NS GEOLOGY FINAL EXAMINATION - Only few minerals make bulk of igneous rocks called

rock-forming minerals: felsic and mafic minerals

Coverage of Final Exams on May 17, 2024: - Felsic minerals – generally light in color, lower
• Study of Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary, and density
Metamorphic Rocks and the Important Rocks - includes quartz, felspar group,
• Geological Investigations: Geological, Geotechnical, and felspathoid group of minerals
and Geophysical Investigations - Mafic minerals – dark in color, comparatively heavier
in density
- contain ferro-magnesian minerals
such as amphiboles, pyroxenes,
PART A. IGNEOUS ROCKS micas, olivine, oxides of iron
A.1 INTRODUCTION
- Hypermelanic – a special type of igneous rock
Igneous rocks – rocks formed from an originally hot molten excessively rich in mafic minerals, colour index above
magma through the process of cooling and crystallization 90

- Are formed both from magma and lava

Very high temperature and molten state – two very Shand and others developed a method of classifying
important conditions for the original material from the igneous rocks into 3 divisions:
igneous rocks are believed to have been formed
1. Oversaturated (acidic) rocks – silica percentage greater
than 66; abundant of silica
Magma – hot molten material below the surface of the Earth; 2. Saturated (basic) rocks – silica percentage between 45-
hypothetical melt 66; termed Intermediate rocks (52-66% silica)
- formed at great depths…due to high temperature 3. Undersaturated (ultrabasic) rocks – silica-deficient
Lava – hot molten material outside the surface of the earth; igneous rocks, silica percentage less than 45 percent
magma that erupted through volcanoes – Unsaturated minerals are leucite, nepheline, sodalite,
- Thoroughly studied material; provides ample proof olivine, etc.
of existence of magma below the surface
- Cools down at very fast rate compared to magma
A.3 TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
3 SUB-GROUPS IGNEOUS ROCK: (or 3 divisions on basis of
their mode of formation) - the property of texture is indicative

1. Volcanic rocks - general way, a megascopic or field classification

2. Plutonic rocks - It is difficult to further classify the rocks on basis of texture

3. Hypabyssal rocks - has been used for classifying rocks into 3 divisions (on basis
of texture): Phanerites, Aphanites, Glasses
Volcanic rocks – igneous rocks formed on the surface of the
earth by cooling and crystallization of lava erupted from (a) Phanerites – are coarse-grained (ave. grain size is greater
volcanoes than 5 mm), identified megascopically/with unaided eyes

- Since lava cools down at a very fast rate, the grain (b) Aphanites – fine-grained (grain size less than 1mm)
size of the crystals formed in these rocks is very fine
- An example is the Deccan Traps of India - distinguished as porphyritic aphanite it show a few
- Best example is basalts well-developed coarse crystals present as
phenocrysts
Plutonic Rocks – Igneous rocks formed at considerable depths
generally between 7-10 km below the surface of the Earth (c) Glasses – minerals are present in uncrystallized form due
to rapid cooling
- Very slow rate of cooling, rocks formed are coarse-
grained - defined as rocks of zero grain size
- Rocks get exposed on the surface of the Earth as a - referred as supercooled liquids
consequence of erosion of the overlying strata
- Examples are granites, syenites, and gabbros

Hypabyssal Rocks – igneous rocks formed at intermediate A.4 TABULAR CLASSIFICATION

depths (2 km below the surface)
- the igneous rocks are first divided into 3 main subdivisions
- Mixed characteristics of volcanic and plutonic rocks based on their mode of formation as indicated by their
- Example is porphyries textural and structural features: Plutonic, hypabyssal, and
volcanic
A.2 MINERALOGY CLASSIFICATION
- Textural divisions are then recognized in all 3 subdivisions as
- The mineralogical composition of an igneous rock is follows: Plutonic, Hyabyssal, Volcanic
actually an expression of the chemical composition
of the parent magma and cooling history of the rock. 1. Plutonic rocks: Phanerites (P), Microphanerites (M)
- Regarded as an easy and more accurate method
- Mineralogical composition – Sound basis for 2. Hypabyssal rocks: Porphyries (PO), Microporphyries (M),
classifying the igneous rocks and Glasses (G)
3. Volcanic rocks: Aphanites (A) and Glasses (G) -
Cementation – the process by which loose grains or
- Each class of the above rocks is then subdivided into rock sediments in basins get held together by binding material
subclasses according to the relative abundance of the
following rock forming mineral assemblages: Detritus – the disintegrated, loosened material so formed and
accumulated near the source
(a) quartz and felspars
Sorting – the most important phenomenon that happens to
(b) felspars the sediments during their transport and deposition
(c) felspars and felspathoids - grading according to size, shape, density
(d) ferro-magnesian minerals Deposition- generally takes place under ordinary pressure
- The relative abundance of felsic and mafic minerals serves and temperature conditions
as basis for broadly defining the saturation of the rock with
silica
B. Chemically formed (Non-clastic) Rocks

- 2 types: precipitates and evaporites (yes rites cja)

PART B. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- Examples are limestone, rock salt, gypsum, and anhydrite
B.1 INTRODUCTION

Sedimentary rocks – also called secondary rocks; cohesive

solid mass C. Organically Formed (Non-clastic) Rocks

- Formed by accumulation, compaction, and -limestones are the best examples of organically formed
consolidation of sediments sedimentary rocks
- Shown to cover as much 75% of the surface area of
the Earth; less than 10% volume in depth of the crust
B. 3 CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sediments – defined as particles produced from the - sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of their
decay and weathering of pre-existing rocks mineralogical composition, environment of deposition, mode
- accumulation and compaction of sediments of formation, and textural and structural features
commonly takes place under water or in the - 2 main division of classification: Clastic and Non-clastic
presence of water
- the solid matter making the sedimentary rocks may A. Clastic Rocks – mechanically formed or detrital rocks
be from varied sources
- basins – large depressions on the body of the earth -may be made up of sediments more than one grade

- formed from pre-existing rocks by the operation of 4

processes: weathering and erosion, transport, deposition, and
B. 2 FORMATION diagenesis

3 CLASSES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ON BASIS OF THEIR -follow four-fold terminology for grading clastic sediments:
MODE OF FORMATION gravels, sands, silts, clays

A. Clastic (Mechanically Formed) Rocks – called detrital rocks (a) Gravels – grain size above 2 mm;

Steps of formation of clastic: • Boulders – 256 mm grain size

• Cobbles – 256-26 mm grain size
(a) Decay and disintegration
• Pebbles - 16-2 mm grain size
(b) Transport of sediments – wind, running water (mightiest),
(b) Sands – 2 mm & 1/16 mm; termed siliceous
and glaciers are strong and common agents of transport
sediments; 3 subgroups:
(c) Gradual deposition – sediments are transported to diff.
• Coarse sands (between 2 mm-1/2 mm)
types of settling basins such as glacial deposits, fluvial
• Medium sands (between ½-1/4 mm)
deposits, glacio-fluvial deposits, eolian deposits, marine
• Fine sands (between 1/4-1/16 mm)
deposits
(c) Silts - 1/16 & 1/256 mm; very fine-sized particles;
(d) Diagenesis – process of formation of loose sediments
major constituents of shales
deposited in the settlement basins to solid cohesive rock
(d) Clays - less than 1/256 mm
- process of compaction, consolidation, and cementation
- 3 classification of clastic rocks based on predominance of
- may be achieved by either of the 2 methods: welding and
sediments: rudites, arenites, lutites
cementation
Rudites (Psephites) – also called rudaceous rocks; made up of
-
gravels - Important examples are Breccias &
Welding – process of compaction of the sediments…in lower
conglomerates
layers of the basins due to the pressure exerted by the load…
Arenites (Psamites) – also called arenaceous rocks; made up
- degree of packing is directly proportional to the load
of sediments of sand

- common arenites are sandstones, grewackes and arkoses

Lutites (Pelites) – called argillaceous rocks; sedimentary rocks Metamorphism – term used to express the process
of the finest grain size made up of silt and responsible for all the changes that take place in an original
clay rock,..under temperature, pressure, chemically active fluids

-examples are shales, clays, mudstones,

siltstone
C.2 FACTORS OF METAMORPHISM

3 Main Factors of Metamorphism (Also called agents of

B. Non-Clastic Rocks – also called non-detrital rocks Metamorphism):

- formed by any one of the following 1. Temperature

1. Operation of simple chemical processes – - rocks are normally stable at temperature below 200 degrees
such as evaporation, precipitation and Celsius
crystallization…
2. Accumulation of hard parts of organisms -two common sources of heat:

- 2 Sub-divisions: 1. internal heat – increase in temperature with depth

(a) Chemically formed Rocks – generally formed by 2. magmatic heat – rise in temperature around
precipitation, evaporation,..from natural aqueous magmatic intrusions
solutions… - most metamorphic changes take place between 300-850
1. Siliceous Deposits – Silica is the chief constituents; degrees Celsius (above 850 degrees Celsius, rock melts and
- examples are flint, chert, jasper then categorized as igneous rock)

2. Carbonate Deposits – are precipitated from

carbonate-rich waters…; examples limestone, 2. Pressure - dominant factor and is assisted by heat factor
dolomite, and magnesite
-Two sources of pressure:
3. Ferruginous Deposits – oxides and hydroxides are
common examples… 1. load of the overlying burden – acts in vertical
direction; load metamorphism
4. Phosphatic Deposits – deposits mostly form from
sea-water rich in phosphoric acid 2. Crustal movement – horizontal pressure; termed
direct pressure
5. Evaporites – a distinct class of sedimentary rocks
by the process of evaporation 3. Chemical Environment

- examples are rock salt, anhydrite, gypsum, borates, -recrystallisation – new minerals are created…;takes place in
rock sulfur, and nitrate a solid state

-metasomatism – type of change,…fluids present around the

rock and react with the minerals producing changes
(b) Organic deposits – sedimentary deposits formed
exclusively from remains of organisms - chemically active fluids: water, carbon dioxide, hydrofluoric
acid, bromine, and fluorine
- direct contribution of the organism – coral
limestone example (The agents of metamorphism may act individually or
collectively)
-Indirect contribution
C.3 EFFECTS OF METAMORPHISM
-Types of organic deposits (based on their chemical
composition): -a variety of changes may be caused in pre-existing rocks
subjected to metamorphic processes depending primarily on
1. Carbonate Rocks – formed by gradual accumulation following 2 major factors:
and compaction of shells and skeletal bones
1. The type of rock involved in the process
2. Carbonaceous Rocks – sedimentary rock rich in
carbon; Carbonaceous shales and coals are examples 2. The kind of metamorphic process operating on those rocks

3. Phosphatic Deposits-Guano – accumulations of Main Categories of Effects on the Involved Rocks

excreta of some birds
1. Recrystallisation – involves simultaneous growth of new
4. Ferruginous Deposits – mostly iron carbonate deposits crystals from existing ones; takes place in a solid state
of good volume
-Higher temperature, greater effect; slower the rate of
cooling, greater degree of recrystallisation

PART C. METAMORPHIC ROCKS - conditions control the extent of recrystallisation:

C.1 INTRODUCTION (a) The size of the igneous intrusion

Temperature, pressure, and chemically active fluids – play (b) The initial temperature of the magma or lava
important role in rocks to undergo change
(c) The nature of magma or lava
Metamorphic rock – changed rock due to temperature,
pressure and chemically active fluids (d) The nature of the rock
2. Rock Flowage – slippage of the grains or crystals C.6 CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

-actual movement and reorientation of mineral constituents --Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of texture and
of rock structure, degree of metamorphism, mineralogical
composition and mode of origin
-is believed to be a common process at greater depths,…along
margins of tectonic plates A) Foliated Rocks - …parallelism,..and structural constitution
falling under term foliation
3. Granulation – the birth of very fine fractures; favored by
hard and insoluble character of the constituents minerals -typical rocks included in this group are
slates, phyllites, schists, and gneisses
4. Metasomatic Replacement – process of simultaneous
replacement at atomic level B) Non-Foliated Rocks – metamorphic rocks,...absence of
foliation or parallelism

-Typical examples are quartzites, hornfels,

C.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS marbles, amphibolites, and soapstones
- rocks w/c have formed through the operation of various
types of metamorphic processes…

- the direction of change depends upon the type of the

original rock and the type of metamorphic process that 3.3 IMPORTANT IGNEOUS ROCKS
operates on the rock
1. Granites

- plutonic light-colored rocks

C.4 MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
-most common igneous rock
-metamorphic rocks exhibit a great variation in their
mineralogical composition that depends in most cases on: - coarse to medium-grained, holocrystalline, equigranular
rocks
1. Composition of the parent rock
-Composition: Quartz and Felspar
2. type and degree of metamorphism undergone by the rock
-Accessory minerals: micas (muscovite and biotite),
Two broad groups of minerals formed during amphiboles, pyroxene, magnetite, apatite, garnet, tourmaline
metamorphism:
-Texture: Granitic, graphic, porphyritic, and intergrowth
1. Stress Minerals – minerals produced in the metamorphic textures
rocks chiefly under the stress factor
-Types: (dle na guro ni huhu)
-characterized by flaky, platy, lamellar, flattened and
elongated forms -basta kay many types of granites are distinguished on the
basis of relative abundance in them of some particular
-examples are kyanite, staurolite, muscovite, chlorite, and accessory mineral. (Ex. Muscovite-granite kay daghay
some amphiboles muscovite)

-minerals formed under dynamothermal metamorphism -Occurrence: intrusive bodies like sills, bosses, stocks and
batholiths
2. Anti-stress Minerals – minerals primarily produced under
the influence of temperature factor,…reg equidimensional -Identified by their light-colored appearance, coarse to
outline medium-grained texture, and abundance of quartz and
felspar
-examples are sillimanite, olivine, cordierite, pyroxenes
-Use: used in architectural and massive construction, e.g.
-stable under high stress conditions monuments and memorial, as columns, steps, and floorings
-Plutonic metamorphism favors development

2. Diorite
C.5 TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS - igneous rock in composition between gabbro and granite
A. Crystalloblastic Textures – textures that have been newly -referred to as salt and pepper rock (speckled black and
imposed upon the rock during metamorphism white)
-common types are: -plutonic equivalent of andesite
i) Porphyroblastic – fine-grained ground -Composition: sodium-rich plagioclase, amphibole, biotite,
mass,…idioblastic crystals of stronger minerals pyroxene, small amount of quartz
ii) Granoblastic – rock is made up of equidimensional -Texture: Phaneritic texture
recrystallized minerals w/out any fine grain ground
mass

B. Palimpsest (Relict) Textures – textures w/c were present in

the parent rock and have been retained
3. Syenite 3.4 IMPORTANT SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

- coarse-grained igneous rock in composition to granite but 1. Breccia

deficient in quartz
- clastic sedimentary rocks that are composed of large angular
- Composition: Alkali felspar, plagioclase felspar, quartz less fragments (2 mm or 0.08 in.)
than 5%, Dark mafic minerals
- Composition: cementing cloth, quartz, feldspar, lithics
-Texture: Phaneritic texture
- Texture: clastic texture

4. Gabbro
2. Conglomerates
- coarse-grained plutonic rocks of basic character
- clastic sedimentary rocks made up of rounded
- formed from the slow crystallization of magma; usually black clasts/pebbles (greater than 2mm in diameter)
or green
- Composition: Calcite, quartz, feldspar
- Most abundant rock in deep oceanic crust
-forms in riverbeds
-Chief constituents: plagioclase felspar of lime-soda
composition (e.g. labradorite and anorthite) - clastic texture

-Accessory minerals: mafic minerals (augite, hornblende,

olivine, biotite, and iron oxides) 3. Sandstone
-Texture: variable texture; generally coarse to medium grained - mechanically formed sedimentary rocks of Arenaceous
(phaneritic texture sa video) Group
-Types: a) Norite – contains orthorhombic pyroxenes - mostly composed of sand grade particles (2 mm- 1/16 mm
b) Gabbro – contains monoclinic pyroxenes grain size)

c) Anorthosite – typical monomineralic rock - Composition: quartz (most common component), felspar,
micas, garnet, magnetite
d) Eucrite – gabbroic rock in w/c felspar bytwonite
dominates - Texture: clastic

e) Essexite – presence of some nepheline; pyroxenes

are absent 4. Shale
f) Troctolite – contains felspars and olivine; - sedimentary rock that is soft, brittle, easily eroded, and fine-
pyroxenes are absent grained
g) Dunite – typical absence of felspars and - Formed from the compaction of silt and clay
dominance of olivine and pyroxenes
- mudstone

-Texture: Clastic Texture

5. Dolerite

- a medium-grained, dark-colored igneous rock…

5. Limestone
- Composition: plagioclase felspar, pyroxene, olivine,
hornblende - sedimentary rocks composed of fossilized debris

- Texture: Porphyritic -Composition: Calcium carbonate

- Texture: Can be clastic or Non-Clastic

6. Basalts

- are volcanic igneous rocks formed by rapid cooling from lava 3.5 IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS
flows from volcanoes
1. Slate
-Composition: commonly made up of calcic plagioclase felspar
and ferro-magnesian minerals - extremely fine-grained metamorphic rock characterized by a
slaty cleavage (can be readily split into thin sheets)
-Basanite – olivine-rich basalt
- Composition: Fine flakes of mica
-Tepherite – olivine-free type basalt
- Texture: Foliated Texture, very fine-grained
-Occurrence: form from extensive lava flows and on oceanic
floors 2. Schist

- foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate-shaped mineral

grains

-Composition: talc, micas, quartz, feldspar

- Texture: Foliated texture

3. Gneiss

- has a glorious banding; prominent from schist by its foliation Drilling of Boreholes - A borehole into the surface of the
earth is drilled up to a required, predetermined depth using a
- Composition: feldspar and quarts
suitable technique
- Texture: Foliated texture
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)- very commonly used for
describing the quality of rocks underneath.

4. Marble - A 100% RQD denotes excellent unjointed massive

rock, and a less than 10% RQD obviously indicates a
- granular metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized
weak or fractured zone
limestone

- Composition: Calcite (chief constituent) The main classes of RQD are:

-Texture: Granulose texture • Poor (25-50)

• Fair (50-75)
• Good (75-90) and
• Excellent (90 - 100).

GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

5.4 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES:

- All important civil engineering projects like dams, reservoirs, 1. Electrical Methods – based on the fundamental fact that
tunnels, roads, bridges and buildings etc. are constructed on different materials of earth’s crust possess widely different
rocks or on soils. It is, therefore, essential that the engineer electrical properties. Two groups:
should have fullest knowledge possible of the strata or soil
through which works of construction are to be carried out or a) Self potential methods – involve measurement of
on which these have to rest. natural electrical potential of the subsurface rocks

b) Potential drop methods – include a variety of

methods,…electric current is artificially introduced
5.2 OBJECTS
from an external source
The main object of geological investigations
Two common methods based on the above principle
(a) the geological structure of the area - includes topography are: equipotential and resistivity method
and geomorphology, is determined by conducting extensive
and intensive geological surveys. Equipotential method – two primary electrodes are
inserted into the ground (6-7 m apart)
(b) the lithology of the area - the type of rocks that make up
different parts of the area, on the surface as also up to and Resistivity method – similar to equipotential method
even beyond a desired depth, their textures, major structures but in this case the resistivity of the material is
and physical and engineering properties determined

(c) the groundwater conditions in the region -

(d) the seismicity of the region - a parameter of great 2. Seismic Methods – shocks or explosions within the earth’s
concern…crucial to determine the potential impact of crust are always accompanied by generation of elastic waves
earthquakes on a structure

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
5.3 METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS - Also know as ground or soil investigation
2 main groups: - involves examining the soil and the rock beneath the
construction sight…
1. the surface investigations - these include preparation of
topographic maps - provides valuable insights to engineers helping them design
safe and efficient foundations, slopes, retaining walls, and
- Aerial surveys and preparation of photogeological
other structures
maps are the latest methods of surface investigations

2. subsurface investigations - these are accomplished by

following two broad methods: direct subsurface
explorations and Indirect subsurface investigations

- direct methods involve examination of rocks or

materials of the underground by digging of drill
holes,..

- indirect methods - used extensively and involve

application of geophysical techniques
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION PROCESS

1. Desk study – preliminary research involves collecting

existing data…

2. Sight reconnaissance – phase when engineers visit the site

to visually inspect…

3. Field Investigation – engineers use various techniques to

collect samples and gather data…

4. Laboratory testing – collected samples are sent to a

laboratory

5. Data analysis and report – engineers analyze the site’s

geotechnical conditions,…provides recommendations

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION IMPORTANCE AND REASONS

FOR ITS SIGNIFICANCE:

- Help engineers determine the most suitable foundation

type for the structure,…and also suggest ground
improvement techniques
- A thorough geotechnical investigation is vital for several
reasons:
1. Safety – help engineers design foundations that
can support weight and resist natural
hazards
2. Cost-Effectiveness – engineers can select the most
suitable construction techniques and
materials
3. Environmental Protection – helps identify and
mitigate environmental impacts