CHAPTER SEVEN

FLOW OF FLUIDS

Chemical engineers are concerned with transportation of fluids, both liquids and gases,
from one location to another through pipes or ducts. This activity requires determination of
the pressure drop through the system and consequently of the power required for pumping,
selection of a suitable type of pumping device and measurement of the flow rates. In this
chapter, we will deal with the types of flow patterns, determination of the pressure drop
during fluid flow, methods of measuring flow, etc.
The branch of engineering science which deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest or in
motion is called FLUID MECHANICS. The study of water is referred to as Hydraulics.
Fluid mechanics is classified as : Fluid Statics and Fluid Dynamics.
Fluid statics deals with the study of fluids at rest which involves the study of pressure
exerted by a fluid at rest and the variation of fluid pressure throughout the fluid.
Fluid dynamics deals with the study of fluids in motion relative to stationary solid walls
or boundaries.
DEFINITIONS OF A FLUID
• A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing if allowed to do so.
• A fluid is a substance that has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the
shape of the containing vessel.
• A fluid is a substance which undergoes continuous deformation when subjected to
a shearing force/shear force.
Since liquids and gases / vapours possess the above cited characteristics, they are referred
to as fluids.
Ideal Fluid :
• It is a fluid which does not offer resistance to flow / deformation / change in shape,
i.e., it has no viscosity. It is frictionless and incompressible. However, an ideal fluid
does not exist in nature and therefore, it is only an imaginery fluid.
• An ideal fluid is the one which offers no resistance to flow/change in shape.
Real Fluid :
It is a fluid which offers resistance when it is set in motion. All naturally occurring fluids
are real fluids.
(7.1)
Unit Operations-I 7.2 Flow of Fluids

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
1. Based upon the behaviour of fluids under the action of externally applied pressure
and temperature, the fluids are classified as :
(a) Compressible Fluids
(b) Incompressible Fluids.
2. Based upon the behaviour of fluids under the action of shear stress, the fluids are
classified as :
(a) Newtonian Fluids
(b) Non-Newtonian Fluids.
A fluid possesses a definite density at a given temperature and pressure. Although the
density of fluid depends on temperature and pressure, the variation of density with changes in
these variables may be large or small.
Compressible Fluid :
• If the density of a fluid is affected appreciably by changes in temperature and
pressure, the fluid is said to be compressible.
If the density of a fluid is sensitive to changes in temperature and pressure, the fluid
is said to be compressible.
Incompressible Fluid :
• If the density of a fluid is not appreciably affected by moderate changes in
temperature and pressure, the fluid is said to be incompressible.
If the density of a fluid is almost insensitive to moderate changes in temperature and
pressure the fluid is said to be incompressible.
Thus, liquids are considered to be incompressible fluids, whereas gases are considered to
be compressible fluids.
Definitions of Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids are covered later in this chapter
under the title viscosity.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The properties of fluids are
(i) Mass density (specific mass) or simply density (ρ).
(ii) Weight density (specific weight) (w).
(iii) Vapour pressure.
(iv) Specific gravity.
(v) Viscosity.
(vi) Surface tension and capillarity.
(vii) Compressibility and elasticity.
(viii) Thermal conductivity.
(ix) Specific volume.
Unit Operations-I 7.3 Flow of Fluids

Density :
Density (ρ) or mass density of a fluid is the mass of the fluid per unit volume. In the
SI system, it is expressed in kg/m3. The density of pure water at 277 K (4 oC) is taken as
1000 kg/m3.
Weight Density :
Weight density of a fluid is the weight of the fluid per unit volume. In the SI system,
it is expressed in N/m3. Specific weight or weight density of pure water at 277 K (4 oC) is
taken as 9810 N/m3.
The relation between mass density and weight density is
w = ρg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2).
Specific Volume :
Specific volume of a fluid is the volume of the fluid per unit mass. In the SI system, it is
expressed in m3/kg.
Specific Gravity :
The specific gravity of a fluid is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of a
standard fluid. For liquids, water at 277 K (4 oC) is considered/chosen as a standard fluid and
for gases, air at NTP (0°C and 760 torr) is considered as a standard fluid.
Vapour Pressure :
The vapour pressure of a pure liquid is defined as the absolute pressure at which the
liquid and its vapour are in equilibrium at a given temperature or The pressure exerted by
the vapour (on the surface of a liquid) at equilibrium conditions is called as the vapour
pressure of the liquid at a given temperature. Pure air free water exerts a vapour pressure of
101.325 kPa (760 torr) at 373.15 K (100 oC).
Surface Tension :
The property of liquid surface film to exert tension is called as the surface tension. It is
the force required to maintain a unit length of film in equilibrium. It is denoted by the symbol
σ (Greek sigma) and its SI unit is N/m.
Viscosity :
• A fluid undergoes continuous deformation when subjected to a shear stress. The
resistance offered by a fluid to its continuous deformation (when subjected to a shear
stress/force) is called viscosity
• The viscosity of a fluid at a given temperature is a measure of its resistance to flow.
• The viscosity of a fluid (gas or liquid) is practically independent of the pressure for the
range that is normally encountered in practice. However, it varies with temperature. For
gases, viscosity increases with an increase in temperature, while for liquids it decreases
with an increase in temperature.
Unit Operations-I 7.4 Flow of Fluids

F
u, m/s

Fig. 7.1 : Definition of viscosity

Consider two layers of a fluid 'y' cm apart as shown in Fig. 7.1. Let the area of each of
these layers be A cm2. Assume that the top layer is moving parallel to the bottom layer at a
velocity of 'u' cm/s relative to the bottom layer. To maintain this motion, i.e., the velocity 'u'
and to overcome the fluid friction between these layers, for any actual fluid, a force of
'F' dyne (dyn) is required.
Experimentally it has been found that the force F is directly proportional to the velocity
u and area A, and inversely proportional to the distance y.
Therefore, mathematically it becomes
F ∝ u.A/y … (7.1)
Introducing a proportionality constant µ (Greek 'mu'), Equation (7.1) becomes
F = µ u A/y …(7.2)
F/A = µ.u/y … (7.3)
Shear stress, τ (Greek 'tau') equal to F/A between any two layers of a fluid may be
expressed as
τ = F/A = µ.u/y … (7.4)
The above equation in a differential form becomes
du
τ = µ ⋅ dy … (7.5)
(The ratio u/y can be replaced by the velocity gradient du/dy.)
In the SI system, the shear stress τ is expressed in N/m2 and the velocity gradient/shear
rate or rate of shear deformation is expressed in 1/s or s–1.
Equation (7.5) is called Newton's law of viscosity. In the rearranged form, it serves to
define the proportionality constant as
τ
µ = du/dy … (7.6)
which is called as the coefficient of viscosity, or the dynamic viscosity (since it involves
force), or simply the viscosity of a fluid. Hence, the dynamic viscosity µ, may be defined as
the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear deformation (or shear rate).
Viscosity is the property of a fluid and in the SI system it has the units of (N.s)/m2 or
Pa.s or kg/(m.s).
As the unit (N.s)/m2 is very large for most of the fluids, it is customary to express
viscosity as (mN.s)/m2 or mPa.s, where mN is millinewtons, i.e., 10–3 N and mPa is
millipascal, i.e., 10–3 Pa.
Unit Operations-I 7.5 Flow of Fluids

In the C.G.S. system, viscosity may be expressed in poise (P) (the unit poise is named
after the French scientist Poiseuille) or centipoise (cP).
1 poise = 1 P = 1 gm/(cm.s)
= 0.10 kg/(m.s)
= 0.10 (N.s)/m2 or Pa.s
= 100 cP
In many problems involving viscosity, there appears a term kinematic viscosity.
The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the viscosity of the fluid to
its density and is denoted by the symbol υ (Greek 'nu').
υ = µ/ρ … (7.7)
In the SI system, υ has the units of m2/s. The C.G.S. unit of kinematic viscosity is
termed as stoke and is equal to 1 cm2/s.
NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
For most commonly known fluids, a plot of τ v/s du/dy results in a straight line passing
through the origin and such fluids are called as Newtonian fluids.
(Shear stress)

am tic
ngh las
B i p
o
t

ud ian
ton
e
Ps

w
Ne
t0

du/dy
(Velocity gradient)
Fig. 7.2 : Shear stress v/s velocity gradient for Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids
Fluids that obey Newton's law of viscosity, i.e., the fluids for which the ratio of the shear
stress to the rate of shear or shear rate is constant, are called as Newtonian fluids. This is
true for all gases and for most pure liquids.
Examples of Newtonian Fluids : All gases, air, liquids, such as kerosene, alcohol,
glycerine, benzene, hexane ether etc., solutions of inorganic salts and of sugar in water.
Fluids for which the ratio of the shear stress to the shear rate is not constant but is
considered as a function of rate of shear, i.e., fluids which do not follow Newton's law of
viscosity are called as non-Newtonian fluids. Generally, liquids particularly those containing
a second phase in suspension (solutions of finely divided solids and liquid solutions of large
molecular weight materials) are non-Newtonian in behaviour.
Examples of Non-Newtonian Fluids : Tooth pastes, paints, gels, jellies, slurries and
polymer solutions.
A Newtonian fluid is one that follows Newton's law of viscosity. If viscosity is
independent of rate of shear or shear rate, the fluid is said to be Newtonian and if viscosity
varies with shear rate, the fluid is said to be non-Newtonian.
Unit Operations-I 7.6 Flow of Fluids

There are three common types of non-Newtonian fluids.

(a) Bingham Fluids or Bingham Plastics : These fluids resist a small shear stress
indefinitely but flow linearly under the action of larger shear stress, i.e., these fluids do not
deform, i.e., flow unless a threshold shear stress value (τ0) is not exceeded.
These fluids can be represented by
τ = τ0, du/dy = 0, τ > τ0, τ = τ0 + η.du/dy
where τ0 is the yield stress / threshold shear stress and η is commonly called as the
coefficient of rigidity.
Examples : Tooth paste, jellies, paints, sewage sludge and some slurries.
(b) Pseudoplastic Fluids : The viscosity of these fluids decreases with increase in
velocity gradient, i.e., shear rate.
Examples : Blood, solution of high molecular weight polymers, paper pulp, muds, most
slurries and rubber latex.
(c) Dilatent Fluids : The viscosity of these fluids increases with an increase in
velocity gradient.
Examples : Suspensions of starch in water, pulp in water, and sand filled emulsions.
The experimental curves for pseudoplastic as well as dilatent fluids can be represented
by a power law, which is also called the Ostwald-de-Waele equation.
τ = k (du/dy)n … (7.8)
where k and n are arbitrary constants.
Newtonian fluids : n = 1, k = µ
Pseudoplastic fluids : n < 1
Dilatent fluids : n > 1
Pseudoplastics are said to be shear-rate-thinning and dilatent fluids are said to be shear-
rate-thickening.
PRESSURE
The basic property of a static fluid is pressure. When a certain mass of fluid is contained
in a vessel, it exerts forces at all points on the surfaces of the vessel in contact. The forces so
exerted always act in the direction normal to the surface in contact. The normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area of the surface is called as the fluid pressure. If F is the force acting
on the area A, then the pressure or intensity of pressure is given by
P = F/A … (7.9)
In a static fluid, the pressure at any given point is the same in all the directions. If the
pressure at a given point was not the same in all directions, there would be non-equilibrium
and the resultant force should exist. As the fluid is in static equilibrium, there is no net
unbalanced force at any point. Hence, the pressure in all directions is the same and thus
independent of direction.
Unit Operations-I 7.7 Flow of Fluids

Pressure Head :
The vertical height or the free surface above any point in a liquid at rest is called as the
pressure head. The pressure head may be expressed as
P N/m2 (kg.m/s2)/m2
h = , = (kg/m3) (m/s2) = m … (7.10)
ρg kg/m3 × m/s2
where P is in N/m2, ρ in kg/m3 and g in m/s2. The units of h are m of liquid.
As the pressure at any point in a static liquid depends upon the height of the free surface
above the point, it is convenient to express a fluid pressure in terms of pressure head. The
pressure head is then expressed in terms of meters of a liquid column.
HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM

Pressure = P + dP

dh

Pressure = P
Fluid of density = r
h

Area = A
Fig. 7.3 : Hydrostatic equilibrium
Consider the vertical column of a single static fluid shown in Fig. 7.3. In this column of
the static fluid, the pressure at any point is the same in all directions. The pressure is also
constant at any horizontal plane parallel to the earth's surface, but it varies with the height of
the column (it changes along the height of the column). Let the cross-sectional area of the
column be A m2 and the density of the fluid be ρ kg/m3. Let 'P', N/m2 be the pressure at a
height 'h' (meter) from the base of the column. At a height h + dh from the base of the
common (another horizontal plane), let the pressure be P + dP, N/m2. The forces acting on a
small element of the fluid of a thickness dh between these two planes are :
(i) Force (P + dP)A is acting downwards. … taken as +ve.
(ii) Force due to gravity is acting downwards and is equal to mass times acceleration
due to gravity : mg = V ρ g = A.dh.ρ.g … taken as –ve.
where m is the mass of the fluid contained within the two planes.
(iii) Force PA is acting upwards … taken as –ve.
Unit Operations-I 7.8 Flow of Fluids

As the fluid element is in equilibrium, the resultant of these three forces acting on it
must be zero. Thus,
+ P.A – A. dh.ρ.g – (P + dP) A = 0 … (7.11)
P.A – A. dh.ρ.g – PA – A.dP = 0 … (7.12)
– A.dh.ρ.g – A.dP = 0 … (7.13)
dP + dh.ρ.g = 0 … (7.14)
Equation (7.14) is the desired basic equation that can be used for obtaining the pressure
at any height. Let us apply it to incompressible and compressible fluids.
1. Incompressible Fluids :
For incompressible fluids, density is independent of pressure.
Integrating Equation (7.14), we get
dP + g.ρ.dh = 0 … (7.15)
∫ dP + g.ρ. ∫ dh = 0 … (7.16)
∴ P + hρg = constant … (7.17)
From Equation (7.17), it is clear that the pressure is maximum at the base of the column
or container of the fluid and it decreases as we move up the column.
If the pressure at the base of the column is P1 where h = 0 and the pressure at any height
h above the base is P2 such that P1 > P2, then
P2 h
⌠ ⌠
⌡ dP = – g . ρ ⌡ dh … (7.18)
P1 0

Integrating, we get
(P1 – P2) = h . ρ . g … (7.19)
where P1 and P2 are expressed in N/m2, ρ in kg/m3, h in m, 'g' in m/s2 in SI.
With the help of Equation (7.19), the pressure difference in a fluid between any two
points can be obtained by measuring the height of the vertical column of the fluid.
2. Compressible Fluids :
For compressible fluids, density varies with pressure. For an ideal gas, the density is
given by the relation
PM
ρ = RT … (7.20)

where P = absolute pressure

M = molecular weight of gas
R = universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature.
Putting the value of 'ρ' from Equation (7.20) into Equation (7.14),
dP + g (PM/RT) dh = 0 … (7.21)
Unit Operations-I 7.9 Flow of Fluids

Rearranging Equation (7.21),

dP M
P + g . RT dh = 0 … (7.22)
Integrating Equation (7.22), we get
M
ln P + g.RT ⋅ h = constant … (7.23)
Integrating the above equation between two heights h1 and h2 where the pressures acting
are P1 and P2, we get
P2 M (h2 – h1)
ln P = – g . RT … (7.24)
1

P2  M 
P1 = exp . – g . RT (h2 – h1) … (7.25)
Equation (7.25) is known as the barometric equation and it gives us the idea of pressure
distribution within an ideal gas for isothermal conditions.
MANOMETERS
Manometers are the simplest pressure measuring devices and are used for measuring
low pressure or pressure differences.
U-tube Manometer
P1 P2
Scale
To tap
Limb-1 1 5 Limb-2
Air
x

4 Arm of manometer
Fluid of density r
h

2
3

Fluid of density = rm

Fig. 7.4 : U-tube Manometer

• U-tube manometer is the simplest form of manometer. It consists of a small
diameter U-shaped tube of glass. The tube is clamped on a wooden board. Between
the two arms or legs of the manometer, a scale is fixed on the same board. The U-
tube is partially filled with a manometric fluid which is heavier than the process
fluid. The two limbs of the manometer are connected by a tubing to the taps
between which the pressure drop is to be measured. Air vent valves are provided at
the end of each arm for the removal of trapped air in the arm. The manometric fluid
is immiscible with the process fluid. The common manometric fluid is mercury.
Unit Operations-I 7.10 Flow of Fluids

• U-tube manometer is filled with a given manometric fluid (fluid M) upto a certain
height. The remaining portion of the U-tube is filled with the process fluid/flowing
fluid of density ρ including the tubings. One limb of the manometer is connected to
the upstream tap in a pipeline and the other limb is connected to the downstream tap
in the pipeline between which the pressure difference P1 – P2 is required to be
measured. Air, if any, is there in the line connecting taps and manometer is
removed. At steady state, for a given flow rate, the reading of the manometer,
i.e., the difference in the level of the manometric fluid in the two arms is measured
and it gives the value of pressure difference in terms of manometric fluid across the
taps (stations). It may then be converted in terms of m of flowing fluid.
• Consider a U-tube manometer as shown in Fig. 7.4 connected in a pipeline. Let
pressure P1 be exerted in one limb of the manometer and pressure P2 be exerted in
the another limb of the manometer. If P1 is greater than P2, the interface between the
two liquids in the limb 1 will be depressed by a distance 'h' (say) below that in the
limb 2. To arrive at a relationship between the pressure difference (P1 – P2) and the
difference in the level in the two limbs of the manometer in terms of manometric
fluid (h), pressures at points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are considered.
Pressure at point 1 = P1
Pressure at point 2 = P1 + (x + h) ρ.g
Pressure at point 3 = Pressure at point 2
= P1 + (x + h) ρ.g
(as the points 2 and 3 are at the same horizontal plane).
Pressure at point 4 = P1 + (x + h) ρ.g – h . ρM.g
Pressure at point 5 = P1 + (x + h) ρ.g – h . ρM.g – x.ρ.g
Pressure at point 5 = P2
Then, we can write,
P2 = P1 + (x + h) . ρ.g – h ρM.g – x . ρ.g … (7.26)
P1 – P2 = ∆P = h (ρM – ρ)g … (7.27)
where ∆P is the pressure difference and 'h' is the difference in levels in the two arms of the
manometer in terms of manometric fluid.
If the flowing fluid is a gas, density ρ of the gas will normally be small compared with
the density of the manometric fluid, ρM and thus Equation (7.27) reduces to
∆P = P1 – P2 = h . ρM.g … (7.28)
Inclined Manometer
• Inclined manometers are used for measuring small pressure differences.
• This type of manometer is shown in Fig. 7.5. One arm of the manometer is inclined
at an angle of 5 to 10o with the horizontal so as to obtain a larger reading.
(e.g., movement of 7 to 10 mm is obtained for a pressure change corresponding to
1 mm head of liquid.)
Unit Operations-I 7.11 Flow of Fluids
Pressure, P2
Pressure, P1

Fig. 7.5 : Inclined Tube Manometer

• In the vertical leg of this manometer an enlargement is provided so that the
movement of the meniscus in this enlargement is negligible within the operating
range of the manometer. If the reading R(in m) is taken as shown, i.e., distance
travelled by the meniscus of the manometric fluid along the tube, then
h = R sin α … (7.29)
where α = angle of inclination
and (P1 – P2) = R sin α (ρM – ρ) g … (7.30)
Differential Manometer / Two Liquid Manometer / Multiplying Gauge
Pressure, P1 Pressure, P2

Fluid A

Enlarged chamber/
Reservoir

Fluid B

Fluid C

Fig. 7.6 : Differential Manometer

Unit Operations-I 7.12 Flow of Fluids

• Differential manometer is used for the measurement of very small pressure

differences or for the measurement of pressure differences with a very high
precision. It may often be used for gases.
• It consists of a U-tube made of glass. The ends of the tube are connected to two
enlarged transparent chambers / reservoirs. The reservoirs at the ends of each arm
are of a large cross-section than that of the tube. The manometer contains two
manometric liquids of different densities and these are immiscible with each other
and with the fluid for which the pressure difference is to be measured. This type of
manometer is shown in Fig. 7.6.
• The densities of the manometric fluids are nearly equal to have a high sensitivity of
the manometer. Liquids which give sharp interfaces are commonly used, e.g.,
paraffin oil and industrial alcohol, etc.
P1 P2

1 7

Fluid A x 6
h'

2 y

Fluid B
h 5
a a
3 4

Fluid C

Fig. 7.7 : Differential Manometer (for pressure balance)

Let the flowing fluid be 'A' of density ρA and manometric fluids be B and C of densities
ρB and ρC (ρC > ρB), respectively [ρA < ρB and ρC].
The pressure difference between two points (1 and 7) can be obtained by writing down
pressures at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 and is given by
P1 – P2 = h' (ρB – ρA) g + h (ρC – ρB) g … (7.31)
If the level of liquid in two reservoirs is approximately same, then h' ≈ 0 and
Equation (7.31) reduces to
P1 – P2 = h (ρC – ρB) g … (7.32)
where h is the difference in level in the two arms/limbs of the manometer.
When the densities ρB and ρC are nearly equal [(ρC – ρB) small], then very large values of
h can be obtained for small pressure differences.
Unit Operations-I 7.13 Flow of Fluids

Alternately, the pressure at the level a – a in Fig. 7.7 must be the same in each of the
limbs and therefore,
P1 + [x.ρA + h' ρA + y.ρB + h.ρB] g = P2 + [x.ρA + h' ρB + y .ρB + h.ρC] g … (7.33)
∴ (P1 – P2) = h' (ρB – ρA) g + h (ρC – ρB) g … (7.34)
CONTINUOUS GRAVITY DECANTER
Decantation involves the separation of two immiscible liquids of differing densities from
one another. Basically, the difference in densities of two immiscible liquids is responsible for
such a separation.
Decanters used for the separation of two immiscible liquids are : (i) gravity decanter and
(ii) centrifugal decanter. Decanters utilize either a gravitational force or a centrifugal force to
effect the separation.
A gravity decanter is used for the separation of two immiscible liquids when the
difference between densities of the two liquids is large. A centrifugal decanter is used for the
separation of two immiscible liquids whenever the difference between densities of the two
liquids is small. The separating force (centrifugal force) in the centrifugal decanter is much
larger than the force of gravity.
Light liquid

Light liquid
Feed (e.g. toluene) Feed

Heavy liquid
(e.g. water)
Heavy liquid
Fig. 7.8 (A) : Continuous Gravity Decanters for immiscible liquids
Separation of two immiscible liquids based on the density difference of the phases
involved is commonly encountered in the mass transfer operation such as liquid-liquid
extraction.
Vent

HB
HT
HA1 HA2
Feed inlet

Light liquid Heavy liquid

Fig. 7.8 (B) : Continuous Gravity Decanter