6. Noise from transportation such as railway and aircraft

Effects of Noise Pollution on Human Health

Noise pollution can be hazardous to human health in the following ways:

1. Hypertension: It is a direct result of noise pollution which is caused due to elevated blood levels
for a longer duration.
2. Hearing loss: Constant exposure of human ears to loud noise that are beyond the range of sound
that human ears can withstand damages the eardrums, resulting in loss of hearing.
3. Sleeping disorders: Lack of sleep might result in fatigue and low energy level throughout the day
affecting everyday activities. Noise pollution hampers the sleep cycles leading to irritation and an
uncomfortable state of mind.
4. Cardiovascular issues: Heart-related problems such as blood pressure level, stress and
cardiovascular diseases might come up in a normal person and a person suffering from any of these
diseases might feel a sudden shoot up in the level.

Prevention of Noise Pollution

Some noise pollution preventive measures are provided in the points below.

1. Honking in public places like teaching institutes, hospitals, etc. should be banned.

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2. In commercial, hospital, and industrial buildings, adequate soundproof systems should be installed.
3. Musical instruments’ sound should be controlled to desirable limits.
4. Dense tree cover is useful in noise pollution prevention.
5. Explosives should not be used in forest, mountainous and mining areas.

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of toxic substances.
It is a serious environmental concern since it harbours many health hazards. For example, exposure to soil
containing high concentrations of benzene increases the risk of contracting leukaemia. An image detailing
the discolouration of soil due to soil pollution is provided below.
It is important to understand that all soils contain compounds that are harmful/toxic to human beings and
other living organisms. However, the concentration of such substances in unpolluted soil is low enough
that they do not pose any threat to the surrounding ecosystem. When the concentration of one or more such
toxic substances is high enough to cause damage to living organisms, the soil is said to be contaminated.

The root cause of soil pollution is often one of the following:

1. Agriculture (excessive/improper use of pesticides)

2. Excessive industrial activity
3. Poor management or inefficient disposal of waste
The challenges faced in soil remediation (decontamination of soil) are closely related to the extent of soil
pollution. The greater the contamination, the greater the requirement for resources for remediation.

What are the Pollutants that Contaminate Soil?

Some of the most hazardous soil pollutants are xenobiotics – substances that are not naturally found in
nature and are synthesized by human beings. The term ‘xenobiotic’ has Greek roots – ‘Xenos’ (foreigner),
and ‘Bios’ (life). Several xenobiotics are known to be carcinogens. An illustration detailing major soil
pollutants is provided below.

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The different types of pollutants that are found in contaminated soil are listed in this subsection.

Heavy Metals

The presence of heavy metals (such as lead and mercury, in abnormally high concentrations) in soils can
cause it to become highly toxic to human beings. Some metals that can be classified as soil pollutants are
tabulated below.

Toxic Metals that Cause Soil Pollution

Arsenic Mercury Lead

Antimony Zinc Nickel

Cadmium Selenium Beryllium

Thallium Chromium Copper

These metals can originate from several sources such as mining activities, agricultural activities, and
electronic waste (e-waste), and medical waste.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (often abbreviated to PAHs) are organic compounds that

1. Contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

2. Contain more than one aromatic ring in their chemical structures.

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Common examples of PAHs include naphthalene, anthracene, and phenalene. Exposure to polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to several forms of cancer. These organic compounds can also
cause cardiovascular diseases in humans.

Soil pollution due to PAHs can be sourced to coke (coal) processing, vehicle emissions, cigarette smoke,
and the extraction of shale oil.

Industrial Waste

The discharge of industrial waste into soils can result in soil pollution. Some common soil pollutants that
can be sourced from industrial waste are listed below.

 Chlorinated industrial solvents

 Dioxins are produced from the manufacture of pesticides and the incineration of waste.
 Plasticizers/dispersants
 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
The petroleum industry creates many petroleum hydrocarbon waste products. Some of these wastes, such
as benzene and methylbenzene, are known to be carcinogenic in nature.

Pesticides

Pesticides are substances (or mixtures of substances) that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of pests.
Common types of pesticides used in agriculture include

1. Herbicides – used to kill/control weeds and other unwanted plants.

2. Insecticides – used to kill insects.
3. Fungicides – used to kill parasitic fungi or inhibit their growth.
However, the unintentional diffusion of pesticides into the environment (commonly known as ‘pesticide
drift’) poses a variety of environmental concerns such as water pollution and soil pollution. Some
important soil contaminants found in pesticides are listed below.

Herbicides

1. Triazines
2. Carbamates
3. Amides
4. Phenoxyalkyl acids
5. Aliphatic acids

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Insecticides

1. Organophosphates
2. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
3. Arsenic-containing compounds
4. Pyrethrum

Fungicides

1. Mercury-containing compounds
2. Thiocarbamates
3. Copper sulfate
These chemicals pose several health risks to humans. Examples of health hazards related to pesticides
include diseases of the central nervous system, immune system diseases, cancer, and birth defects.

What are the Processes that Cause Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two categories –

1. Naturally caused soil pollution

2. Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human activity)

Natural Pollution of Soil

In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants are naturally accumulated in soils. This can occur due to
the differential deposition of soil by the atmosphere. Another manner in which this type of soil pollution
can occur is via the transportation of soil pollutants with precipitation water.

An example of natural soil pollution is the accumulation of compounds containing the perchlorate anion
(ClO4–) in some dry, arid ecosystems. It is important to note that some contaminants can be naturally
produced in the soil under the effect of certain environmental conditions. For example, perchlorates can be
formed in soils containing chlorine and certain metals during a thunderstorm.

Anthropogenic Soil Pollution

Almost all cases of soil pollution are anthropogenic in nature. A variety of human activities can lead to the
contamination of soil. Some such processes are listed below.

1. The demolition of old buildings can involve the contamination of nearby soil with asbestos.

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2. Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities can also pollute the soil with hazardous
concentrations of lead.
3. Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation can contaminate soils with the hydrocarbons
found in petroleum.
4. Activities associated with metal casting factories (foundries) often cause the dispersion of metallic
contaminants into the nearby soils.
5. Underground mining activities can cause the contamination of land with heavy metals.
6. Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste can severely pollute the soil. For
example, the storage of toxic wastes in landfills can result in the seepage of the waste into the soil.
This waste can go on to pollute groundwater as well.
7. Chemical pesticides contain several hazardous substances. Excessive and inefficient use of
chemical pesticides can result in severe soil pollution.
8. Sewage produced in urbanized areas can also contaminate soil (if not disposed of correctly). These
wastes may also contain several carcinogenic substances.
Other forms of waste that can pollute soil include nuclear waste, e-waste, and coal ash.

What are the Negative Consequences of Soil Pollution?

Soil pollution harbours a broad spectrum of negative consequences that affect plants, animals, humans, and
the ecosystem as a whole. Since children are more susceptible to diseases, polluted soil poses a greater
threat to them. Some important effects of soil pollution are detailed in this subsection.

Effects on Human Beings

Soil contaminants can exist in all three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous). Therefore, these contaminants
can find their way into the human body via several channels such as direct contact with the skin or through
the inhalation of contaminated soil dust.

The short term effects of human exposure to polluted soil include

1. Headaches, nausea, and vomiting.

2. Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing.
3. Irritation of the skin and the eyes.
4. Fatigue and weakness.
A variety of long-term ailments have been linked to soil pollution. Some such diseases are listed below.

1. Exposure to high levels of lead can result in permanent damage to the nervous system. Children are
particularly vulnerable to lead.

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2. Depression of the CNS (Central Nervous System).

3. Damage to vital organs such as the kidney and the liver.
4. Higher risk of developing cancer.
It can be noted that many soil pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons and industrial solvents have been
linked to congenital disorders in humans. Thus, soil pollution can have several negative effects on human
health.

Effects on Plants and Animals

Since soil pollution is often accompanied by a decrease in the availability of nutrients, plant life ceases to
thrive in such soils. Soils contaminated with inorganic aluminum can prove toxic to plants. Also, this type
of pollution often increases the salinity of the soil, making it inhospitable for the growth of plant life.

Plants that are grown in polluted soil may accumulate high concentrations of soil pollutants through a
process known as bioaccumulation. When these plants are consumed by herbivores, all the accumulated
pollutants are passed up the food chain. This can result in the loss/extinction of many desirable animal
species. Also, these pollutants can eventually make their way to the top of the food chain and manifest as
diseases in human beings.

Effects on the Ecosystem

1. Since the volatile contaminants in the soil can be carried away into the atmosphere by winds or can
seep into underground water reserves, soil pollution can be a direct contributor to air and water
pollution.
2. It can also contribute to acid rain (by releasing huge quantities of ammonia into the atmosphere).
3. Acidic soils are inhospitable to several microorganisms that improve soil texture and help in the
decomposition of organic matter. Thus, the negative effects of soil pollution also impact soil quality
and texture.
4. Crop yield is greatly affected by this form of pollution. In China, over 12 million tons of grain
(worth approximately 2.6 billion USD) is found to be unfit for human consumption due to
contamination with heavy metals (as per studies conducted by the China Dialogue).

How can Soil Pollution be controlled?

Several technologies have been developed to tackle soil remediation. Some important strategies followed
for the decontamination of polluted soil are listed below.

1. Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote, uninhabited locations.

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2. Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation – the temperature is raised in order to force the
contaminants into the vapour phase, after which they can be collected through vapour extraction.
3. Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and plants for the
decontamination of soil.
4. Mycoremediation involves the use of fungi for the accumulation of heavy metal contaminants.

Waste Disposal
We observe heaps of garbage lying along the roads while passing through a highway. Open dumping is the
most common method of waste disposal in India.

The trash heaps are usually left open to the environment and the elements. These seldom have a sparse
covering which can often attract pests or vermin.

Sometimes, these dumps are subjected to open burning, which can release toxic fumes and smokes. There
have also been instances where enough heat has been generated to trigger a spontaneous combustion

Sometimes, wastes are illegally dumped into rivers and canals or used to fill land depressions without
proper consultations. These practices cause a lot of problems in the long run. These can range from the
degradation of the soil quality to leaching toxic chemicals into underground water sources. Therefore, to
prevent such scenarios, proper waste disposal methods should be adopted.

Methods of Waste Disposal

Garbage accumulation has never been much of a concern in the past, but due to globalization and
industrialization, there is a need for a more efficient waste disposal method. Following are some of the
methods that are used today.

1. Landfill
In this process, the waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and spread as a thin layer in
low-lying areas across a city. A layer of soil is added after each layer of garbage. However, once this
process is complete, the area is declared unfit for construction of buildings for the next 20 years. Instead, it
can only be used as a playground or a park.
2. Incineration
Incineration is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to incombustible matter such as
ash and waste gas. The exhaust gases from this process may be toxic, hence it is treated before being

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released into the environment. This process reduces the volume of waste by 90 per cent and is considered
as one of the most hygienic methods of waste disposal. In some cases, the heat generated is used to produce
electricity. However, some consider this process, not quite environmentally friendly due to the generation
of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

3. Waste Compaction
The waste materials such as cans and plastic bottles are compacted into blocks and sent for recycling. This
process prevents the oxidation of metals and reduces airspace need, thus making transportation and
positioning easy.

4. Biogas Generation
Biodegradable waste, such as food items, animal waste or organic industrial waste from food packaging
industries are sent to bio-degradation plants. In bio-degradation plants, they are converted to biogas by
degradation with the help of bacteria, fungi, or other microbes. Here, the organic matter serves as food for
the micro-organisms. The degradation can happen aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically (without

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oxygen). Biogas is generated as a result of this process, which is used as fuel, and the residue is used as
manure.
5. Composting
All organic materials decompose with time. Food scraps, yard waste, etc., make up for one of the major
organic wastes we throw every day. The process of composting starts with these organic wastes being
buried under layers of soil and then, are left to decay under the action of microorganisms such as bacteria
and fungi.
This results in the formation of nutrient-rich manure. Also, this process ensures that the nutrients are
replenished in the soil. Besides enriching the soil, composting also increases the water retention capacity.
In agriculture, it is the best alternative to chemical fertilizers.

6. Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the process of using worms for the degradation of organic matter into nutrient-rich
manure. Worms consume and digest the organic matter. The by-products of digestion which are excreted
out by the worms make the soil nutrient-rich, thus enhancing the growth of bacteria and fungi. It is also far
more effective than traditional composting.

Biomedical Waste

What is Biomedical Waste?

Biomedical waste is any waste containing infectious or potentially infectious materials. These wastes are
generated during the diagnosis, treatment, and immunization of humans and animals.

Biomedical wastes can be in both solid and liquid forms. Examples of biomedical wastes include:

1. Waste sharps such as needles, lancets, syringes, scalpels, and broken glass
2. Human tissues or identifiable body parts (as a result of amputation)
3. Animal tissues and waste from veterinary hospitals
4. Used bandage, dressings, gloves, and other medical supplies
5. Liquid waste from infected areas
6. Laboratory wastes
Biomedical wastes are distinct from regular garbage and require particular disposal and treatment.

Types of Biomedical Waste

The World Health Organization (WHO) has categorized biomedical waste into eight categories. They are:

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1. Infectious Waste – Any biomedical waste that is infectious or contaminated.

2. Sharps – Sharps objects like needles, scalpels, broken glass, and razors.
3. Pathological Waste – Body parts of humans or animals, including tissues, fluids, or blood.
4. Pharmaceutical Waste – Unused drugs, medicine, or creams that are expiring.
5. Genotoxic Waste – Toxic drugs and hazardous toxic waste
6. Radioactive Waste – Any waste containing potentially radioactive materials
7. Chemical Waste – Liquid waste from machines, batteries, and disinfectants is chemical.
8. General/Other Waste – All other non-hazardous waste.
Further, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPBC) has designated separate colour-coded bins to dispose
of biomedical wastes as per their nature.

1. Yellow Bin: For anatomical waste, chemical waste, soiled waste, chemotherapy waste, discarded
linen and medicines, and laboratory waste.
2. Red Bin: For contaminated plastic wastes
3. Blue Bin: For glass waste and metallic implants
4. Black Bin: For hazardous and other waste
The wastes in each of the bins have different treatment and disposal methods.

There are similar topics important from the environment and ecology point of view. Complement your
reading about the environment and air with these topics:

Effects of Biomedical Waste

Exposure to hazardous biomedical waste can cause disease or injury to human health. HIV, hepatitis B, and
C are the three most commonly spread viruses worldwide due to improper treatment of medical wastes.
They are transmitted through injuries from contaminated syringes and needles.

Doctors, nurses, and sanitation workers are amongst the most vulnerable to the harmful effects of
biomedical waste.

At a time of rapid emergence of new strains of the novel coronavirus, the importance of appropriate
treatment of medical wastes cannot be more emphasized. The various technologies that can be used for
treatment include:

1. Incineration
2. Chemical Disinfection
3. Wet Thermal Treatment
4. Microwave Irradiation
5. Land Disposal

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6. Inertization

Thermal pollution
Thermal Pollution: Source, its harmful effects and preventive measures
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water
temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and
industrial manufacturers.
The term thermal pollution has been used to indicate the detrimental effects of heated effluent discharge by
various power plants. It denotes the impairment of quality and deterioration of aquatic and terrestrial
environment by various industrial plants like thermal, atomic, nuclear, coal-fired plants, oil field
generators, factories, and mills.

What are the sources of Thermal Pollution?

1. Nuclear Power Plant
2. Coal-fired power Plant
3. Industrial Effluents
4. Domestic Sewage
5. Hydro-electric power
6. Thermal Power Plant

What are the harmful Effects of the Thermal Pollution?

The harmful effects of the thermal pollution are discussed below:

1. Reduction in dissolved Oxygen

The pollutant from various industrial plants are heated decreases the concentration of oxygen with an
increase in the temperature of water.

2. Change in water properties

The decrease in density, viscosity and solubility of gases in water increases the setting speed of suspended
particles which seriously affect the food supplies of aquatic organism.

3. Increase in toxicity
The concentrated pollutant causes the rise in the temperature of water which increases the toxicity of the
poison present in water. The toxicity in water will increase the death rate in marine life.

4. Disruption of Biological activities

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Temperature changes disrupt the entire marine ecosystem because changes in temperature causes change in
physiology, metabolism and biological process like respiration rate, digestion, excretion and development
of an aquatic organism.

5. Damage of biotic organism

Aquatic organisms like juvenile fish, plankton, fish, eggs, larva, algae and protozoa which pass through
screens and condenser cooling system are extremely sensitive to abrupt temperature changes. They are
habitual of warmer water may suddenly face increase or decrease in temperature of water bodies and thus
die because of sudden changes in the temperature of water.

How can thermal pollution be prevented?

The following measures can be taken to prevent or control high temperature caused by thermal pollution:

1. Heated water from the industries can treated before discharging directly to the water bodies.

2. Heated water from the industries can be treated by the installation of cooling ponds and cooling towers.

3. Industrial treated water can be recycled for domestic use or industrial heating.

4. Through artificial lakes: In this lake Industries can discharge their used or heated water at one end and
water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually dissipated through
evaporation.

NUCLEAR HAZARDS
The radiation hazard in the environment comes from ultraviolet, visible, cosmic rays and micro wave
radiation which produces genetic mutation in man.
1 Sources of Nuclear Hazards
Natural Sources – This is in space which emits cosmic rays.
Man made Sources – (Anthropogenic sources) these are nuclear power plants, X-rays, nuclear accidents,
nuclear bombs, diagnostic kits.

2 Effects of Nuclear Hazards

1. Exposure of the brain and central nervous system ot high doses of radiation causes delirium,
convulsions and death within hours or days.
2. The use of eye is vulnerable to radiation. As its cell die, they become opaque forming
cataracts that impair sight.

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3. Acute radiation sickness is marked by vomiting; bleeding of gums and in severe cases
mouth ulcers.
4. Nausea and vomiting often begin a few hours after the gastrointestinal tract is exposed.
Infection of the intestinal wall can kill weeks afterwards.
5. Unborn children are vulnerable to brain damage or mental retardation, especially if
irradiation occurs during formation of the central nervous system in early pregnancy.

3 Control measures
1. Nuclear devices should never be exploded in air.

2. In nuclear reactors, closed cycle coolant system with gaseous coolant may be used to prevent
extraneous activation products.

3. Containments may also be employed to decrease the radio active emissions.

4. Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial wastes contaminated with radio
nuclides.

5. Use of high chimneys and ventilations at the working place where radioactive contamination is
high. It seems to be an effective way for dispersing pollutants.

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