lron Age in KERALA: A Short Summary

V Mnod* and Athira R Pillai.t

ODUCTION Neolithic{halcolithic Cultures (Kumar 2006: 46).

transmits a unique position in understanding In absence of any defined Neolithic or Chalcolithic
major developmental stages of human culture. settlements in Kerala, Megaliths holds a unique
Age is marked by the extensive use of iron in place in bridging the gap between prehistoric and
of life gr€atly reflected in tools, weapons historic periods. Flence, absence or lack of
other industrial and house hold or utilitarian habitation sites mark a bay and holds us back from
Among the iron using cultures of the Indian appreciating the culture holistically.
inent Megaliths of Central and Peninsular
holds a distinctive place in reconstructing the MEGALITHIC RESEARCHES IN KERALA
Age culture. In the above contexf Kerala History of Megalithic researches in Kerala starts
stands talt in its variety and richness. with the discovery and excavation of a few burials
is blessed with Archaeological relics of Iron
at Bangla Motta Paramba in Kannur district by
inly intheform of burialmonuments and Babington in 1823. FIis discovery and excavations
ary goods. The close affinity of iron in the Malabar regions like Puddiangaddy and
in Megalithic burials and tombs force Neelaparambu stimulate an antiquarian interest on
to use megalith interchangeably for Iron
these monuments. Subsequently several British
in Kerala.
ad:rrinistrators and many other scholars explored
liths essentially denote sepulchral or and excavated a large number of Megaliths and
tive monuments erected in honor of published their findings. After that the
using large dressed or undressed stones Archaeological Survey of India and the
vast distribution all over Kerala. Kerala Archaeology Departments of the Travancore and
are part of the south Indian megalithic The Cochin states excavated a large number of
ral complex draracterized with specific and Megalithic sites. In 1882 Robert Sewell published
e megalithic monuments like 'Kudnkknllu' 'The list of Antiquaian Remnins in the Presidency of
stone), 'Toppikknllu' (.up- stone) and Mndras' gives a list of megalithic sites in Kerala. In
t chambers. Megalithic Culture in South 1887 William Logan published 'Mnlabar'in which
is dated between 1000 BC and 100 AD. Some he gives a detailed description on the explored an
sites in South India have revealed that excavated megalithic sites of the Malabar region
lithic culture overlaps the last phase of and tried to interpret the megalithic burials in

Indian hstitute of Tedrnology, Gandhinagar, VGEC Complex, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad, Gujrat.

 100 ICON - Journal of Archaeology and Culture

connection with religious practices. 1n 1901 Fawcett reported in Kerala (IAR 1964-65:74, 1965-65: 80,
explored the Wayanad region and discovered the 1,977-78: 30, L981-82 94, '1,982-83: 36). After
megalithic burials around the rock engraving site Porkalam, several lron Age sites in Kerala such as
of Edakkal and proposed that the makers of Machad and Pazhayannur (Mehta and George
carvings could be the builders of innumerable stone 1.978: '1.-34), Perambra (John 7982: 1.48-153),
circles near the site. In 191'J,-72, a rock-cut chamber Cheramangad (IAR 1990-97:33-35), Arippa (IAR
was accidentally discovered at Chevayur near 1990-91: 33), Mangad (Satyamurthy 1992: 1,-36),
Calicutby Longhurstand found a sarcophagus and Poredam (Rajendran and Kshirsagat 1993: 1,48),
few ceramics in it. In1927, The Kerala Society was Kurumassery (Peter 2002:110) etc. were excavated
started and published a journal titled Kerala Society that enriched our understanding of the past life
Papers.It contained many papers dealing with the ways and culture of the Megalithic builders of
megalithic burials in Thiruvananthapuram and Kerala.
surroundings.
In 1930 Camrniade did an extensive study on TYPOLOGY OF MEGALITHIC BURIAT
the Urnburialfrom Wayanad region and explored MONUMENTS
16 urn burials and excavated a few around the
An important feature of the Iron Age culture in
region of Sultan Batheri. His excavation reports give Kerala as well as in Peninsular India is the presence
extensive information regarding the exact location
of huge burial monuments known as megalithic
and extent of the sites (Darshana 2006: 39). He also
monuments. A variety of these monuments are
attempted to study the grave goods such as iron found in the Ion Age sites of Kerala. kritial attempts
implements and beads from the megalithic burial
in devising a suitable typology for these
of Malabar and made a comparative study of these
monuments were made by \4lheeler at Brahmagiri
Urns with those from Tamilnadu. Lr the same year (Wheeler 1948: 253-260). Later several scholars
Codrington conducted a general survey of attempted to categorize and study them. Among
Megaliths and grave goods in South India and the studies V.D. Krishnaswami ft949\.
noticed the architectural similarity between the (1.974), Sundara (1979), Mclntosh (1985), a
Megalithic Rock cut chambers and Buddhist Caves.
Moorthi (1994) deserves special mention.
He also used Sangam literatures to explain and from the general types, Kerala is credited wi
understand the Megalithic burials. Plenderlieth distinct type of Megalithic monuments such
(1930) attempted one of the early scientific studies
umbrella stone (kudakknllu), cap stone (topikknllu
on pottery fromthe megalitlLic pottery inwhichhe
and rock-cut chambers ('rsiasLtramam' , the abode
studied the black polished pottery from Wayanad saints.). Based on the geographical a
urn burials. physiographic features, the land of Kerala can
Systematic investigations of the Megaliths categorized into three well defined parallel
began only in7940, when Krishnaswami undertook each of which contains distinctive types
field studies in collaboration with Anujan Achan monuments, and also we can say that the nature
and classified the Megaliths of the Cochin region the monuments being determined largely by
(Krishnasw ami 19 49: 3S.45). L:r mid 1940' s Thaper material available. Thus, the dolmens are to
excavated an um burial at Porkkalam (Thaper 1952: found in eastern mountainous region composed
3-76). Leshnik (1976) and Mclntosh (1935)worked granite gnesis and charnochite; the rock
towards the chronology and dated Kerala megaliths chambers, menhirs and the umbrella stone
to the last phase of Iron Age in South India (Peter on the lateritic plarr',- and um burial with
2002: 5-10). From the beginnings of 19 60' s dolmens menhirs on the alluvial sea board. Though
and other megalithic monuments were widely exist uniformity in the burial character of
lron Age in Kerala : A Short Summary 101

monuments. differences in its mode of construction include iron tools, beads, bronze artifacts and
culminates into various types of megalithic burials. muller stones.
The major types of megalithic monuments found 2. Urn Burial: Earthen pots used for the
in Kerala are Rock cut-cave, Urn burials, Umbrella deposition of the skeletal remains and other
stone, Cap stones, Dolmens, Menhirs and assemblage found buried below the ground are
Alignments, Slab cist, Sarcophagi, Pits and Multiple called Urn burials. These urns are generally
hood stone (Gurukkal and Varier 1999:10'J,-150, sealed by a granite or laterite cap stone and
Peter 2002:67). cairn packing. Um burials occur singly or in
1. Rock cut-cave: The rock cut caves are generally clusters and are found usually in the laterite
encountered in the lateritic zone of the districts middle land plains and in the granite high lands
of Trissur, Malappuram, Kannur, Kozhikode, of Kerala (Figure 1). Urn sizes vary from
Thiruvananthapuram and Pathanamthitta. 180X100 cm to 60X15 cm and vessel thicknesses
These caves have been made by scooping out a can be up to 2 cm in the largest example. The
square stepped pit in the rock approached by Urn burials of the highland and mid land
rock cut steps. One or more doorways were also regions of Kerala yield funerary goods like
cut in the sides of the pit. Each doorway about etched carnelian beads, pottery, ashes, bones
60 cm high to facilitate the workman to scoop a etc. Sometimes Urn Burials are also demarcated
dome shaped cave. (Figure 1). These are mostly with stone circle. Typical megalithic potteries,
quarried into monolithic lateritic belts. They iron objects, beads, were found in the urn
have an opening either on the side or on the burials at Machad, Porkalam, and
bp surface as determined by the landscape. The Vellimatukunnu etc. The urn burials are found
opening is generally a small rectangular or in almost all the parts of Kerala. Three types of
circular aperture of about 2x2feet size or 2feet urrrs ere found in the Kerala megaliths. They
diameter, leading to the chamber through a are pyriform jars, legged jars and pointed jars
passage/ generally sealed by a port slabs. Both (Satyamurthy 1992:3, Gurukkal and Varier
pillared and non pillared gpes are found in 1999:111).
Kerala. Monolithic cots are scooped inside the J. Umbrella Stone (Kudakkallul: The umbrella
chambers that provide berths for the interred. stone, known as'kudakkallu' , represent a unique
The rock cut chambers have domical or flat and the most beautiful types among the Kerala
roofs. In some instances the open courts leads megalithic monuments. The name 'kudakkallu'
to more than one cave. For example at Eyyal is derived from the local Malayalam words
the main cave faces east while the second one 'kuda' and'kallu' which means'umbrella' and
faces south. (Gurukkal and Varier 1999:119). 'stone' respectively. They are found mostly in
Faqade is fashioned like multiple doorways of the lateritic areas of Kannur, Kozhikode,
different sizes. Sharma (1955)has classified the Malappuram, Palakkad, and Trissur. The
rock cut caves of Kerala in to four types. They 'kudakkallu' is modeled in the shape of a
are (I) Caves with central pillar (II) The caves mushroom on laterite which looks like a typical
without central pillar, (III) Caves with a top palmJeaf umbrellawhich is common in Kerala
opening and (IV) Multi chambered caves. These till recent times. Structurally, the 'kudakkallu'
monurrrents are locally known as Risyashramnm, consist of a circular laterite cap stone resting
Guha, and P rnduku zhi (P eter 2002: 54-55). Maoy on four dressed laterite orthostats, each with a
of these rocks cut chambers are sepulchral in convex external surface, a flat interior and
nature as is evidenced from the grave goods generally conical in shape (Figure 1). The centre
found associated to the burial. These mainlv of the clinostat provides space in which very
102 /CON - Journal of Archaeology and Cultur:

'a

q
v

1. Rock cut Cave

2,Urn Burial
3. Umbrella Stone
4. Cap Stone
5, Multiple Hood Stone
'6.0olmen

i. Slab Cist
8. Menhir
t0 9. Alignments
10 Sarcophagus
(Adapted Ghosh,A. 1989)
Figure 1: Major type of megalithic monuments found in Kerala
lron Age in Kerala : A Short SummarY 103

rarely, some small artifacts are found. For 7. Slab Cist They are also like dolmens, and are
instance, some bones and pottery have been made out of granitic or lateritic stone slabs. They
fouhd at Eyyal, while Perambra provides the consist of a port-hole in the upright portion of
evidence of iron objects and bronze vessel (Peter the orthostat which is generally found on the
2002:50). eastern side. Usually, the port hole has a range
between 10 to 50 cm diameters. This type is
Cap Stones: The Cap stones,locally known as
'toppil<kallu', are hemispherical in shape, and are conJined to the granitic high land region and
in the middle land lateritic area. The slab cists
made out of dressed or undressed granitic
are the box like burial chamber, mostly found
stones, which are used as the lids put on burial
urns. These are rests directly on the ground.
in underground, and sometimes consist of a
bench inside. (Peter 2002:47-48, Gurukkal and
V.D. Krishnaswami called these monuments as
'hood stones', which looks like an umbrella Varier 1999:115).
stone without p arabolic supp ort (Figure 1). The 8. Menhirs and Alignments: A menhir is a single
cap stone has a very limited distribution mainly huge granitic or lateritic monolith standing
confined to the Trissur district of Kerala upright and set uP over or near the burial
(Kishnasw ami 1949: 37 -42). Cheramangad, (Figure 1). These huge stones mark the
Porkkalam, Eyyal, Vandiperiyar, and neighboring presence of an urn burial. Menhirs
Thiruvilvamala are the major sites where these are also known tocally by various names such
monuments are reported. The cap stone looks as 'nattukkallu' , 'patakknllu' , and 'pulachikkallu' .
like a traditional hat used by the farmers of They are found mainly in the district such as
Kerala. Hence the name Toppikkallu is also Palakkad, Trissur, Emakulam, and Kollam etc.
alternatively used. These monuments carry a (Krishnasw aml 19 49 : 39).
large amount of grave goods which mainly 9. Sarcophagus: A sarcophagus literally means
includes pottery, bronze vessels, beads etc. 'legged coffin'made out of terracotta. InKerala,
(Gurukkal and Varier 1999: 11'6-117). generally, two types of sarcophagus are found.
5. Multiple Hood Stone: The multiple hood stone They are bovine shaped sarcophagus and small
consists of several five to twelve dressed laterite legged terracotta sarcophagus (Figure 1). The
clinostat or cap stones, which is arranged in a bovine shaped sarcophagus is found from
circle without joining the top. This arangement Perungulam and Kattakambal, and the small
leaves a circular gap in the middle. Two circles legged terracotta sarcophagus is reported from
of this type are reported from Cheramangad in Chevayur. These are generally placed inside the
Trissur district and one at Cheruvakkadu rock cut chambers (Gurukkal and Varier L999:
111.-112).
village of Eranad (Gurukkal and Varier 1999:
11.6-117, Peter 2002: 50-51). 10. Pits: These types of burials are rarely found in
Dolmens: Dolmens are the rectangular box like Kerala. Here, pits are generally sealed by stone
6.
slabs and ceramic vessels. In some cases they
chamber, which is constructed with four slabs
are marked by stone circles. At Cheramangad,
forming orthostats and ffih is used as the cap
the excavated burial had three pits (Gurukkal
stone (Figure 1). Dolmens are mainly reported
and Varier 1999:111).
from the highland areas of the region. The
dolmens are reported from Palakkad, Trissur,
NATURE OF BURIALS AND ITS MATERIAL
Idukki Alappuztr4 and Tirurrnandapuram, etc.
CULTURE
and they are rich with grave goods such as iron
implements, jars, and beads (Krishnaswami In Kerala, most of the megalithic burials are
1949:38, Gurukkal and Varier 1999:11'4\. fractional or secondary in nature. The fractional
 104

burials are the post excarnated in which

the dead main type. The jar variety includes legged
body was exposed to natural elements and non.
first and legged type with carinated shoulder,
subsequently the reft over bones were narrow neck
coilected and and globular base or high neck, everted
buried. From the megalithic monuments, rim and
we got round base. The legged jars are mostly
fragments of charred or decayed bone of four_
remains. legged Tpes made mair lyof coarsered
Based on the remains of such charcoal ware. Red_
fragments slipped jar, painted red jar, russet coated jar
and astr, it is believed that they practiced have
cremation. also been found at several sites.
No complete or inhumation burials are reported The small vessels
have lustrous, slipped and smooth
so far from the megalithic monuments surface and the
also larger vessels are poorly finished and
strengthens the above assumption. handmade.
Numerous black u, *"ll as red ring stands,
As far as the associated goods or material used
for holding vessels with round bottim,
have been
are concerned they are recovered from the rock_ cut chambers
at several
g the cultural ethos of
'#:ff5;ffii',l"?
of ceramics, beads,
omaments.
-*?;i:'*:?y'*r:Tl
rows etc are the maj or p
".LHff hi":T3":?iff;
on the vessels. post firing graffrnmarks
are found
CERAMICS
in them (Gurukkal and Va.ier .1.999:137_1.41).
The ceramic assemblage of the
megalithic people
consists of a variety of wares such BEADS
as Blact ana fiea
Ware, Russet coated Ware, painted
Red Ware, Red Beads of various shape and size
slipped Ware, polished Red Ware, have beenreported
Black Ware, etc. from many sites. Carnelian, jasper, orthoclase,
Among these wares Black and Red
Ware with feldspar, glass, bone, hom,
crackled appearance is considered
to be the most
qi*t
"nafrom crystal and
terracotta have been found
prolific and diagonal ceramic type of
the Megalithic
a number of
burials (Mehta and
people. A variety of shapes has
been recovered and Varier 1999:136
from various excavations. the mayo.
shapes include feldspar and quartz
bowls with flat bases, jars, dishes, vases,
ring beads include both etched as well
stands, pots and different as unetched
_globular kind of urns variety.
such as legged, perforated, pyriform
Tpes, pointed
ones, and those with variously fasirioned
rims, FAUNAT REMAINS
shoulders, sides and bases. The
variety of bowls
include deep bowls with featureless The bone fragments and ashes are
rim, round the important
base in black and red ware, hemispherical faunal remains from various Iron
bowls, Age site in Kerala.
bowls with in-turned rim and flat busu Kerala megaliths have yielded chJred
rr., polished bones and
red ware, bowls in black ware, bowls ashes, which indicates post cremationalnature.
with in_ No
turned rim and flatbase inpolishedred complete skeletons were found ir
in black and red ware, bowls with concave
ware, bowls *y megalithic
sites in Kerala. However, in1gg7,
neck. Rajendran has
nd sagger bases have been found. recovered a child,s cranium at Arippa.
primarily of the Shallow rype with
d leg like pedestrian, urrj having .haveThe fragments
been
of ulna, radius, and skull etc.
reported from the sites of Machad
everted rim and round bottom, and
with carinated P.azhayannur (Mehta and George
7974: 29). The
shoulders-and tapering sides and
pointed base. In sites such as Kunnoni (Rajendranl2001:14_16),
vases/ globular and the lid_cum_vase and
type are the Mangadu (Satyamurth i 1'992: 12_LS)
give valirable
 105
lron Age in Kerala : A Short SummarY

architecture. They adopt the structural principles

in{ormation regarding the bone remains in the
of wooden architecture. (Kumar 2006:48-53)' Th"
megalithic graves.
rock cut caves are oblong or circular in plan and
IRON IMPLEMENTS AND ITS TECHNOLOGY consist of domical roof, rectangular floor plan
ut
Iron artiJacts or imPlements ti-
important cultural remains of it.
of Kerala. These imPortant All varieties however, invariably have an open fore-
found from most of the Iron Age sites of Kerala' A
court and the caves themselves are generally east
facing. The iron remains such as chisels, axes' nails'
etc are the indicator of the practice of carpentry
at
that time. A terracotta model of a round hut with
is rePorted from the
economic life of the people. Due to the quantity and du. Keralahas troPical
quality of the iron implements, the.culture has got such circular houses
iis name. The culture is characterized mainly by with a domed roof probably raised on a lateritic
the wid f rm of
basement could have been the norm' A few such
impleme f found
huts may have been clustered together around an
fromthe 1 orking
open courtyard. Rectangular huts with thatched
was the fundamental feature of the Iron Age culture
roof and timber construction also aPPears to have
been prevalent (Leshnik 197 4: 79-81)'

SUBSISTENCE PATTERN

skill. This study has also revealed that the folding From the analysis of the material evidences can
reveal the subsistence strategies of the megalithic

etc were suitable to ensure high quality in the

as sickles, bill hooks, plough share, cutting knifes'
casting of iron (Rajendran and Iyer 2008:72-17' field
etc. could be caused the improvements in the
Gurukkal and Varier 1999: 133-136)'

SETTLEMENT PATTERN

agriculture. Grinding stone and rollers are

,e"c o'o e.e d from P erun gulam (Kumar 200 6 : 48 -53)'
From this we can clearly state that they used
i;
ts
property to b en uPon
i.yitg made durable'
a wooden a burial pot and from Perump atally, rice husk from
These caves
 106 ICON - Journal of Archaeology and Culture

megalithic pot have been unearthed the megalit ric The evidences of non local items from the
community may have Iived a pastoral life. They megalithic grave goods su ggest that they obtained
may be used the meat of hunted and domesticated these items through an exchange network. The
the animals for their food. Terracotta models of raw materials such as jasper, agate, carnelian,
animals such as dog have been discovered from bronze, copper, and gold have no known
Feroke and Perumpatally suggest that they source in Kerala. Their occurrence in urn burials
domesticated animals. Field agriculture is more indicates the existence of exchange and
conunon in low lands and coastal plains. In high networking system.
lands and mid lands, they could have been cleared
the forest with the help of iron tools and they rnight DISTRIBUTION OF MEGALITHIC SITES IN
cultivated on forest (Rajendran and Iyer 1997:61,_ KERALA
66).
The megalithic sites in Kerala are distributed over
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES the entire state. If we look into the physiographic
.division, Kerala is divided
into high land, mid land
The megalithic monuments indicate the level of
architectural knowledge. Monuments like rock_cut
chamber tombs, dolmens, and multiple hood_
stones necessitated a remarkable skill in designing
and executing their structures. The archit"it*J
skill evident in the inter locking alignment of slabs utilization.
of the dolmens and slab cists is remarkable. Inrock_
cut caves, the pillar, doorways, and bench or cot_ Based on the distribution pattem Kerala can
like berth etc. carved out from the laterite rock again be grouped into Northern region, Central
represent the level of region and Southern region. The Northern region
architecfure. The use o comprises of districts such as Kasargode, Karnur,
the rock-cut caves that Wayanad, Kozhikkode, Malappuram, palakkad
shows the rock-cut architecture to be the proto type and Trissur. The most predominant gpes of the
of what had been evolved in wooden architecture megalithic monument found in this region are Rock
(Gurukkal and Varier 1999: 141-142). cut caves, Urn Burials, Umbrella Stones, Dolmens,
and Menhirs. This region is credited with
BELIEF SYSTEM AND EXCHANGE NETWORK maximum number of Iron Age sites among Kerala.
The Central region consists of districts such as
Megalithic monuments are considered to be
representing various beliefs related to ancestor and Kottayam. Major types of
nts found from this region are
worship fear or respecttowards the dead and belief
in the soul or life after death. The elaborate and Urn Burials. The third
division, tha
procedures prescribed for raising the hero stones
districts like
in the Tamil epic'Chilappathiknram' and the buriat
and Thiruvananthapuram and the most
predorninant gpe of monuments found in this
region are Dolmens, Cists, Urn Burials, and
Menhirs. Ffowever, most of these sites are found
distributed throughout in Kerala i:respective of
form of grave goods which indicates that their
their dominance in certain region. In Kerala, Trjssur
beliefs in life after death (Gurukkal and Varier L9g:
district is credited with maximum number of the
1,42-1.4n.
iron monuments, and the low land region in Kerala,
lron Age in Kerala : A Short SummarY 107

Figure 2: Disribution of Megalithic sites in Kerala

which is Alappuzha district, has the minimum REFERENCE

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lAR. 1957-58. Ghosh" A. (ed.). 1958. lndian Archaeology L957-
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entered India from the west by a direct maritime 59 - A Reziew. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of Lrdia.
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century A.D for the Iron Age in Kerala. Leshnik 61 - A Rniew. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
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1AR.1961-62. Ghosh, A. (ed.). 1964.Indian Archaeology 1967-
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