Coral Relational Data Model ~ Fundamentals of RDBMS : Record, fields, Data types, tables and database ~ _Goneopt at ROBMS, E.F Cod’ rl for RDBMS, Key concepts - Candida key, primary key, fri ey. ~ Normalization : Normalization Concep§s, Need of Normalization, Types of Normalization - 1NE, 2NF, ~ _tnvoduction to Stuctured Query Language, Data Types n SOL, Components of SQL- DDL, DML, DCL, DOL ~ PDL Commands : Creat, Alter, Drop, Truncate, Desc, Rename : Data integrity Constraint : Types of Data Integrity Constraint : VO Constraint - Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique Key Constraint, Business Rule Constraint - Null, Not Null and Check ~ _ DML Commands : Inset, Update and Delete DCL Commands : Commit, Savepoint, Rollback, Grant, Revoke ~ DOL Commands : Select SAL Operators : Arithmetic Operators, Comparison Operators, Logical Operators, Set Operators, Range Searching Operators - between, Pattem Matching operators - Like Syllabus Topic : Fundamentals of RDBMS ‘= Components of relational model ~ The relational model consists of three major components: 2) Fundamentals of RDBMS 1 ‘The set of relations and set of domains that defines the 2.1.4 Introduction ‘way data can be represented (data structure), ~ The Relational model store dat in the form of tables, This Integrity rules that define the procedure to protect the concept is introduced by Dr, ELF. Codd, a researcher of IBM, data (data integrity), ‘The relational model is the fist choice of commensal dats rocessing aplication for storing the data ‘The OPerions that can be perfommed on data (a manipulation), implest = modes like network or ~ Relational model is most famous because of Structure as compare to other database mea tables: Theses ables ae intestnked with each other ih © TR Elona models now considered asthe primary moat | PF mon feds otmns ig between them. ‘Se detahase, ‘History of relational model ~ ~ Terslont ds model iste simple mode avin tthe | _ ee ropes an epailitis required to process date model of ity, tM tonal model as gee! | ~ Most the modem Database Mana (Coda proposed the relational model for IBM. ~ Bur Coa ‘88 no idea that his intuendal work woud bee!SOOO s the t the (data erent p the & DBMS (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) 22 Relational Data Model the basis of relational databases. Chris Date and Hugh Darwen. = Date and Darwen shows that the relational model contains some desired object oriented features in the third Mainfesto, © Definition of Relational Model ‘The relational model is later maintained and developed by Implements the concept of closure means all operations are performed on an entire relation and result is an entire relation. It supports the operations like data definition, data ‘manipulation and transaction management. 2.1.3 Advantages of Relational Model ‘Advantages of Relational ‘Model = In such a database the data and relations between them are organized into tables. ~ Tableis the collection of records. 21.2. Characteristics of Relational Database ~The characteristics of Relational database systems are as follows: ~ This model is called as Relational Model by Dr. Codd because the data is stored in the tables which are having relationships in between them. ~The whole data of the system is represented as systematic, ‘rangement of data into rows and columns, called as relation ortable. ‘Atuble is also form in two-dimensional structure. ‘At any given row/columa position means in every cell in the ‘elation thee is one and only one value which is known as ‘ealar value, Column represents attribute, and each column has a ame, All values entered inthe columns are ofthe same data format. > 2. Floxibilty a Fig. 2.1.1: Advantages of Relational Model 1. Base of use: The system which is managed in the form of tables consisting of rows and columns is much easier to ‘understand. 2 Flexibility : The information from multiple tables can be retrieved easily at a time by joining the tables. Also ‘changes can be done easily by using different operator. 3. Security : The different users can have different levels of access to data based on ther roles. Inthe college database, students will have access to their own data only, while their teachers will have access to data of all the students to whom. they are teaching. Class teacher will be able to see the reports of all the students in that class, but not other clases, The principal wll have access to entire data. 4. Data Independence completely separate the data structure of database and programs or applications which are used to access the data. In Relational system we can This is called as data independence. If any changes are made in structure of database then there is no need to make changes the programs. For example you can modify the size or data type of a data items (fields of @ database table) without ‘making any change in application.23 |DBMS (MSBTE-Ser “> 5 Data Manipulation Language : In the relational database approach itis easy to respond query by means of Innguage ike SQL based on relational algebra and relational calculus. For data organized in other structure the query Ianguage either becomes complex or extemely limited in its capabilities. ——_——————_—__———————_ ‘Syllabus Topie : Records, Fields, Tables, Database Basic Concepts of Relational Model Relational model refers table as its basic unit ~ In relational model related data is collectively cary in the structured format inthe database system. = Its combination of rows and columns, where records are represented by rows and attributes are represented. by ‘columns. In relational data model, relations are saved in the format of Tables. The relations among entities is stored in this format. ‘Tuple (Record) = Tuple i a single row of the table. It contains whole record of a panicular data item. For example in Student table the entire information about a particular student like his roll ‘number, name, mark et. are included in the tuple ~~ Atuple isan ordered set of atibute values, 3, Attribute (Field) tis column of table. For example in a table Student, there may be different atuibutes like roll_number, marks ec, stud_name, Every attribute is atached with specific data type which decides that which type of values can be i those alues inserted in atibutes ~~ Ateibutes ar also known as fields, 2.2 NARA Relational Data Mod, Database ‘nase considered as colecton of bs Domain very attire has some pre-defined valve SOR, known attribute domain. ‘This anvibute domain decides which types of values ax permitted in the attribute. ‘The tye of value contains where string or numerical or dae type. The domain also decides some integrity constant fa values to be inserted in the database, For example ¢ cemp_name attribute ean have only string type of value while the salary attribute can have only numeric values wit, specified range. Domain restrict the data to be inserted with specific constraints, hence itis called as domain constraint Properties of relational database model Data is presented in the relational database model like it isthe collection of relations. Each relation is considered as table, Columns are attributes that belong to the entity modelled by| the table, ach row (Tuple) represents a single entity. Every table has a set of attributes collectively called as 4 "key" which uniquely identifies each row. Syllabus Topic : Concept of RDBMS. Concept of RDBMS A lations database management system (RDBMS) 8} ausere -w-13, 5-14, w.t4, $15, W-15, S-17, W-17) 9:22 Doscrbe folowing kayo 2S OQ Primary key (i) Foreign kay. “(Refer section 2.2.2) _uld not atime) bypass higher must be ck door Key, lbBMs (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comy 26 antibutes uniquely. It is necessary that in an entity set, no two cntties should have same values for all the attributes, Inthe database schema the notion of key is directly applies to entity sets. The key for an entity in entity st isan attribute or set of attibutes which is used to distinguish entities from ‘each other. Keys are also used to identify relationships uniquely and differentiate these relationships from each other. = There are six types of keys available in DBMS : a Fig. 22.1: Types of keys DY. Primary Key ~ \Primary key uniquely identify each entity in the entity set. It rst have unique values and cannot hold ull valves Let R te a relsionship st having entity sets E1,E2,..En, Consider primary key (Ei) denotes the set of attributes that fom the primary key for entity ser Ei, The set of attributes associated With the relationship set R is responsible for composition of mary Key for hat reltionship set Example : in Bank database, the account.number entity should be primary key. Because this field cannot be kept ‘NULL 2s well as no account number should be repeated. 92 Super Key ‘This key is formed by combining more than one attributes for the purpose of uniquely identifying entities. = Example : In ~The Super keys are: Relational Data Model student database having attributes Student_reg_id, Student roll_no, Sutdent_name, Address, Contact.no. = It means super key ean be any combination of attributes, so that identifying the record becomes e: > 3. Candidate Key & = (Candidate hey i formed by collection of atbutes which hold unique values. A super key without redundant values is known as candidate key.)Candidate keys are selected from the set of super keys = Candidate key are also known as minimal super key having ‘uniqueness property. The attribute which do not contain duplicate value, may be a candidate key. 2 Example : In student database with attributes Student_reg id, Student yoll.no, Student.name, Address, Contact_no, = It means candidate key can be any combination of key attributes, so that identifying the record from the table becomes easier. > 4, Alternate Keys = From all candidate Keys, only one Key gets selected as primary key, remaining keys are known as alternative or secondary keys. ‘& Example : In student table Student_address, Contact_no, ‘Date Of Birth are the alternative keys.DBMS (MSBTE-Sem. 3 as Composite Key ~Akkey which consists of more than one attributes to uniquely identify rows in a table is called composite key. It i also known as compound key. ‘F Example: In student databse having attrbutes | — Student_reg id, Student sollno, Student.name, Address, Contact_no. DEEATION Tiermalization is a database desi techni me keys Cl sent is used to organize the tables in sic = Mhecomposteeys are: ‘ ‘These sets of keys are used to uniguely identify the recont from the table. Ff Forcan Key = The Foreign key constraint is also known as Referentiat Integrity Constraint. In this constraint one field is common in between two tables. = Foreign key represent relationships between tables. There is pareat child relationship between two tables having commoa 23.1 Types of Normalization oluma, = The marl ean te reed wpe wie srmction table is considered as eid. The common feld ‘ill work as primary key in parent table while foreign key in 2-Fist normal form (1NF) child table 2. Second Nortal form (2NF) ‘Syllabus Topic : Normalization - Normalization a Concepts, Need of Normalization, Types of Normal orm (NF) Normalization - 1NF, 2NF, 3NF_ Fig 231; : 2.3, Normalization Ts oFNermatzation 2 SSSTE- W988 W48 W38,535 wap | > © Festaomal tam ONE): Hing ene les Dat romalzatoh and opah Re na aaa "Speating soups “(eter section 2.3) ty Eyok || © Secong Normal form (2NE) + a oe + Having unique values TSE NO mpeating groups, no par ues 5 Partial dependency. Riana Thea Normat form 233 0.2.3. 6 "rm and having tran; itive dependency. ~ Meg, _ Sa ‘ain need of normalization and state Sir) a z y © oer section 23) TEI 4 What is meant by database normalization 2 ‘proposes normalization 2s an integry r. Edgar F. Codd part ofa relational model manner that it should reduce redundancy dependency of Clo. Lis 1k divides larger tables to smaller tables and Tinks these smaller tables using their relationships. Normalization is implemented by following some formal rules either by a process of synthesis or decomposition, ‘Synthesis is used to create database design in normalized f based on a known set of dependencies) (Decomposition senerally done on existing database which is not normalized) ‘The relation ofthis database is further divided into mile relations to improve the design. ) ‘Normalization is the multi step process. It creates smaller {ables from larger table, GNE) = Same like second nom!a a = ~— & |DBMS (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) 2-8 Relational Data Model ‘Table 2.32 : STUDENT.INFO. 29.2 Need of Normalization 5 . ‘STUD_ID | COURSEID | STU_NAME ADDRESS: (MSBTE- w-14, wa17) @12.4.4 Slate and explain 1NF and 2NF with example, (Refer sections 2.4 and 2.5) : ener ner rer sne eee ene eeeDams (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) hich is ota pe & ted values which aa 2 prime-Key is said to be a non-prime atrbute, cannot be divided fer. : ‘A domain i the set ofall unique for an atibute. Atomic means that Fist Nommal Form defines that ll dhe attributes im a elation} ~ ‘As per the rule of Second Normal Form, e fi ti fi [Normal Form defines tha and single values. attribute must be dependent upon the prime attribute, visible) and single values. snust have atomic (not further visit — Af we follow second normal form, then every acepia aa attribute shouldbe fully fanetionally dependent on prin ‘Table 24.1 : Course_details ee : | Languages C_PRG Programming C, VB, Java = Consider Table 2.5.1 ‘Table 2.5.1 : STUDENT_PROJECT C.scR Scripting JavaScript, PHP, HTML STUD_ID | PROJID | STU_NAME PROV.NAME | = Toble 24.1 is mot in INP as the rule says “each attribute of a 2 table must have atomic (single) values", the attribute stot Pt Kunal | Banking System a contin is “Languages contain mail values which voles here of ee Te = $102 P2 Radhika | Library Management INF, To convert this data into First Normal Form, we have to rearrange it inthe table, $103, Pg Kiran | Speech to Text Converter | | —— ‘S104 Pa Jay ATM 2.6 CARG | Programming | C = Inthe above example the prime key attributes are STUDD CPRG | Progamming —_| vB ‘and PROJ_ID. Here the non key attributes like STU_NAN tnd | pose [ce ‘nd PROJ_NAME are dependent upon one ofthe prime ke = attibutes, csr _| scripting JavaScript " ~ Means STUD_NAME is depend upon STUD_ID while tt CCR Scripting ma PROJ_NAME depends upon PROJLID. This is called — c.scr | serping HTML Partial dependency. ~ ‘Now/each atuibute contin single values, Hence the database | ~ As erthe rule of Second Normal Form the non key attributes] ~ No design is in First Normal Form. ‘should be dependent upon all the key atributes which is na Prin followed ‘Syllabus Topic : 2NF ee : ~ + Te-onver the data in Second Nomal Form we have tsp the table in two different tables as follows. i STUDENT. 7 STU_NAME sio1 Kunal Banking System ~ Te undead the second normal for fist we ah form fst we shouts get |_| t02 its ‘concepts of Prime and Non-prime attributes, = an Menger si03 ~ Prime attribute : An “attribute, whic — echo Te Coe ich is a pact ofthe pris © prime- ‘ey is known asa prime attribute, stot day Am™tes not split \ | paMs (MSBTE-Som. 3-Comp) Jn the table STUDENT all the non prime attributes tike STULNAME and PROLLNAME are completely depends spon the prime attribute STUD_ID OuECT PROJID | __ PROJ.NAME, P1__| Banking System P2__| Library Management P3__| Speech to Text Converter pa [am = Inthe table PROJECT the non prime attributes PROJ_NAME {scompletely depends upon the prime atvibute PROLID 10 Relational Data Model = In Table 2.6.1 the STUD_ID is the only one primary Key: Here the data of city can be retrieved through either STUD_ID or ZIP code. But the CITY is not superkey as well as nor the CITY is prime attribute, = Here the CITY is depends upon ZIP and ZIP is depends upon sTuDID Stud id — 2ip — city = This retationship is known as transitive dependency. = We have to remove this transitive dependency by ‘implementing Third Normal Form, For tis purpose we have the STUDENT_DETAILS table in two different tables say STUDENT_DATA and CITY. STUDENT_DATA Syllabus Topic : 3NF SmMAME | ____OTL Kunal | Banking System Radhika | Library Management Third Normal Form (3NF) Kiran __ | Speech to Text Converter > (usBTE -$-16, $-17) ay [ATM 284 Bilan SNF with example. cary, (Peter socton 20) a 411037 | Pane -Aabase design is said to be in 3NF iT both the following aan conditions are satisfied by it 400016 | Mumbai ~ Itty the design mast bein 2NF. 40001 | Nagpur ~ No non-prie attribute should be transitively dependent on rime key attribute. For any non-trivial functional dependency, X—> A. iter X i a superkey or A is prime attribute ~ Consider the Table 2.6.1. ‘able 2461: STUDENT_DETAILS srup zp | stu name | crry | zi sion | ku Pane | 11037 sur —_| raanita | ras _| 42001 s10s [xian | tumbs | soos sis | ny Nagpur | 40001 Normal Form. Here the basically design is already in Second Normal Form and No non-prime attribute i transitively dependent on. rime key attribute ‘Syllabus Topic : Introduction to Structure Query Language 27 Introduction to Structured Query * Language = SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is used to communicate witha database. It i the standard language for relational database management systems. SQL statements are wed to perform different operations on database like retrieval, insertion, updation and deletion of data,|DBMS (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) SQL is, used in various advanced Relational Database ‘Management Systems (RDBMS). Some common RDBMS that use SQL ate : MySQL, Oracle, Microsoft Access, “Microsoft SQL Server, Sybase, Ingres, et = SQLis developed by IBM as a pat of System R project in 1970. initially it was called as Sequel. SQL was one of the first commercial languages for Edgar F. Codds relational model, SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI in 1986, SQL is a declarative language in which the desired result is given without the specific details about how to accomplish the task, The steps required to execute SQL statements are handled transparently by the SQL database, SQL. can be characterized 1s non-procedural because in procedural languages the details ofthe operations to be specified, such as opening and closing tables, loading and searching indexes, or flushing buffers and ‘writing data to file systems are required which is not necessary in SQL. 27.1 Characteristics of SQL 2.27.1 Wiite characteristics of SQL. __ Refer section 2.7.1) i 1 Relational Data Mod. 2.7.2 Advantages of SQL ‘There are various advantages of SQL ‘Advantages of SQL 1. High Speed ] 2. Portable 3, Well Defined Standards Exist 4, Supports object based programming ] 5 Used with all DBMS systems with any vendor 6. No Coding Required 7. Used for relational databases ‘8. Easy to learn and undersiand ] 8. Complete language for a database 10. Dynamic database language ~ SQL is an ANSI and ISO standard computer language for creating and manipulating databases, = SQL allows the user to create, update, delete, and retrieve dua from a database, ~The tokens and syntax of SQL are oriented from English common speech to keep the access barier as small as possi le. Hence itis very simple and easy to lea, ~All the keywords of SQL can be expressed in any ‘Combination of upper and lower case characters. It makes no difference whether UPDATE, update, Update, UpDate ie, the Keywords are case insensitive SQLs a declarative language, not «procedural one = SQLis very powerful language SQL works with database programs like DB2, Oracle, MS Access, Sybase, MS SQL Sever ete. 11. Can be used as programming and interactive language 12. CientiServer language ] 19. Multiple data views 14, Used in internet ] Fig. 2.7.1: Advantages of SQL. 1 High Speed : SQL Queries can be used to retieve large amounts of records quickly and efficiently from database, “P % Portable: SOL.can be run on any platform. Alo test be executed on PCs, laptops, servers and even moi Phones. It runs in local systems, intranet and inter Databases using SQL can be moved from a device nother without any problems =net ipa (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) 2 Well Defined Standards Exist SQL databases use long-established standard, which is being adopted by [ANSI & ISO. Whereas Non-SQL databases do not adhere to any clear standard. a3 4 4, Supports object based programming : SQL supports various object oriented programming concepts which makes it powerful. > 5 Used with all DBMS systems with any vendor : SQL is used by all the vendors who develop DBMS. > 6 NoCoding Required : Using standard SQL itis e to manage database systems without writing large amount of code. 9 1. Used for relational databases : SQL is widely used for number of relational databases. 8 Easy to learn and understand : SQL mainly consists of English words and hence it is easy to leam and understand the SQL queries. % 9 Complete language for a database : SQL is used to create databases and manage the databases in all aspects. > 10, Dynamic database language : SQL can change the dltabase dynamically at runtime even while the database is being used by users. > 11 Can be used as programming and interactive Tanguage : SQL can do both the jobs of being 2 programming as well as an interactive language atthe same time. 12. Clienuserver language : SQL can be used in client terver architecture as a mediator between lint application and server database. 13 Muuipte data views : We can provide different Views(presentations) of contents of a database 10 different uses % eee VA. Used in internet ¢ SQL can be used in interes Relational Data Model SSS Syllabus Topic : Data Types in SQL Data Types in SQL ‘> (MSBTE - W-13) In SQL, we store the data in tabular format where table (elation) is the combination of rows (tuples) and columns (fields). While creating table we have to assign datatypes to the columns. These data types are used to decide that which type of data the columns can store. ‘There are various types of data types in SQL to store different types of data items. (@) DATE (19) TIME ] ‘Fig. 2.8.1 : Data types in SQL > (CHAR Cengty = ‘The CHAR data type accepts character OR string type of data, including Unicode. It is known as fixed length datatype. The length of the character sting is specified while assigning the secess the web related data, data type. For example, CHARACTER(n) where n representsDBMS (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Cor the maximum size of the character string, If size is not specified then the defaot size will be 1. is Land ‘minimum length of the CHARACTER data type a f ine. Character Ne page si maximum ength is up to the tab nbe stings which are larger than the page size ofthe table ca stored as a Character Large Object (CLOB). = If value having lower size than the size of CHAR datatype is stored in it, then the remaining space is filled with blanks ‘characters, That means it gets wasted. Uf vale having greater size than the size of CHAR data type is trod to store, then the extra characters are truncated. [UTGiARGoj er cHARAGTER GO) > @) VARCHAR (lengthy ~The VARCHAR dats type accepts character OR string type ‘of data including Unicode. It is known as variable length data ‘ype ~The length ofthe character string is specified while assigning the data type which indicates the maximum number of character it can accept. ~ We can assign the length from 1 to the current table page sine ‘value having lower size than the size of VARCHAR data DoF is Mored in i, ten the remaining. space will get ‘outline. Tht means the memory does not get wasted, 4 you need to sore character strings that ae Current table page size, ‘data type should be used, longer than the the Character Large Object (CLOB) > (3) BOOLEAN ‘The BOOLEAN dita type Can BEceP value eter TRUE FALSE, No need to declare size While delving BOOLEAN data type. TRUE or FALSE are case insensitive. Ifyou stem g| assign any other value to a BOOLEAN datatype, an en gets raised. > Examples > (4) SMALLINT = The SMALLINT data type is used to accept numeric vals with default scale as zero. It stores any integer value betwee the range 2* -15 and 2815 -1. Attempting to assign vals ‘outside this range causes an error. | = If you assign a numeric value with a precision and eae 04 SMALLINT data type, the scale portion truncates, witha rounding. | © Examples : SMALLINT > © INTEGER or NT ~The INTEGER data type is used to accept numeric vl} With @ default scale as zero, It stores any inteset between the range 28-31 and 2°31 -1. Artempting © 9) values outside this range causes an error. 5 os Ifyou assign a numeric value with precision and So INTEGER data type, the scale portion truncates: rounding. * Examples sietea ib [DBMS (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) ana Felational Data Model 4 (© DECIMAL [(pLs)] or DEC [(pl.s)} = Examples = The DECIMAL data type is used to accept Moating point | SS DATENOOSO LOL ‘aves for which yo defines precision anda sein he da || pan won 9.9! type declaration. The precision is a itive integer that represents the fotal number of digits that the number will contsin (precision + scale. = The scale is a positive integer that represents the number of digits of decimal places which will occur to the right of the decimal point. The scale for a DECIMAL cannot be larger than the precision = Ifyou exceed the number of digits expected tothe left ofthe (NUMERIC [(pisD] Itis same as of Decimal +> ® FLOAT() ‘The FLOAT data type accepts approximate numeric values, {or which you may define a precision up to a maximum of 64. ‘The default precision is 64 if not declared. ‘> Examples : FLOAT(8) (esisoras a sare a > © pare 2345678, 1.2, ‘The DATE data type accepts date type of values. No need to ‘sign size while declaring a DATE data type. Date values should be specified in the form: YYYY-MM-DD. ‘The value of month must be between 1 and 12, value of day hould be between 1 and 31 depending on the month and ‘alue of year should be between 0 and 9999. The values should be enclosed in single quotes, preceded by the keyword DATE. > 40 TIME ~The TIME data type accepts time values. No parameters are required when declaring a TIME data type. The format is: HILMM:SS. The fractional value can be used to represent nanoseconds. ~The minutes and seconds values must'be two digits. Hour values should be between zero 0 and 23, minute values should be between 00 and 59 and second values should be between 00 and 61.999999, = Values assigned to the TIME data type should be enclosed in single quotes, preceded by keyword TIME, 7 Examples Syllabus Topic Components of SQL - DDL, DML, DCL, DAL Components of SQL - DDL, DML, DCL, DQ@L (4 Marks) | ‘The database languages are categorized as DDL, DML, DCL and TCL. ‘Components of SAL 1. Data Definition Language (DDL) 2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) Fig. 29.1 : Components of SQL.elation Data og 15. MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) lDBMs ( Ie provides diferent levels of 260s 10 the aja ig g 2.9.1 Data Definition Language (DDL) ‘Tis language allows the users to define data and their relationship to other types of data. It is used to create dat tables, dictionaries, and files within databases “The DDL is also used to specify the strctue of each table, set of associated values with each attribute, integrity constraints, security and authorization information forall the tables and physical storage structure ofall the tables on the isk Let's take SQL for instance to categorize the statements that ‘comes under DDL. ‘© Tocate the database instance CREATE, © Toalterthe structure of database - ALTER (© Todopdatabase instances - DROP (© Torename database instances — RENAME, 2.9.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML) ‘The Data Manipulation Language (DML) is ‘used for ‘accessing and manipulating data in a database, DML. provides ‘set of factions to support the sie data manipulation ‘operations cn the data stored inthe database allows wsers to inser, update, and delete data from the datas, © Toinser record into the table -INSERT (© Update the recon in able UPDATE (© Delete the records from the table - DELETE, 2.9.3 Data Control Language (DCL) D (usere —Wwe19, 515, 5-16, W-16, w-17) | ole socion 2.09) ISENTERERIIE @.294 © Whalls tho uso of GRANT and REVOKE? | Refer section 20.3) ata Control Language (DCL) is used to control the user ‘ccs to the database related cements like tables, function, procedures and packs. database, © To grant access to user GRANT © To revoke access from user - REVOKE Grant: GRANT i usd to provide the privileges to Bea on the database objects. The privileges could be select den update and insert on the tables and views. On the proce functions and packages it gives select and execute piviepy evoke : REVOKE removes the privileges given oo database objects. All the privileges can be removed ta ix ‘or one or more privileges can also be removed from & objects s pr requirement 2.9.4 Transaction Control Language (TCL) ‘TCL statements allow you to control and manage transcce to maintain te integrity of data within SQL statements, 1. BEGIN Transaction — opens a transaction 2 COMMIT ‘Transaction — commits (Save perma 3. ROLLBACK Transaction — ROLLBACK (Cancels. uo ‘transactions in case of any issue 29.5 Data Query Language (DQL) ‘The commands of SQL that are used to retrieve data fom database are collectively called as DQL. So all Sel Satements comes under DQL. - Select Syllabus Topic : DDL Commands - Create, Alte, Drop, Truncate, Desc, Rename 2.10 DDL Commands - Create, Alter, Tn DBMS the standard format of storing the data is OS ‘Table is also known as. ‘elation. It is the combination of * columns 2.10.1 Creating Table > usere- ‘0:210.1 Give’ tha’ eyntac endl ‘etamplo: of OREAT| Command. (Refer section 2.10.1) |Inthe CREATE TABLE statement the column parameters lbams (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) . ‘the CREATE TABLE statement is used to create table in Adatatypefsize), specify the names of the columns or fields of the table. The data type is the type of data which we want to store in the respective fields. The fields can hold data of different types like char, varchar, number, date ete. ~The optional size value can also be mentioned after the data type. This size value indicated the maximum length of data {forthe field. If size is not given then default value depending ‘upon the datatype is assigned. Example Tn the above example, a table student will be created with folowing auibutes, The rll_no field will contain numerical Value of maximum digit 3. The std name field will contain sting value of maximum length 20. The date field will Contain date type value of standard date length. For date data ‘ype no need to mention size. The marks field will contain ‘numerical value of maximum digit 3. ‘The structure of the table will be as follows after record insertion, Rolational Data Model me | 101 | Kunal 12-02-2000 | 90 102 | Jay 07-08-1999 | 68 2.10.1(A) Creating New Table from Existing Table AS SELECT clause is used to create table from existing table, It can be considered as copy of existing table. While creating such table, we have option whether to take all records, fields from existing table or not. We can copy just structure of the existing table also, The different ways of coping table re as given below : = Consider the existing table student as shown in Table 2.10.1. ‘Creating now table same as of existing table.Output: The newly created table will be ‘Table 2.10.2 : Newstudent1 to1_| Kunal 12-02-2000 | 90 102_| Jay 07-08-1999 | 68 103,_| Radhika | 05-04-2000 | gs 104 | Sagar 13.02.2000 | 70 105 _| Supriya | 11-08-1999 | 72 (Creating new table having specific fields but all the records {from existing table, ‘Syntax Output : The newly created table will be ‘Table 2.103 : Newstudent2 sshere condition = Example existing table, but it will contain records of only those ‘who got marks above 80. = Output ‘Table 2.10.4 : Newstudent3 tor} Kunat 12.02.2000 | 90 103 | Radhika | 05-04-2000 | 85 (Creating new table having no records but all the fields 102 day 103 [Radhika 108 | saga ete 132 isthe false condition, The newly created 105 [Supra ‘structure wise same as of existing table, but it will 0 Bet copied.\s from table. Relational Data Model Here we are changing the 2.10.3. Truncate Table _ ALTER TABLE query is used to modify structure of a table. ‘Wecan ad, delete or modify column. 1, Adding New Column in a Table lumn_name © Example ‘Adding column grade in the table student Changing the data type and size of columa roll_number oF Scat table, Span TRUNCATE TABLE nosed newstuden 2.10.4 Drop Table > qusere—wats, wa7) DROP TABLE query is used to delete table permanently from the database © syntax = Example Deleting the newstudentl table from the database. 2.10.5 Desc ese query is used to display structure of table, © syntax2. DAMS (MSBTE-Som. 8-Comp) © Example Displaying strctre of ewstdent tbe fom the database. ‘Dese newetudentls 2.10.6 Rename > (uSBTE-W-13, W-16) @.2105 Give the syntax of RENAME command with ‘example, (Refer section 2.10.6) Alter table can also be used to rename a table, = syntax ‘Mleruble able name rename to new_name 7 Example Deleting the newstudentl table from the database. —— Syllabus Topic : Data Integrity Constraints - Types of Data Integrity Constraints : 10 Constraints ~ Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique Key Constraints 2.11 Data Integrity Constraints Types of Data Integrity Constraints - 10 Constraints ~ Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique Key Constraints Relational > clatonal Data Ne Constsints are used to enforce limits to the range o ype of data that can be iserted/updateddeeted fro ay | = The whole purpose of constants is t0 maintain the a integrity transactions updatldletefnsrt ona table. during the various — There are different types of constraints © Data Integrity Constraints Data Integrity Constraints 1. Primary Key I 2. Foreign Key Fig. 2.11.1: Data Integrity Constraints > 1, Primary Key Constraint ~ Under Entity Integrity Constraint Primary key is the mui factor Primary key uniquely identify each record in a table. It me have unique values and cannot hold null values ie. Primal ‘ey is the combination of NOT NULL & UNIQl > (sere - w-13, w.15, -16, 5-17, w-t7) 9.241.4 Explain integrity constraints? List i's fypes, (Refer soction 2.11) SESE 2-244.2. Explain any four intogrty constraints, Neily scwny and inept Of « database i the most “Porta factor in judging the success of system, Imteerity constrain is & mes m8 4 mechanism prevent invalid data consis Emp_id| Name | Sel Notatowed as 9001 | Rahat | t50n primary ey net cxntin ul. na e002 | Seema | ssa Dovika | 140 ~ Example : Sve sme ww ty nl OF mull value in the column it Primary key never contains null or Syntax ‘rst ble emptene namberG) Sala ies) Will show error bee repeated values220 Relational Data Mode! (Gossoumeon seem aa nataye| 9 Fon er ‘Student tbl itis refered a foreign key. > (spre -s-15, wa « t ', W-15, W-17) | — So, afer assigning foreign key constrain to Student table the _ 3 Gas Span loin key and ON DELETE record entry for new student will not accept Course Code a CASCADE with sultable example, ‘which is not available in the master table Course_ details (Roler sections 2.11 and 2.112) ) © syntax A ; (Create table student(stud_id number(), name varehar2(10), sy constint i also known. as Refernt ~The Forcgn hey Referential | course code references course_detils(course code); Inegity Contin. In this constraint one field is common in terween two tbls 2.11.4 Difference between Primary Key = Forign hey represent relationships between tales. There is Constraint end Eoveion Ey) erat child relationship between two tables having common Cedi column, Parameter | __ Primary Key _ Foreign Key ~ The master table can be referenced as patent while the | | Use Primary ey uniquely | Forcign key is eld in tension tble is considered a8 chil. The common field idemtfy a record in | one table that acts as vil work as primary key in parent able while foreign ey in | | the abe primary key in another tid ble ule the ma _ sample : Consider Training Insitute Database having two | | Noll | Primary Key cant | Foreign key can acocpt tables Course_details and Student. There isa condition tat | | Values | acceptmull values. | nul values. te. Kt “ | ‘ef he mutens may register for courses which are available in| | indexing | By default, Primary | Foreign key do not ids curenly and not for the courses which ae not ey is clustered index | automatically create an offre at the moment. To specify this rule while inserting and data inthe | index, clustered or non- "asta datahase foreign key constrain is used as follows. daubase table is | clustered. An index can physically managed | be created manually on Course details (Master / Parent) Table in the sequence of | foreign key. closered inde. Course Code | Course_Name_| Fees Number | We can assign only | We can have more than race 5000 o Orc one Primary key in | one foreign keys in a We Java 4000 table, table y ines Co | CProgramming | 3000 2.11.2 On Delete Cascade 2 Student (Transaction / child) Table cual ireneecton oes) If a record in the port ble is deleted then the Name ‘Course Code comesponding records in the child table wil automaticaly delete, ‘Tisiscalled as on delet cascade. se pecs Kanal Ww © Example Radhika or cma op = Consider Training Intute Database having two tables e Course. det and Student. agro) 4 boty the tubes, te field Course. Code is common. In Course dels Course Coxe i effeed a primary hey and iRelational Data Mo 221 Rheoperan con iter for courses ~~ soa at the ste ca eis . 5 a - Lae ‘currently and not for the ‘Emp_id | Name | ala Soe i re is used. As follows: a ae ‘Not allowed. Because Toie2114:COURSE_DETAIS (Maser Parent Tae) | | Nsw oo we | seuma | sg : S ‘constraint C0) ME i 8002 Devika | 14000 COURSE NAME =| WEES L, pe straint ena Unk or | one 000 EIGN cna oa a Be are soy ‘ename varchar2(10)}: Z ane a Syllabus Topic : Business Rule Constraints - Nul, STUDENT Transaction / il Table) Not Null and Cheek NAME _| CouRse cope 242 Business Rule Constraints - Null = * Not Null and Check stor | Raita or ‘S013, Kiran cp Q.2.121 Explain Not Null and Check constraints.) a ~ Toth the tables, the field COURSE_CODE is common. In | (Refer section 2.12) “(4 Marks) Coune dts COURSE_CODE is refered as primary hey ‘nd in STUDENT tbl itis eferod as foreign key. Now if we ty to delete any recont ffom master table ‘COURSE DETAILS, then it wil show enor and force us to elt all coresponding econ from child table student. | — Bat in case of on delete cascade rahe than showing enor al the comesponding records from child able STUDENT: will et automatically deleted when ‘cord fom parent table ‘COURSE_DETAILS is deleted, 1. UNIQUE Key - ~ UNIQUE Constant asthe ane unique values in a column of set ‘uniqueness ofthe table, B88, it can ake only of columns. 1, keeps ~ When column has a un ei en at par ‘columa cannot have dupli = iat valves in it Example : We can set the UNI column in employee table, different emp id which mea duplicate vats, 2 'QUE Constant for emp id ach employee should have ns this column ctanot have ‘The business rule (domain) constraints are considered as te ‘most basic form of integrity constraints. To the attributes 1 domain of permitted values is associate. For atrbue it defies the default vale, the range valu a specific val ‘ee donminimepityconsints are easy to test when daa entered, ‘The domain intarty consrains check that whether th “shat having proper and ight alin the database oot Domain integrity means it is values for an atibute, Business rule constraints the collection of vatid set of Constraints - NULL co value in th Example Consider 1 constraint.a is the & lpaMs (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) 222 Relational Data Model 1. NOTNULL > onsere -w-r4, 15) Gase2! How to apply NOT NULL conatraint al he tna "of table creation ? Give syntax, (Refer section 2.12()) Eee 0.2123 Explein not null constants by suitable example. Refer section 2.12(1)) CERI By sting the NOT NULL constraint we can assure that a column does not hold a NULL value. = When for a specific column , no value is provided while imseing a record into a table, by default it takes NULL value, = NULL constraint is applied to avoid insertion of any null ‘value in the specific column, > Example Consider table student having ‘name’ field with NOT NULL FelNo | Name 1 | Rohs 2 | Seema ‘Not allowed. Bocauso wo sot ‘ame as not nl contain. a — * Syntax Ee ea leas tal ‘este rarchar2(10)); Z + DEFAULT When a user does not provide a value to the column while "Seting the records in the table, the DEFAULT constraint vite a defalt value to tha column. Example ‘We can set DEFAULT Constraint by assigning the value 150 tthe caamn exam fees in stent tbl. So that ‘f° ve any ae fr that column, it takes the defi ale as 1005), > CHECK ‘This constraint is used to set user defined constraint for the column. As per the requirements of business for which we are developing the appl ion, we may have to set some rules while inserting or updating data on specific field Rol_no 1 | raw | 15 Name | Ag Not alowed, Because range is between 15 to 20, 2 | Seoma | 16 3 | devia syntax Create table stud(mo mumber(5), ename varchar2(10), age ‘number(S) constraint enst check age between 15 and 20): Syllabus Topic : DML Commands - Insert, Update and Delete 2.13 DML Commands - Insert, Update and Delete 2.13.1 Insert ‘> (MSBTE-$-14, W-14, 5-15) @.2.19.1. Wrlte syntax of inser command. Demonsivala wath suitable examplo. (Roter section 2.13.1) Q.2:19.2 List DML commands. (Refer section 2.13.1) ~ This query comes under the category Data Definition Language. After creation of table the insert command is used to Insert one or more records inthe table, Insert query bas different forms (1) Inserting values in all columns = syntax inser into lable name Walues (valle), valued...)@ Example a (2) Inserting values in specific columns. Sometimes we may not have all values to inset into table. In | [jp date emp set sal = 15000; such ease the syntax will be Output For example, consider we do not have value for salary while inserting a new record in emp table. Then the query will be (8) Inserting records from existing table into new table ‘We ean also take records from existing table to add into new table using as select clause. Consider new table emp! in which we will ad records from Table 2.13.1, Here we can mention condition using where clause to take specific records ieee Oe en Output [| 102 | Dinesh | Manager | 18000 104 | Bharati | Manager | 17000 2.13.2 Update Sometimes changes to the database become necessary, Te ‘make changes in the database ° “opdate™ command is. used > Example name set column_nam ew. Eno | Ename | Job | Sal 101 | susheet | Clerk | 15000 102 | Dinesh } Manager | 15000 103 | dines | clerk | 15000 10s | Bharati | Manager | 15000 105 | Prajata | Satesman } 15000 "WHERE’ clause is used to make changes in specific recon ‘This query will change salary of mangers to 20000. Son ae 101 | suite foes | 15000 302 | Dinesh Manager | 20000 [+2 [omen [ome Tse [| [ser |e (105 | Prajakta Salesman | 15000ee ned eed ‘As per requirement, the records from existing table can be removed using delete command. Delete command can have WHERE’ clause optionally, ao syntax Sue This query will delete the record of employee with employee umber 103 from emp table, Syllabus Topic : DCL Commands - Commit, Savepoint, rollback, Grant, Revoke —=—_— eee 214 DCL Commands : Commit, Savepoint, Rollback, Grant, Revoke > (sate -$-14, w-14, $-15, 8-16, 5-17) a2 144 Desoribe savepoint and rollback commands ‘example. (Refer section 2.14) | ee ‘How to use COMMIT, SAVE POINT, sgh | The Data Control Language (DCL) statements are used 10 polation of ‘wate privileges to permitsusers access and mani the database ACL statement manages the authority to access dat that ‘wers have on database objects. GRANT Statement ‘Whenever we want to work with database then we must have ‘Ome privileges to work on it. T've don't have authority or privilege to database then we St perform any operation in the database like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ete, — Name of savepoint should be unique Relational Data Model ‘tablename TO username; = Example 2 REVOKE Command REVOKE statement is used to remove privileges given to users by system, ~ Itcan cancel the privileges that can be granted for previous ‘transaction © Syntax 3. Savepoint and rollback Commands ~ SAVEPOINT is an indicator inside a transaction that is used for a partial rollback. When we are doing changes in a transaction, we can create SAVEPOINTs to mark different points within the transaction. ~ at some stage we realize that an error is generated, then we can rollback up to a SAVEPOINT which we have already created inside transaction, the transaction. Suppose we create a savepoint having the same name as an previous savepoint, then the previous savepoint is deleted. = Once you have ereated savepoint after that you can perform ‘other functions such as commit, roll back the entire ‘transaction, or roll back to the savepointSuppose we have set of insert, update, delete transactions which has to be performed on the tables but after some transactions have been performed we are uncertain about the correctness of the transaction. In this situation we can create a SAVEPOINT at the correct transaction which will help database to guide, in case of rollback. Hence the changes done til SAVEPOINT will be unchanged. Example : Consider the employee table having the following records : 1__|_Samtosn_| 18000 | 2010-05-05 2 | Swapnit_| 13000 | 2015-05-05 3_| Supriya | 5000 | 2017-05-05 4 | Sagar 10000_ | 2012-05-05 5__| Samarth_| 11000 | 2014-05-05 ‘The output will be as given below : Table 2.142 18000 13000 | 2015-05-05 5000 10000 2017-05-05 2012.05.05 11000 2014-05-05 fs It will display the output as below : Table 2.14.3 1 | Santosh | 18000 | 2010-05-05 2 | Swapnit | 13000 | 2015-05-05 3. | Supriya | 5000 | 2017-05-05 4 | Sagar | 10000 | 2012-05-05 5. | Samarth | 11000 | 2014-05-05 = Commit Changes made to the database by INSERT, UPDATE a DELETE, temporary until ‘committed. This is performed by the command: commands are On execution of this command all changes to the datah ‘made by you are made permanent and cannot be undone, _|b noms (MSBTE-Sem. 3-Comp) ‘Table 2.15.1 : Student [std.name | bate | Mares ona! | 12.02.2000 | 50 ty [07081099 | op raita | 05.08.2000 | a5 vor [ seer | 1302-2000 | 70 10s [Seria | t1081999 | 102 | ey 103 | Radhika 108 | Sagar 105 | Supriya The names of columns specify data from which columns we ‘att display. If we want data from all the columns then no need ‘omenion column names. “** symbol represent all the columns. 7 Bample Rotational Data Mode! 2.15.1 WHERE Clause WHERE clause is used to specify condition in SELECT Statement while fetching records from the database. The WHERE claus fers the data to be reteved. The records satisfying the condition given by wher clause ae retrieved © syntax ices ‘conditions Z © Example seleet* from student where masks > 805 a a | mele || vor [xma | r2022000 [90 v0 [anna [osovamo [as Select # from ascent where ena Output roll.no | stud name tor | Kunat 12-02-2000 90 2.15.2. DISTINCT Clause ‘This clause is used to avoid selection of duplicate rows, ‘Consider there are duplicate values in JOB column of emp table =e nana: Yo | Kunad 12-02-2000 | 90 Eno | Fname | Job 02 Jay 07-08-1999 | 68 101 | Susheel } Clerk 12000 103 Radhika 05-04-2000 | 85 102 | Ajay | Manager | 18000 a Sagar 13.02-2000_| 70 103 | Dinesh | Clerk 10000 “ Supriya aoe) eZ 104 | Bharati} Manager | 17000 eeccmeme |e Le seer resem] oz (Ras penreoen ec — ; = 2.16.1 Arithmetic Oper se ESS ERASE | conse opens er bets Dat EE cree Bea [iaicrmats ——xeyers Subtract) | Tesubwacts ight hand operand | x-y=5 | from left hand operand ~ (Multiply) _| It multiply both operands x*y=50 7 iDivide) | Iedivides left hand operand by | x/y=2 right hand operand . % (Modul) | Tt divides left hand operand by | x % y=0 right hand operand and returns reminder a 2.16.2 Comparison Operators Manager Salesman {wo operands x and y where value of x is 10 while y is 5, Syllabus Topic : SQL Operators - Arithmetic | Consider two operands x and y Operators, Comparison Operators, Logical nae ‘Descriptions _Exaniples) Operators = Check whether both the | x=y is not true 2.16 SQL Operators yes condition becomes true. = a ope (Roler sections 2.16102.165) (a Marks) | condition becomes true Check whether both he xoy iste [5 Sores oe [> ce whether left operand Pac OL eater than the value tight operand heck whether left operana Tp chee —-———__| vata 8 he Hiht operand | ateny is me value s ee AY can a