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Chemistry Lesson Note For SS1 First Term

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Chemistry Lesson Note for SS1 First

Term
 3 hours read

Lesson Note Chemistry SS1 First Term –

Edudelight.com
SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS

1. REVISION / ACIDS

2. CONCENTRATED AND DILUTED ACIDS.

3. BASES

4. SALTS

5. PH SCALE AND INDICATORS

6. CARBON – ALLOTROPES

7. OXIDES OF CARBON

8. TRIOXOCARBONATES

9. HYDROCARBONS

10. CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

11. REVISION

12. EXAMINATION

WEEK 1

Introduction
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then clear to us that there is more to acids than corrosivity, and not every
substance that is corrosive, is an acid.

Definition

The definitions of an acid is based on three different concepts of acid-base

reactions, namely the Lewis, Brønsted-Lowry and Arrhenius concepts.

Acids: The word ‘Acid’ came from Latin word ‘Acidus or Acere’ which means
sour.

Sour taste is the most common characteristic of acid. Acid turns blue litmus
paper red. There are many substances which contain acid and hence taste sour,
such as curd, tamarind, lemon, etc.

Lewis Acids
According to G. N. Lewis, in acid-base reactions, the reactants undergo co-
ordinate covalent bonding, in which one reacting species has the ability to
accept a lone pair of electrons, while the other can readily donate a lone pair of
electrons. A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor, because it has an empty
orbital. Examples are H+, H3O+, Cu2+, Fe3+.

Brønsted-Lowry Acids
According to J. H. Brønsted and M. Lowry, an acid-base reaction involves the
transfer of proton from one of the reactants to the other. A Brønsted-Lowry
acid is a proton donor. For instance,

HA —-> H+ + A-
HNO3 —-> H+ + NO3-

Our focus on this topic will be the Arrhenius concept of acid-base reactions,
which gives the basic definition of acids.

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Arrhenius Acids to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your
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H+ or hydroxonium ion, H3O+ as the only positive ion, when dissolved in
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Example, hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to form hydroxonium and
chloride ions.

HCl(g) + H2O(l) —-> H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Other examples include:

H2SO4(l) + 2H2O(l) —-> 2H3O+(aq) + SO4–(aq)

HNO3(l) + H2O(l) —-> H3O+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

H3PO4(l) + 3H2O(l) —-> 3H3O+(aq) + PO4—(aq)

The above equations can be rewritten in the abbreviated form as follows:

HCl(aq) —-> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

H2SO4(aq) —-> 2H+(aq) + SO4–(aq)

HNO3(aq) —-> H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

H3PO4(aq) <—-> 3H+(aq) + PO4—(aq)

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The presence of the H3O+ or the H+ in the above equations is what accounts
for the acidity of the substances.

Organic Acids & Source

Acid Source

Acetic acid Vinegar

Ascorbic acid Guava, amla

Citric acid Lemon, orange and other citrus fruits

Lactic acid Sour milk, curd

Methanoic acid Ant sting, nettle sting

Oxalic acid Tomato

Tartaric acid Tamarind

Classification by Nature

There are also two types of acids by nature. These are the organic and
inorganic acids.

Lesson note on Security Education

Literature in Note JSS2/Basic 8
English SS1 Second
Term

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Organic website to give
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matters. Some examples of organic acids are ethanoic (acetic) acid from
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vinegar, amino acids from protein, lactic acid from milk, ascorbic acid (Vit. C)
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from oranges, citric acid from lime and lemon, palmitic acid from palm oil,
ethanedioic (oxalic) acid, etc.
Inorganic Acids: These are acids synthesized from mineral elements. They are
also known as mineral acids. Examples include hydrochloric acid,
trioxocarbonate (IV) acid, tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid, trioxonitrate (V) acid etc.

Examples of some acids are:

Formula | IUPAC Name

Basicity of Acids

The basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen or hydroxonium

ions present in one molecule of the acid when it dissociates in water.

The following equations show the dissociation of some acids in solution, and
the accompanying table shows a summary of their basicity.

HCl(aq) —-> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

HCN(aq) —-> H+(aq) + CN-(aq)

HNO3(aq) —-> H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

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CH3COOH(aq) <—-> CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
H2SO4(aq) —-> 2H+(aq) + SO4–(aq)

H2SO3(aq) <—-> 2H+(aq) + SO3–(aq)

H2CO3(aq) <—-> 2H+(aq) + CO3—(aq)

H2C2O4(aq) <—-> 2H+(aq) + C2O4–(aq)

H3PO4(aq) <—-> 3H+(aq) + PO4—(aq)

Basicity (No of H+/molecule) | Acids

1 (monobasic) | HCl, HCN, HNO3, CH3COOH
2 (dibasic) | H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3, H2C2O4
3 (tribasic) | H3PO4

EVALUATION

1. Define an acid based on the three concepts of acid-base reactions, and give
one example each.

2. Give the natural sources of the following organic acids:

(a) Ascorbic acid
(b) Acetic acid
(c) Palmitic acid
(d) Citric acid

3. A strong dilute H2SO4 ionizes

a. slowly but contains more water than acid

b. fast but contain more acid than water

c. fast but contain more water than acid

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4. Acid Accept
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All is the same as
a. dry acid b. acid that increase its volume when exposed to air

c. acid made by drying the reactants first

24.

THEORY

ATTEMPT ANY THREE

1a.How would you prove that a given colourless liquid is an acid?

b. Sulphur(iv) oxide is described as an acid anhydride. Elaborate on this

statement.

c.Give the natural sources of the following organic Acids.

i. Lactic acid ii Ascorbic acid iii Amino acids

2a. Give four general methods of preparing salts and use chemical equations
for the examples.

2b. How would you prove that sodium Hydroxide is a base without using
litmus paper to test? Equation of reaction required.

2c. The concentration of H+ in a solution is 1×10-3 mol/dm3,what is the PH of

the solution.

3a.Explain why Graphite is a good conductor of electricity while Diamond is

not.

3b.

4a.Name
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4b
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WEEK 2
TYPES OF ACIDS

Acids can be classified based on two major categories – their strength and
nature.

Classification by Strength

There are two types of acids based on their strength. These are strong acids
and weak acids.

Strong Acids: These are acids that dissociate or ionize completely when
dissolved in water. Some examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid,
trioxonitrate (V) acid and tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid

HCl(aq) —-> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

HNO3(aq) —-> H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

H2SO4(aq) —-> 2H+(aq) + SO4–(aq)

Weak Acids: These are acids that undergo partial or incomplete ionization in
water. Examples include H2CO3, H2SO3, CH3COOH, H3PO4.

CH3COOH(aq) <—-> CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

H2CO3(aq) <—-> 2H+(aq) + CO3–(aq)

H2SO3(aq) <—-> 2H+(aq) + SO3–(aq)

H3PO4(aq) <—-> 3H+(aq) + PO4—(aq)

The backward and forward arrows in the equations indicate an incomplete

ionization. Actually, only 4 out of every 1000 molecules of ethanoic acid in
solution
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Concentration
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The concentration of an acid is the amount of the acid in moles present in a
given volume of water. If a little volume of water is added to a large amount of
acid, then the solution is said to be a concentrated acid solution. Conversely,
when a large volume of water is added to a small amount of acid, a dilute acid
solution will be obtained.

For instance, given two solutions A and B of H2SO4, of concentrations 10 mol

dm^-3 and 0.1 mol dm^-3 respectively; the former contains 10 moles or 980g
of the acid in 1dm^3 (1000 cm^3) of distilled water, while the latter contains
0.1 mole or 9.8g of the acid in 1 dm^3 of distilled water. Hence, solution A is a
concentrated solution, while solution B is a dilute solution, because the amount
of H2SO4 present in 1 dm^3 of water is greater in A than in B.

Physical Properties of Acids

1. They turn blue litmus paper red.

2. The dilute acids possess a sour taste. The presence of acids accounts for the
sour taste of unripe fruits, vinegar and rancid (stale) milk.
3. The strong acids are good electrolytes, while the weak acids are weak
electrolytes.
4. The concentrated forms of strong acids are corrosive.

Precaution: You are NEVER expected to add water to a concentrated acid, as it

may cause severe acid burns. If you must dilute a concentrated acid, ALWAYS
ADD THE ACID TO A LARGER VOLUME OF WATER.

Remember, when cooking you DO NOT add water to hot oil, rather the reverse is
done. The same principle is applicable when dealing with concentrated acids and
water.

Chemical Properties of Acids

There are three major properties that all acids exhibit, irrespective of their
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(a) Action on active metals: Active metals displace the hydrogen atoms in
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form salts with the liberation of hydrogen gas.
acid + active metal —-> salt + hydrogen

Examples:
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) —-> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

H2SO4(aq) + 2Na(s) —-> Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)

H2SO4(aq) + Mg(s) —-> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

It is important to note that unlike other acids, trioxonitrate (V) acid does not
undergo this reaction with the metals, except in the action of very dilute
trioxonitrate (V) acid (about 1%) on calcium, magnesium or manganese.

2HNO3(aq) + Ca(s) —-> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

This is due to its highly oxidizing nature, which causes the hydrogen to be
oxidized to water, while the acid, itself, is reduced to nitrogen (IV) oxide or
nitrogen (II) oxide gas, depending on the reaction conditions, as shown in its
reaction with copper.

4HNO3(aq) + Cu(s) —-> Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) (hot concentrated

HNO3)

8HNO3(aq) + 3Cu(s) —-> 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) +4H2O(l) (cold

concentrated HNO3)

(b) Action on bases: All acids react with a base to form salt and water. This is
known as a neutralization reaction.

acid + base —-> salt + water

Examples:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) —-> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
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H2SO4(aq) + CaO(s) —-> CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
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HNO3(aq)
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Accept All —-> KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) —-> CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

The products are formed by the exchange of negative ions and radicals
between the acids and the bases.

(c) Action on trioxocarbonate (IV), (CO3–): All acids react with trioxocarbonate
(IV) salts to produce salt and water, and liberate carbon (IV) oxide.

acid + trioxocarbonate (IV) —-> salt + water + CO2

Examples:
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) —-> 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) —-> CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2HNO3(aq) + K2CO3(aq) —-> 2KNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

CH3COOH(aq) + PbCO3(s) —-> (CH3COO)2Pb(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Methods of Acids Preparation

The following are some of the methods employed in preparing acids in the
laboratory:

1. Dissolving an acid anhydride in water. Acid anhydrides are nonmetallic

oxides, mostly gases, which dissolve in water to form acids. Examples include
CO2, SO2, P4O10 etc

Examples:
(a) Carbon (IV) oxide dissolves in water to form trioxocarbonate (IV) acid.

CO2(g) + H2O(l) —-> H2CO3(aq)

(b) on
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SO2(g) + H2O(l) —-> H2SO3(aq)
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(d) Phosphorus (V) oxide dissolves in water to produce tetraoxophosphate (V)

acid.

P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) —-> 4H3PO4(aq)

(e) Nitrogen (V) oxide and nitrogen (III) oxide dissolve in water to form
trioxonitrate (V) acid and dioxonitrate (III) acids respectively.

N2O5(g) + H2O(l) —-> 2HNO3(aq)

N2O3(g) + H2O(l) —-> 2HNO2(aq)

2. Using a strong acid to displace a volatile or weak acid from its salts.

(a) Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is used to displace a volatile gas

like hydrogen chloride from a chloride salt.

H2SO4(aq) + NaCl(s) —-> Na2SO4 + HCl(g)

The hydrogen chloride produced, dissolves readily in water to form

hydrochloric acid.

(b) Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid can also be used to displace weak
trioxocarbonate (IV) acid from a trioxocarbonate (IV) salt.

H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) —-> CaSO4(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

The trioxocarbonate (IV) acid, which is not stable, readily decomposes to water
and carbon (IV) oxide.

H2CO3(aq) —-> H2O(l) + CO2(g)

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displace trioxonitrate (V) acid from excess trioxonitrate (V) salts.
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H2SO4(aq) + 2KNO3(s) —-> K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(g)

HCl(aq) + NaNO3(s) —-> NaCl(aq) + HNO3(g)

3. Direct combination of elements. Most acids that are binary compounds,

such as the hydrogen halides can be prepared by combining the constituent
elements at appropriate conditions.

Examples:
(a) Hydrogen burns rapidly in chlorine in the presence of activated charcoal as
a catalyst to form hydrogen chlorine gas, which then dissolves in water to
produce hydrochloric acid.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) + activated charcoal + heat —-> 2HCl(g)

HCl(g) + H2O(l) —-> H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

(b) Hydrogen combines with bromine vapour in the presence of platinum and
heat to form hydrogen bromide gas, which then dissolves readily in water to
form hydrobromic acid.

H2(g) + Br2(g) + platinum + heat —-> 2HBr(g)

HBr(g) + H2O(l) —-> H3O+(aq) + Br-(aq)

The hydrogen bromide gas produced, dissolves readily in water to form

hydrobromic acid.

Uses of Acids

Some uses of acids include:

1. Manufacture of textiles, paints, fertilizers, drugs and other chemicals. E.g.

H2SO4, HCl, HNO3.

2. As
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3. In food preservation and dyeing of textiles. E.g. CH3COOH
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4. As solvents in qualitative analysis. E.g. Dilute HCl, dilute HNO3

5. As an oxidizing agent. E.g. Conc. HNO3

6. In oil refineries for refining of some petroleum products. E.g. H2SO4

7. In the manufacture of baking soda, soft drinks and health salts. E.g. H2CO3.

EVALUATION

1. What is common to both hydrochloric acid and trioxonitrate v acid?

a. both are used for fountain experiment. b. both are monobasic c. both
are used to prepare hydrogen gas from zinc granules. D. both attack
rubber.

2. Differentiate between acid and acidic solution.

3 . (a) How would you prove that a given colourless liquid is an acid?
(b) State three chemical properties of acids.

4. (a) Differentiate between a strong acid and a concentrated acid.

(b) Carbon (IV) oxide is described as an acid anhydride. Explain.
(c) State four uses of acids.

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WEEK 3
BASES
In a layman’s term, a base is the opposite of an acid. In other words, a base is
everything an acid is not.

Definition

Lewis Bases
According to G. N. Lewis, a base is any species that can readily donate a pair of
electrons. The availability of lone pair(s) of electrons increases a substance’s
ability to behave as a base. Examples include H2Ö, ÑH3, Cl-, F- etc. They are
also considered to be nucleophiles. Any species with an electron-rich centre is
said to be a nucleophile.

Brønsted-Lowry Bases
According to Brønsted and Lowry, an acid is a proton donor, while a base is a
proton acceptor. In other words, any substance that has the ability to accept a
proton (hydrogen ion, H+) by donating a pair of electrons to it, is said to be a
base. Examples are H2Ö, ÑH3, Br- etc.

H2Ö(l) + H+(aq) <—-> H3Ö+(aq)

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Cl-(aq) +Accept
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Arrhenius Bases
Recall that an Arrhenius acid produces hydrogen ion as the only positive ion,
when dissolved in water. Similarly, a base is any substance, which produces
hydroxide ion, OH- when dissolved in water. For example, sodium hydroxide
dissolves in water to produce sodium ion, Na+ and OH- as follows:

NaOH(aq) —-> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Also, potassium hydroxide dissolves in water to produce potassium ion, K+ and

OH-.

KOH(aq) —-> K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

A base can also be defined as any substance that neutralizes an acid, or a

substance that reacts with an acid to form salt and water. This is because not all
bases produce hydroxide ions in water, as some of them are oxides and
hydroxides of certain metals, which are insoluble in water.

Classification of Bases

From the aforementioned, bases can be classified into two major categories
based on their solubility in water. These are the soluble and insoluble bases.

Soluble Bases: These comprise of oxides of Group I metals and calcium; and
hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium and ammonium. These soluble
hydroxides are known as alkalis.

Insoluble Bases: These are the oxides and hydroxides of other metals not
mentioned above.

Examples of alkalis and insoluble bases are:

Alkalis | Names
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KOH | Potassium hydroxide (Caustic Potash)
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Ca(OH)2 | Calcium hydroxide (Slaked Lime/Lime Water)
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| Ammonium hydroxide (Liquid Ammonia)
Insoluble Bases | Names
MgO | Magnesium oxide
CuO | Copper (II) oxide
FeO | Iron (II) oxide
Mg(OH)2 | Magnesium hydroxide
Fe(OH)2 | Iron (II) hydroxide
Cu(OH)2 | Copper (II) hydroxide
Zn(OH)2 | Zinc hydroxide
Al(OH)3 | Aluminium hydroxide

Classification of Alkalis

Alkalis are classified based on their strength, which is their degree of ionization
in water. These are strong and weak alkalis.

Strong Alkalis: These are those, which ionize completely when dissolved in
water. Examples are sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.

NaOH(aq) —-> Na(s) + OH-(aq)

KOH(aq) —-> K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Weak Alkalis: These are those hydroxides which undergo incomplete

dissociation in water. Examples are calcium hydroxide and liquid ammonia.

Ca(OH)2(aq) <—-> Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

NH4OH(aq) <—-> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

NH4OH was was initially known as ammonium hydroxide, but was later
changed to liquid ammonia (NH3.H2O), because unlike other hydroxides, it
decomposes in the presence of heat to liberate ammonia gas.

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Physical Properties of Alkalis
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1. They possess a bitter taste.
2. They are slippery to touch because of their soapy feel.
3. They turn red litmus paper blue.
4. They change the colour of phenolphthalein paper from colourless to pink.
5. Their concentrated forms are corrosive.
6. They are electrolytes.

Chemical Properties of Bases

1.Neutralization Reactions: All bases react with acids to form salts and water.
This is known as neutralization reaction.

base + acid —-> salt + water

Examples
(a) Potassium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form potassium
chloride and water.

KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) —-> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Ionically,

K+(aq).OH-(aq) + H+(aq).Cl-(aq) —-> K+(aq).Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) —-> H2O(l)

(b) Copper (II) oxide reacts with tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid to produce copper
(II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) and water.

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) —-> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

(c) Insoluble magnesium hydroxide reacts with dilute trioxonitrate (V) acid to
form magnesium trioxonitrate (V) and water.
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Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) —-> Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
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(d) Sodium
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Accept All combines with ethanoic acid to produce sodium
ethanoate and water.
NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) —-> CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

Ionically,

Na+(aq).OH-(aq) + CH3COO-(aq).H+(aq) —-> CH3COO-(aq).Na+(aq) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) —-> H2O(l)

From (a) and (d) above, we can see that the actual species that ‘partake’ in a
neutralization reaction are hydrogen/hydroxonium ions, and hydroxide ions.

Hence a neutralization reaction can be redefined as the reaction between

hydrogen/hydroxonium ions and hydroxide ions to produce water molecules.

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) —-> H2O(l)

H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) —-> 2H2O(l)

2. Reaction with Ammonium Salts: All alkalis, except liquid ammonia, react
with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia gas when heated. This reaction is
used in qualitative analysis for the identification of salts that contain
ammonium ions.

NH4+(aq) + NaOH(aq) —-> NH4OH(aq) + Na+(aq)

NH4OH(aq) + heat —-> NH3(g) + H2O(l)

Methods of Preparation of Bases

The following are some of the ways bases can be prepared in the laboratory:

1. Burning metals in air. Metals burn in air to form basic oxides.

4Na(s)
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2Ca(s) + O2(g) —-> 2CaO(s)
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2Fe(s) + O2(g) —-> 2FeO(s)
2. Dissolving soluble basic oxides in water. Some metallic oxides dissolve in
water to form alkalis. For instance, sodium oxide and potassium oxide dissolve
in water to form sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide respectively.

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) —-> 2NaOH(aq)

K2O(s) + H2O(l) —-> 2KOH(aq)

Calcium oxide dissolves sparingly in water to form calcium hydroxide (lime

water).

CaO(s) + H2O(l) —-> Ca(OH)2(aq)

3. Dissolving some metals in water. The very reactive Group 1 metals like
potassium and sodium, and a few Group 2 metals such as calcium and barium
react with water to form alkalis with the liberation of hydrogen.

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) —-> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) —-> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) —-> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

4. Dissolving some metallic hydrides in water. Sodium, potassium and calcium

hydrides dissolve in water to form alkalis, with the evolution of hydrogen gas.

NaH(s) + H2O(l) —-> NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

KH(s) + H2O(l) —-> KOH(aq) + H2(g)

CaH2(s) + 2H2O(l) —-> Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H2(g)

5. Thermal decomposition of some trioxocarbonate (IV) and trioxonitrate (V)

salts.
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Examples
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(a) Copper (II) trioxocarbonate (IV) salt undergoes decomposition when heated
to form copper (II) oxide, with the liberation of carbon (IV) oxide.

CuCO3(s) + heat —-> CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Other examples are:

ZnCO3(s) + heat —-> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

CaCO3(s) + heat —-> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

(b) Calcium trioxonitrate (V) salt decomposes on heating to form calcium oxide.
Oxygen and brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide are also given off.

2Ca(NO3)2(s) + heat —-> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Other examples include:

2Pb(NO3)2(s) + heat —-> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

2Zn(NO3)2(s) + heat —-> 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

6. Double decomposition. Some insoluble hydroxides can be prepared

through the process of double decomposition by reacting a soluble salt
containing the metallic cation of the intended hydroxide with an alkali.

For instance, copper (II) hydroxide can be prepared by reacting copper (II)
trioxonitrate (V) solution with sodium hydroxide.

Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) —-> Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Uses of Bases

The following are some of the important uses of bases:

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2. They are
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3. Calcium hydroxide is used for reducing the level of acidity in acidic soils, and
for the production of cement, mortar and Plaster of Paris (POP) etc.

4. Magnesium hydroxide is used for making antacid (milk of magnesia),

laxatives and toothpaste.

5. Liquid ammonia is used in laundries as a solvent for removing grease and oil
stains.

6. They are used in the petroleum industry for the refining of some petroleum
products. E.g. NaOH

7. They are used as dyes in tanning industry. E.g. KOH

8. Alkalis like KOH, NaOH and liquid ammonia are used in water treatment, and
in qualitative analysis for the identification of some cations.

The alkali ammonia NH3 is a component in some oven cleaners and will react
with fatty acids.

Citric acid is found in citrus fruits and is used as a food and drink flavouring, as
is tartaric acid.

Table salt, used in preserving food and sprinkling over your fish and chips as a
flavouring etc. is the chemical sodium chloride NaCl.

Hydrochloric acid HCl and phosphoric acid H3PO4 are components of

limescale removers.

Salts are used to produce the colours in fireworks e.g. sodium chloride a
yellow flame, calcium chloride makes a red flame and copper chloride can
produce green and blue effects.

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stomach lining and upper gut can only take so much of. The antacids must be
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weak bases i.e.All
mild alkalis or harmless insoluble bases like calcium carbonate
or magnesium hydroxide which readily react with hydrochloric acid. However,
strong alkalis are not to be recommended as a suitable medication for
‘heartburn’ afflictions, since they can be just as irritating as strong acids! See
hazard warning signs further down the page and also “Investigation of
Indigestion Tablets“.

Bicarbonate or (sodium hydrogencarbonate NaHCO3, sodium bicarbonate,

baking powder) can be used with sour milk (acidic) for raising action in baking.
The acidic milk reacts with ‘Bicarb’ to form carbon dioxide gas giving the rising
action. You can easily demonstrate this by adding any common laboratory acid
to baking powder or any other carbonate!

Acidic bee stings (pH 5.0–5.5) can be soothed, i.e. neutralised by calomine
lotion, which is a mild alkali and antiseptic and anti–itching agent based on
zinc oxide. You can also use baking soda (‘bicarb of soda’ or sodium hydrogen
carbonate), another mild alkali.

Wasp stings are supposed to be alkaline, but apparently not so! they are
almost neutral at pH 6.8–6.9 but are ‘traditionally’ treated with vinegar which is
a weak acid (and then perhaps you need the calomine too!). I’ve come across
references on the web to say that wasp stings are not alkaline so ‘English
folklore’ and mild–weak acid treatment has no real scientific basis. It should be
pointed out that sting venom is a complex mixture, including many protein–
enzymes, which, with other ‘foreign‘ substances, might well trigger a response
from the bodies immune system, so, in all honesty, I’m not quite sure what the
truth is! However, what is known is that (i) bees and wasps have glands that
can secrete either acids or alkalis with other substances and (ii) ants sting
venom often contains methanoic acid (‘formic acid‘) which can have a pH of 3
and is presumably ‘soothed’ by mild alkalis and just to confuse matters more,
(iii) many people claim the ‘folklore’ remedies work! and maybe they do!

Ammonium salts, phosphate salts and magnesium/potassium sulfate salts are

used in fertilisers for the garden.

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Acids and alkalis are useful in your body! Your stomach produces hydrochloric
acid to help in digestion of proteins. Certain digestive enzymes only function
properly in very acid conditions i.e. a low pH <2. Pancreatic fluids are alkaline
to suit the conditions required by enzymes breaking down starches, fats and
proteins. The hydrochloric acid in your stomach kills a large % of potentially
harmful bacteria, minimising the risk of food poisoning and irritation of the gut
system. However, as mentioned above, if you produce too much acid you get
indigestion and need to take an antacid indigestion tablet to neutralise the
excess. More body chemistry, preferably to be avoided!

The strong alkali sodium hydroxide NaOH is used bleaches and other cleaning
products.

The equally strong alkali potassium hydroxide KOH is used in alkaline

batteries.

In the chemical INDUSTRY

Alkalis like lime (calcium oxide, CaO) and limestone (calcium carbonate,
CaCO3) are used to reduce the acidity in soil, the neutralisation reaction
produces the optimum pH for crops to grow.

Sodium hydroxide NaOH, one of the most commonly used alkalis, is used to
neutralise aspirin making ‘soluble aspirin’. Aspirin is an organic acid and not
very soluble in water, but, its sodium salt is much more soluble and is absorbed
faster by the body for more effective treatment.

Ammonia NH3 gas is a weak alkali and neutralised by sulphuric acid or nitric
acid to form ammonium sulphate or ammonium nitrate salts. These are
important agri–chemical fertilisers supplying nitrogen to the soil for better
plant growth. Of course some people prefer organic growing using good old
muck and compost, but it doesn’t involve neutralisation, but it does involve my
wife, who is a member of the Soil Association! NPK fertilisers for agriculture
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Neutralising harmful sulphur dioxide gas (acidic, irritating and toxic SO2) in
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power station smoke from burning fossil fuels, by absorbing it in alkaline
calcium hydroxide solution (limewater) to absorb it. Eventually harmless
calcium sulphate solution is formed.

Acids can be used to clean corroded metal surfaces because of their reactivity
to metals and metal oxides to form soluble salts which can be washed away to
leave a cleaner metal surface. Concentrated acid solutions are used to remove
limescale from the ceramic (unreactive) sides of toilets. Limescale is the build–
up of a limestone like deposit in areas of hard water.

Alkalis are important chemicals in many industrial processes e.g.

Heating natural oils and fats with strong alkalis like sodium hydroxide
produces soaps.

Alkalis are used either directly, or to make other chemicals that bind natural
dyes to cloth and other fabrics.

The alkali sodium carbonate is used in making glass.

In the past alkalis have been obtained from burnt wood, burnt seaweed and
stale urine, but they are now may made on a huge bulk scale from industrial
processes e.g. sodium chloride is manufactured from the electrolysis of brine
(sodium chloride solution) and is then used to make many other products.
Sodium carbonate is made from calcium carbonate (limestone) and common
salt (sodium chloride) by the Solvay Process.

So all of this is still pretty important chemistry even for the 21st century, with
strong links to agriculture, the environment and leading a stressful life!

Of course there are ‘downsides’ to some of this ‘acidic’ chemistry: Acid rain
increases the rate of corrosion of stonework (particularly limestone) and metal
structures. Acid rain makes water too acid for some aquatic organisms to live
and this in turn affects food chains e.g. salmon do not like water with a pH
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EVALUATION

1.(a) What is a base?

(b) What is a neutralization reaction?
(c) Aqueous solution of trioxonitrate (V) acid neutralizes a solution of sodium
hydroxide. Write the ionic equation for this reaction.
(d) In what other way, can it be shown that potassium hydroxide is a base
without using litmus or phenolphthalein paper?

2.Answer True (T) or False (F)

A base
(a) is a proton donor according to Brønsted and Lowry.
(b) produces hydroxide ions in water.
(c) accepts a pair of electrons based on Lewis Theory.
(d) is an electrolyte.
(e) does not have the ability to change the colour of an indicator.
(f) forms an aqueous solution with pH6.
(g) is neutralized by a salt.
(h) reacts with ammonium tetraoxosulphate (VI) to liberate ammonia when
heated.

3.(a) Elaborate on the statement: “All alkalis are bases, but all bases are not
alkalis”.
(b) Using appropriate examples, state five methods of preparing bases in the
laboratory.
(c) List four uses of bases

4. Drop the odd one out from Cu(OH)2,Al(OH)3,Mg(OH)2 and Zn(OH)2

a. Cu(OH)2 b. Al(OH) c. Mg(OH)2 d. Zn(OH)2

5.Which of the following oxides is basic?

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SALTS

Salts are formed when acids reacts with bases .

Characteristics of salt:

1. Most of the salts are crystalline solid

2. Salts may be transparent or opaque

3. Most of the salts are soluble in water

4. Solution of salts conducts electricity. Salts conduct electricity in their

molten state also

5. The salt may be salty, sour, sweet, bitter and umami (savoury)

6. Neutral salts are odourless

7. Salts can be colourless or coloured

Family of Salt:

Salts having common acidic or basic radicals are said to belong to same family.

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Calcium chloride (CaCl2) belong to

chloride family.

Calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4) belong to calcium

family.

Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) belong to zinc family.

Acidic, Basic and Neutral Salts

Neutral Salt: Salts produced because of reaction between strong acid and
strong base are neutral in nature. The pH of value of such salts is equal to 7, i.e.
neutral. Example; Sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, potassium chloride, etc.
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(a strong acid) and sodium hydroxide (a strong base).
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NaOH + HCl ⇨ NaCl + H2O

Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4): It is formed after the reaction between sodium
hydroxide (a strong base) and sulphuric acid (a strong acid).

2NaOH + H2SO4 ⇨ Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Potassium chloride (KCl): It is formed after the reaction between potassium

hydroxide (a strong base) and hydrochloric acid (a strong acid).

KOH + HCl ⇨ KCl + H2O

Acidic salt:

Salts which are formed after the reaction between a strong acid and weak base
are called acidic salt. The pH value of acidic salt is lower than 7. Example:
ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, etc.

Ammonium chloride is formed after reaction between hydrochloric acid (a

strong acid) and ammonium hydroxide (a weak base).

NH4OH + HCl ⇨ NH4Cl + H2O

Ammonium sulphate is formed after reaction between ammonium hydroxide

(weak base) and sulphuric acid (a strong acid).

2NH4OH + H2SO4 ⇨ (NH4 )2SO4 + 2H2O

Basic Salt: Salts which are formed after the reaction between weak acid and
strong base are called basic salt. For example; sodium carbonate, sodium
acetate, etc.

Sodium carbonate is formed after the reaction between sodium hydroxide (a

strong base) and carbonic acid (a weak base).

H2CO
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Sodium acetate is formed after the reaction between a strong base, sodium
hydroxide
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CH3COOH + NaOH ⇨ CH3COONa + H2O

Cause of formation of acidic, basic and neutral salt:

When a strong acid reacts with a weak base, the base is unable to fully
neutralize the acid. Due to this an acidic salt is formed in this case.

When a strong base reacts with a weak acid, the acid is unable to fully
neutralize the base. Due to this a basic salt is formed in this case.

When equally strong acid and base react they fully neutralize each other. Due
to this a neutral salt is formed in this case.

pH value of salt:

Neutral salt: The pH value of a neutral salt is almost equal to 7.

Acidic salt: The pH value of an acidic salt is less than 7.

Basic salt: The pH value of a basic salt is more than 7.

Common Salt (Sodium Chloride)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is also known as common or table salt. It is formed
after the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. It is a
neutral salt. The pH value of sodium chloride is about 7. Sodium chloride is
used to enhance the taste of food. Sodium chloride is used in manufacturing of
many chemicals.

Important chemicals from sodium chloride:

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): Sodium hydroxide is a strong base. It is also
known as caustic soda or Iye. It is obtained by the electrolytic decomposition
of solution of sodium chloride (brine). In the process of electrolytic
decomposition of brine (aqueous solution of sodium chloride), brine
decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. In this process, chlorine is obtained at
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2NaCl + 2H2O ⇨ 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2
Use of products after the electrolysis of
brine:
1. Hydrogen gas is used as fuel, margarine, in making of ammonia for
fertilizer, etc.

2. Chlorine gas is used in water treatment, manufacturing of PVC,

disinfectants, CFC, pesticides. It is also used in manufacturing of bleaching
powder and hydrochloric acid.

3. Sodium hydroxide is used for de-greasing of metals, manufacturing of

paper, soap, detergents, artificial fibres, bleach, etc.

Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2 ):

Bleaching powder is also known as chloride of lime. It is a solid and yellowish
white in colour. Bleaching powder can be easily identified by the strong smell
of chlorine.

When calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) reacts with chlorine, it gives calcium
oxychloride (bleaching powder) and water is formed.

Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 ⇨ CaOCl2 + H2O

Aqueous solution of bleaching powder is basic in nature. The term bleach

means removal of colour. Bleaching powder is often used as bleaching agent. It
works because of oxidation. Chlorine in the bleaching powder is responsible
for bleaching effect.

Use of bleaching powder:

Bleaching powder is used as disinfectant to clean water, moss remover,
weed killers, etc.

Bleaching powder is used for bleaching of cotton in textile industry,

bleaching of wood pulp in paper industry.
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Baking Soda (NaHCO3 )
Baking soda is another important product which can be obtained using
byproducts of chlor-alkali process. The chemical name of baking soda is
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3 ) or sodium bicarbonate. Bread soda,
cooking soda, bicarbonate of soda, sodium bicarb, bicarb of soda or simply
bicarb, etc. are some other names of baking soda.

Baking soda is obtained by the reaction of brine with carbon dioxide and
ammonia. This is known as Solvay process.

NaCl + CO2 + NH3 + H2O ⇨ NH4Cl + NaHCO3

In this process, calcium carbonate is used as the source of CO2 and the
resultant calcium oxide is used to recover ammonia from ammonium chloride.

Properties of sodium bicarbonate:

Sodium bicarbonate is white crystalline solid, but it appears as fine

powder.

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is amphoteric in nature.

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is sparingly soluble in water.

Thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda).

When baking soda is heated, it decomposes into sodium carbonate,

carbon dioxide and water.

2NaHCO3 + heat ⇨ Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

Sodium carbonate formed after thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen

carbonate; decomposes into sodium oxide and carbon dioxide on further
heating.

Na2CO3 ⇨ Na2O + CO2

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Use of Baking Soda:
Baking soda is used in making of baking powder, which is used in
cooking as it produces carbon dioxide which makes the batter soft and
spongy.

Baking soda is used as antacid.

Baking soda is used in toothpaste which makes the teeth white and
plaque free.

Baking soda is used in cleansing of ornaments made of sliver.

Since, sodium hydrogen carbonate gives carbon dioxide and sodium

oxide on strong heating, thus it is used as fire extinguisher.

Baking powder:
Baking powder produces carbon dioxide on heating, so it is used in cooking to
make the batter spongy. Although baking soda also produces carbon dioxide
on heating, but it is not used in cooking because on heating; baking soda
produces sodium carbonate along with carbon dioxide. The sodium carbonate;
thus produced; makes the taste bitter.

2NaHCO3 + heat ⇨ Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

Baking powder is the mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid. Generally,
tartaric acid is mixed with baking soda to make baking powder.

NaHCO3 + C4H6O6 ⇨ CO2 + H2O + Na2C4H4O6

When baking powder (mixture of baking soda and an edible acid) is heated,
the sodium carbonate formed because of heating of baking soda neutralizes
after reacting with tartaric acid and sodium tartarate salt is formed. The smell
of sodium tartarate is pleasant and taste is good. This makes the cake or any
other food tasty.

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Washing Soda (Sodium carbonate)
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Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the thermal decomposition of sodium
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hydrogen carbonate obtained by Solvay process.
NaCl + CO2 + NH3 + H2O ⇨ NH4Cl + NaHCO3

NaHCO3 + C4H6O6 ⇨ CO2 + H2O + Na2C4H4O6

The sodium carbonate obtained in this process is dry. It is called soda ash or
anhydrous sodium carbonate. Washing soda is obtained by rehydration of
anhydrous sodium carbonate.

Na2CO3 + 10H2O ⇨ Na2CO3.10H2O

Since there are 10 water molecules in washing soda, hence it is known as

Sodium bicarbonate decahydrate.

Sodium carbonate is a crystalline solid and it is soluble in water when most of

the carbonates are insoluble in water.

Use of sodium carbonate:

It is used in cleaning of cloths; especially in rural areas.

In making of detergent cake and powder.

In removing permanent hardness of water.

It is used in glass and paper industries.

Water of crystallization: Many salts contain water molecule and are known as
hydrated salts. The water molecule present in salt is known as water of
crystallization.

Examples:

Copper sulphate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O):Blue colour of copper sulphate

is due to presence of 5 molecules of water. When copper sulphate is heated, it
loses water molecules and turns into grey-white colour, which is known as
anhydrous copper sulphate. After adding water; anhydrous copper sulphate
becomes
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CuSO4.5H2O + heat ⇨ CuSO4

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Ferrous Sulphate heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O):The green colour of Ferrous
sulphate heptahydrate; commonly known as ferrous sulphate; is due to the
presence of 7 molecules of water in it.

Plaster of Paris
Plaster of Paris is obtained by heating of gypsum, a hydrated salt of calcium.

CaSO4.2H2O + Heat ⇨ CaSO4.(0.5)H2O + (1.5)H2O

After addition of water Plaster of Paris is again converted into gypsum.

CaSO4.(0.5)H2O + (1.5)H2O ⇨ CaSO4.2H2O

Plaster of Paris is used in making of toys, designer false ceiling, etc. Doctors use
Plaster of Paris to set the fractured bone.

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Salt solubility affects the method you choose to make a salt, the table below
will help you decide on the method

A solubility guide for salts and other

compounds Information required to
decide on the method used to
prepare a salt

salts and other compounds solubility?

common salts of sodium, potassium

usually soluble in water
and ammonium ions

usually quite soluble except for

calcium sulfate (slightly soluble),
common sulfates (sulphates)
lead sulfate and barium sulfate are
both insoluble

common chlorides (similar rule for usually soluble except for insoluble
bromides and iodides) lead(II) chloride and silver chloride

common nitrates all soluble

most metal carbonates are

insoluble apart from sodium &
common carbonates
potassium carbonate. Ammonium
carbonate is also soluble

most metal hydroxides are insoluble

apart from soluble sodium,
common hydroxides
potassium and ammonium
hydroxide

6a. A Method of Making a Water Soluble Salt

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give a soluble salt
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One important point is to recognise that all the reactants are soluble here,
which is why you need a titration procedure to work out how much of the
acid is to be added to a given volume of alkali.

e.g. the hydroxide of an alkali metal like sodium hydroxide, potassium

hydroxide or ammonia solution (wrongly called )ammonium hydroxide.
Steps (1) to (3) below is called a titration.

Typical common soluble bases (alkalis) used for preparing soluble salts:

NaOH sodium hydroxide, KOH potassium hydroxide and some soluble

carbonates

Typical examples shown by the word and symbol equations below include …

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ==> sodium sulphate + water

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

potassium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ==> potassium sulphate + water

2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

sodium hydroxide + nitric acid ==> sodium nitrate + water

NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) ==> NaNO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)

ammonia + nitric acid ==> ammonium nitrate

NHon
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potassium hydroxide + hydrobromic acid ==> potassium bromide + water
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KOH(aq) + HBr(aq) ==> KBr(aq) + H2O(l)
sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water +
carbon dioxide

Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

METHOD (b) Procedure for making a soluble salt from an insoluble base,
carbonate or metal

(1) The required volume of acid is measured out into the beaker with a
measuring cylinder. The excess of insoluble metal, oxide, hydroxide or
carbonate is weighed out (*) and the solid added in small portions to the acid
in the beaker with stirring. Doing the weighing will minimise trial and error
especially if the reaction is slow, as long as you know how to do the theoretical
calculation and add on a little excess!

(*) You can avoid doing a calculation and weighing of the insoluble solid
reactant by adding small quantities to the hot acid until no more apparently
dissolves.

(2) The mixture may be heated to speed up the reaction. When no more of the
solid dissolves it means ALL the acid is neutralised and there should be a little
excess solid. You should see a residue of the solid (oxide, hydroxide, carbonate)
left at the bottom of the beaker. On filtration, only a solution of the salt is left.

(3) The hot solution (with care!) is filtered to remove the excess solid
metal/oxide/carbonate, into an evaporating dish.

(4) You may need to carefully heat the solution to evaporate some of the water.
Then hot solution is left to cool and crystallise. After crystallisation, you collect
and dry the crystals with a filter paper.

Note (i) Apparatus used: (1) balance, measuring cylinder, beaker and glass
stirring rod. (2) beaker/rod, bunsen burner, tripod and gauze; (3)-(4) filter
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(ii) A measuring cylinder is adequate for measuring the acid volume, you do
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the accuracy of a pipette or burette required in method (a).
METHODS of MAKING SALTS – salt preparation procedures

Making a salt by direct combination of elements

Sometimes it isn’t appropriate to prepare a soluble salt by reacting an acid

with an insoluble base or alkali, so it may be possible to prepare the salt by
directly combining the metal and the non-metal elements. Two such examples
are the preparation of anhydrous aluminium chloride and anhydrous iron(III)
chloride (anhydrous here means without any water of crystallisation).

Preparation of aluminium chloride AlCl3

Preparation of iron(III) chloride FeCl3

How can we make aluminium chloride? How do we prepare iron(III) chloride?

METHOD (d) both preparations illustrated above.

These compounds can be made by direct combination of the elements to

form anhydrous salts e.g. if dry chlorine gas Cl2 is passed over heated iron or
aluminium, the chloride is produced. These experiment preparations (shown
above) should be done very carefully by the teacher in a fume cupboard.

The aluminium can burn intensely with a violet flame, white fumes of
aluminium chloride sublime from the hot reacted aluminium and the white
solid forms on the cold surface of the flask.

aluminium + chlorine ==> aluminium chloride

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) ==> 2AlCl3(s)

The aluminium chloride is often discoloured yellow from the trace chlorides of
copper or iron that may be formed from traces of these metals that might be
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The iron (e.g. as steel wool) glows red and brown fumes of iron(III) chloride
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stream off, theAllbrown solid collects on the cold flask surface.
iron + chlorine ==> iron(III) chloride

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) ==> 2FeCl3(s)

Note (i): Both these chlorides react exothermically and hydrolyse with water to
give the metal hydroxide and fumes of hydrogen chloride, and so dry
conditions are needed.

Note (ii): Both these chlorides cannot be made in an anhydrous form from
aqueous solution neutralisation. This is because on evaporation the
compounds contain ‘water of crystallisation’. On heating the hydrated salt
hydrolyses and decomposes into water, the oxide or hydroxide and fumes of
hydrogen chloride, and maybe some impure anhydrous chloride, basically it a
mess in terms of trying to make pure AlCl3 and FeCl3 in this way.

Effloresences
The property by which certain hydrous crystals lose their water of
crystallisation, completely or partially, when exposed to air and crumble into a
powder is called efflorescence. Some examples are given below.

Such substances are termed as efflorescent substances.

Deliquescence
Certain hygroscopic substances, not only absorb
moisture from the air, but they themselves
dissolve in that moisture, undergoing a change of

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state. Such substances are called deliquescent
substances. The process is called deliquescence.
some Deliquescent substances

Anhydrous calcium chloride CaCl2 Ferric chloride Fecl3

Magnesium chloride MgCl2 Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3) 2

Solid sodium hydroxide NaOH Copper nitrate Cu(NO3) 2

Solid potassium hydroxide KOH Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3) 2

Hygroscopic
Hygroscopic substances are those substances that absorb water vapour from
the air. The process is called Hygroscopicity.

Some Hygroscopic Substances

Concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 Magnesium chloride MgCl2

Anhydrous calcium chloride CaCl2 Ferric Chloride FeCl3

Calcium oxide CaO Phosphorus pentoxide P4O10

Solid Sodium hydroxide NaOH Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2

Solid potassium hydroxide KOH Copper nitrate Cu(NO3)2

Hydrolysis of salts

Dissolution of different salts in water does not always result in neutral

solutions. For example, aqueous solution of copper sulphate is acidic whereas
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with water to produce an acidic or an alkaline solution is called hydrolysis.
Thus, hydrolysis is reverse of neutralization.
Colours of salts

RECOVERING SALT FROM SOLUTION

It is, in many cases, important when recovering salt from salt solutions to
obtain the salts in the form of large crystals. Such a case is for example the
recovery of sulphate of ammonia from ammonium sulphate solutions, the am-
‘monium sulphate salt being intended to serve as fertilizer. It is well-known,
that ammonium sulphate in fine crystals is liable to form into lumps and same
can only be spread over the fields in a very poor manner. On the other hand,
sulphate of ammonia consisting of large crystals, remains always loose and can
be readily spread even by hand, without any previous grinding being
necessary. Salt in large crystals offers the further advantage when used as a
fertilizer in as much as the large grains of the salt are not so easily carried oil?
by the wind as is the case of salt in fine crystals.

1. The process of recovering large crystals of solid salts from salt solutions,
comprising evaporating the salt solution to be treated in such way that crystals
are separated out of the salt solution, collecting the crystals separated out of
solution in a heap in the fluid undergoing evaporazone the salt crystals
removed from the fluid of 40 the evaporation stage with a liquid to swim off
therefrom the smaller crystals from the larger crystals, separating out from the
larger crystals in the swimming stage the larger part of the swim liquid
together with the small crystals swimming in the same from the larger crystals
left in the swimming stage, and finally recovering the larger crystals from the
swimming stage.

EVALUATION

1. Explain each of the following with examples.

i. Acid salt ii. Basic salt iii. Double salt iv. Normal salt

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3. Which of these is not a Hygroscopic salt?
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a. Calcium Oxide b. Magnesium chloride c. Copper(ii)oxide d. Sodium
trioxonitrate(v).

WEEK 5

pH – Measurement of strength of Acid and Base

The strength of acid or base depends upon the hydrogen ion concentration. If
the concentration of hydrogen ion is greater than hydroxide ion, the solution is
called acidic. If the concentration of hydrogen ion is smaller than the hydroxide
ion, the solution is called basic. If the concentration of hydrogen ion is equal to
the concentration of hydroxide ion, the solution is called neutral solution.

Ph and ph scale

In 1909, Sorensen introduced a term for expressing the concentration of

hydrogen ions, which give an idea about the acidic and basic characters of the
aqueous solution. This term was called ‘pH’ which means the ‘power of
hydrogen ions’..

In pH scale ‘p’ stands for ‘potenz’. Potenz is a German word which means
‘power’ or ‘potential’. Here; ‘H’ stands for hydrogen ion. Thus, pH means the
potential of hydrogen or power of hydrogen.

pH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion

activity (a(H+ )), in a solution.

For neutral solution at 298 K,

[H3O+] = [OH–] = 1.0 x 10-7 mol L-1

so that, pH = -log [H3O+] = -log (1.0 x 10-7) = 7

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For acidic solution pH <>
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For basic solution pH > 7

For neutral solution pH = 7

A scale called as the pH scale is devised to express the acidic and basic
properties of solution in terms of the pH value.

Fig: 8.1 – The pH scale

From the scale it is clear that for solutions with

pH between 0 to 2 strongly acidic

pH between 2 to 4 moderately acidic

pH between 4 to 7 weakly acidic

pH between 7 to 10 weakly basic

pH between 10 to 12 moderately basic

pH between 12 to 14 strongly basic.

Calculating pH

To calculate the pH of an aqueous solution you need to know the

concentration of the hydronium ion in moles per liter (molarity). The pH is
then calculated using the expression:

pH = – log [H3O+].

Example: Find the pH of a 0.0025 M HCl solution. The HCl is a strong acid and
is 100% ionized in water. The hydronium ion concentration is 0.0025 M. Thus:

pH = – log (0.0025) = – ( – 2.60) = 2.60

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Calculating the Hydronium Ion Concentration from pH
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The hydronium ion concentration can be found from the pH by the reverse of
the mathematical operation employed to find the pH.

[H3O+] = 10-pH or [H3O+] = antilog (- pH)

Example: What is the hydronium ion concentration in a solution that has a pH

of 8.34?

8.34 = – log [H3O+]

– 8.34 = log [H3O+]
[H3O+] = 10-8.34 = 4.57 x 10-9 M

On a calculator, calculate 10-8.34, or “inverse” log ( – 8.34).

Calculating pOH

To calculate the pOH of a solution you need to know the concentration of the
hydroxide ion in moles per liter (molarity). The pOH is then calculated using
the expression:

pOH = – log [OH–]

Example: What is the pOH of a solution that has a hydroxide ion

concentration of 4.82 x 10-5 M?

pOH = – log [4.82 x 10-5] = – ( – 4.32) = 4.32

Top

Calculating the Hydroxide Ion Concentration from pOH

The hydroxide ion concentration can be found from the pOH by the reverse
mathematical
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[OH–] = 10-pOH or [OH–] = antilog ( – pOH)
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Example: What is the hydroxide ion concentration in a solution that has a pOH
of 5.70?

5.70 = – log [OH–]

-5.70 = log[OH–]
[OH–] = 10-5.70 = 2.00 x 10-6 M

On a calculator calculate 10-5.70, or “inverse” log (- 5.70).

Relationship Between pH and pOH

The pH and pOH of a water solution at 25oC are related by the following
equation.

pH + pOH = 14

Top of Form

Bottom of Form

If either the pH or the pOH of a solution is known, the other can be quickly
calculated.

Example: A solution has a pOH of 11.76. What is the pH of this solution?

pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 11.76 = 2.24

Indicator:

Substances which show the acidic or basic behavior of other substance by

change in colour are known as indicator.

Type of Indicator: There are many types of indicators. Some common types of
indicators
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1. Natural

2. Olfactory Indicator

3. Synthetic Indicator

4. Universal Indicator

Natural Indicator: Indicators obtained from natural sources are called natural
indicators. Litmus, turmeric, red cabbage, China rose, etc. are some common
natural indicators used widely to show the acidic or basic character of
substances.

Litmus: Litmus is obtained from lichens. The solution of litmus is purple in

colour. Litmus paper comes in two colour – blue and red.

An acid turns blue litmus paper red.

A base turns red litmus paper blue.

Turmeric: Turmeric is another natural indicator. Turmeric is yellow in colour.

Turmeric solution or paper turns reddish brown with base. Turmeric does not
change colour with acid.

Red cabbage: The juice of red cabbage is originally purple in colour. Juice of
red cabbage turns reddish with acid and turns greenish with base.

Olfactory Indicators: Substances which change their smell when mixed with
acid or base are known as olfactory indicators. For example onion, vanilla,
clove, etc.

Onion: Paste or juice of onion loses its smell when added with base. It does not
change its smell with acid.

Vanilla: The smell of vanilla vanishes with base, but it’s smell does not vanishes
with an acid.
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Synthetic Indicator: Indicators that are synthesized in laboratory are known as
synthetic indicators. For example; phenolphthalein, methyl orange, etc.

Phenolphthalein is a colourless liquid. It remains colourless with acid but turns

into pink with a base.

Methyl orange is originally orange in colour. It turns into red with acid and
turns into yellow with base.

Indicator Original colour Acid Base

Red litmus Red No change Blue

Blue litmus Blue Red No change

Turmeric Yellow No change Reddish brown

Red cabbage juice Purple Reddish Greenish yellow

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Methyl orange Orange Red Yellow

Onion n/a No change Smell vanishes

Vanilla n/a No change Smell vanishes

Universal Indicator:

Using a litmus paper, phelophthalein, methyl orange, etc. only the acidic or
basic character of a solution can be determined, but use of these indicators
does not give the idea about the strength of acid or base. So, to get the
strength as well as acidic and basic nature of a given solution universal
indicator is used.

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strips and solution. Universal indicator is the combination of many indicators,
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such as water, propanol, phelophthalein, sodium salt, sodium hydroxide,
methyl red, bromothymol blue monosodium salt, and thymol blue
monosodium salt. The colour matching chart is supplied with universal
indicator which shows the different colours for different values of pH.

EVALUATION

1.The ph values of three solutions are 4.0,9.0,and

13.5.Predict the colours that these indicators
would attain for the different solutions of methyl
orange,Litmus,phenolphthalein.
2. Calculate the pH value of (i) 0.001 M HCl and (ii) 0.01 M NaOH

3. Calculate the pH of a solution whose hydronium ion concentration is 6.2 x

10-9 mol L-1.

4. Acid A, B, C and D have the following pKa values: A = 1.5, B = 3.5, C = 2.0, D
= 5.0. Arrange these acids in the increasing order of acid strength.

5. The value of Kw is 9.55 x 10-14 at a certain temperature. Calculate the pH of

water at this temperature.

6. What is the pH of a solution whose hydrogen ion concentration is 0.005 x

10-3 kg dm-3?

7. The pH of blood is maintained at 7.4 due to the presence of HCO–3 and

H2CO3. If Ka of H2CO3 in blood is 8 x 10-7 calculate the ratio [HCO–3]:[H2CO3] in
blood.

Solution
(2) Since HCl is a strong acid, it completely ionizes and therefore, H3O+ ions
concentration is equal to that of the acid itself i.e.,
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[H O ] = [HCl]
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now, pHAccept
= -logAll[H3O+]
pH = -log [1 x 10-3]

= -(-3) log 10 = 3 (log 10 =1)

(3) Since NaOH is a strong base, it completely ionizes and therefore, OH– ions
concentration is equal to that of the base itself i.e.,

[OH–] = [NaOH] = 0.01 M = 1 x 10-2 M

Kw = [H3O+] [OH–]

pH = -log [H3O+]

pH = -log [1 x 10-12]

= -(-12) log 10 = 12

4.We know that,

pKa = -log Ka or Ka = 10-pKa

Therefore, for the given acids,

Ka (A) = 10-1.5 Ka (B) = 10-3.5

Ka (C) = 10-2.0 Ka (D) = 10-5.0

Since, 10-5.0<>-3.5<>-2.0<>-1.5

Hence, the strength of acids follows the order, D <>

5.Kw = 9.55 x 10-14

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If, Kw = [H3O+] [OH–] = 9.55 x 10-14 then,
[H3O+] [H3O+] = 9.55 x 10-14

[H3O+]2 = 9.55 x 10-14

pH = -log [H3O+]

pH = -log [3.09 x 10-7]

= -(log 3.09 + log 10-7)

= -(0.49 – 7) = 6.51

6.In the solution [H+] = 0.005 x 10-3 kg dm-3 = 0.005 x 10-3x 103Lm-3

= 0.005 g dm-3 = 0.005 mol dm-3

7.pH = 7.4= -log[H+]

log[H+]= -7.4 = 8.6 [H+]= 3.98 x 10-8 4 x 10-8 M

EVALUATION

1.A solution has a pOH of 11.76. What is the pH of this solution.

a. 2.24 b.1.32 c .3.43 d.5.6

2. An hydroxonium ion is

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3. pH of a 0.001m acid is
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a. 2 b. 4 c.3 d.1
4. A solution whose pH cannot be altered due to accidental addition of acid or
base is called

a. plasma b. annotated solution c. buffer solution d. deionized solution

5. Sodium Hydroxide is added drop by drop to some hydrochloric acid in a

beaker. Which of the following occurs in the beaker?

a. The PH of the solution decreases.

b. The concentration of hydrogen ions increases.

c. The concentration of hydroxide ions increases.

d. The solution turns pink

e. Sodium Chloride Crystals forms

WEEK 6

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON

Carbon forms the largest number of compounds, next only to hydrogen. It

ranks seventeenth in the order of abundance in the earth’s crust. Carbon
occurs in the free native state as well as in the combined state. Carbon and its
compounds are widely distributed in nature.

In its elemental form, carbon occurs in nature as diamond and graphite. Coal,
charcoal and coke are impure forms of carbon. The latter two are obtained by
heating wood and coal in the absence of air, respectively. In the combined
state, carbon is present as carbonate in many minerals, such as hydrocarbons
in natural gas, petroleum etc. In air, carbon dioxide is present in small
quantities, (0.03%).
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Our food also contains carbon in the combined form. All living systems contain
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carbon compounds. Indeed, life as we know today, would be impossible
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such carbon compounds.
Carbon is a non-metallic element and the first member of group 14 of the
periodic table

Symbol: C, Electronic configuration1s2, 2s22p2, Melting point = 800K

Atomic mass: 12.01amu, Atomic radius 77pm, Atomic number: 6

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON.

Allotropy:
Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in more than one physical
forms having similar chemical properties but different physical properties.
Carbon exists both in crystalline and amorphous allotropic forms.

Crystalline allotropes of carbon:

Diamond
Graphite
Fullerene

Amorphous allotropes of carbon:

Coal
Coke
Charcoal
Lampblack
Gas carbon
Coke

Diamond
Diamonds are chiefly found in the Union of South Africa, the Belgian Congo,
Brazil, British Guiana, India etc.

Diamond was discovered for the first time in India. The famous ‘Kohinoor
diamond’ (186 – carat) and the ‘Regent or Pitt’ (studded in Napoleon’s state
sword,
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The ‘Cullinan diamond’, the largest ever found weighed 3025.75 carat (about
600 g) was
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Diamonds occur in the form of transparent octahedral crystals usually having
curved surfaces and do not shine much in their natural form. To give them their
usual brilliant shine they are cut at a proper angle so as to give rise to large
total internal reflections.

Moissan (1893) prepared the first artificial diamond by heating pure sugar
charcoal and iron in a graphite crucible to a temperature of about 3000°C in an
electric arc furnace.

Graphite
Graphite is found widely distributed in nature, viz., in Siberia, Sri Lanka, USA,
Canada.

Large quantities of graphite are also manufactured from coke or anthracite in

electric furnaces.

Diamonds and graphite are two crystalline allotropes of carbon. Diamond and
graphite both are covalent crystals. But, they differ considerably in their
properties.

Comparison of the properties of diamond and graphite

These differences in the properties of diamond and graphite are due to the
differences in their structures.

Structure of diamond
In diamond, the carbon atoms are arranged tetrahedrally (sp3 hybridisation of
C): each C atom is linked to its neighbors by four single covalent bonds. This
leads to a three-dimensional network of covalent bond.

It is due to this, that diamond is very hard, and has high melting andboiling
points. In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to the other through regular
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no mobile toelectron
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conduct electricity
of carbon are used up in forming the covalent bonds. Hence diamond does not
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conduct electricity. Diamond is also denser than graphite (density: Diamond =
3.52 g cm-3 Graphite =2.25 g cm-3 ) as the Diamond structure is a closely
packed structure, while the layer-to-layer large distance makes graphite to
have an open structure.
Diamond are not attacked by acids, bases and other reagents but it can reacts
with fluorine to form carbon tetrafluoride at about 1023 K temperature.
C + 2F2 → CF4
Diamond burns in air at about 1173 K to produce carbon dioxide gas.
In diamond carbon atoms are in tetrahedral arrangement.

Structure of graphite
In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat parallel layers as regular
hexagons. Each layer is bonded to adjacent layers by weak Van der Waals
forces. This allows each layer to slide over the other easily. Due to this type of
structure graphite is soft and slippery, and can act as a lubricant. Graphite is
also a good conductor of electricity. In graphite, carbon atoms in each layer are
bonded to three other carbon atoms by special covalent bonds. This gives
some double-bond character to the C-C bonds. This gives it the presence of
delocalized p-electron system. These mobile electrons explain the electrical
conductivity of graphite.

Uses of diamond
The unusual brilliant shine of diamond makes it an invaluable precious
stone in jewellery.

Making high precision cutting tools for use in medical field.

Because of it’s hardness it is used in manufacturing tools/cutting drills for

cutting glass and rock.

In making dyes for drawing very thin wires of harder metals. Tungsten
wires of thickness 1/6th that of human hair, can be drawn using diamond
dyes.

Graphite is used as a moderator in nuclear reactor.

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Uses of graphite
As a lubricant at higher temperatures.

As a refractory material of making crucibles and electrodes for high

temperature work.

In electrotyping and in the manufacture of gramophone records: Graphite

is used for making the non-conducting (generally wax) surface, so that
electroplating can be done.

For manufacturing lead pencils and stove paints.

Amorphous Forms of
Carbon
Coal is formed in nature by the ‘carbonisation’ of wood. Conversion of wood to
coal under the influence of high temperature, high pressure, and in the
absence of air is termed carbonisation.

Amongst coal varieties, anthracite is the purest form. It contains about 94 –

95% of carbon. The common variety of coal is bituminous coal; it is black, hard
and burns with smoky flame.

Uses
Coal is mainly used,

As an industrial fuel in steel, power generation plants etc. It is also a

domestic fuel to a limited extent.

For manufacture of producer gas and water gas, which are used as fuel
gases.

For manufacturing coal tar, coke and coal gas.

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coal.
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Wood charcoal
When wood is heated strongly in a very limited supply of air, wood charcoal is
obtained. This is called destructive distillation of wood. The volatile products
are allowed to escape.

Charcoal is a black, porous and brittle solid. It is a good adsorbent. Charcoal

powder adsorbs coloring matter from solutions and poisonous gases from the
air. Charcoal is also a good reducing agent.

Uses
As a fuel.

As a deodorant and in gas masks to filter pollution.

As a discoloring agent for decolorizing oils, etc.

In making gun powder.

Animal Charcoal
Animal charcoal (or Bone charcoal) is obtained by destructive distillation of
bones. It contains about 10-12% of amorphous carbon.

Sugar Charcoal
It is obtained by heating sugar in the absence of air. Sugar charcoal is the
purest form of amorphous carbon.

Sugar charcoal becomes activated charcoal when it is powdered to particle size

of about 5 Âµ and heated at about 1000 K in vacuum. Activated charcoal has
an increased adsorption capacity.

Lamp Black
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blankets hung in a room. Lamp black is a velvety black powder. It is used in the
manufacture of India ink, printer’s ink, black paint and varnishes and carbon
papers.

CarbonBlack

When natural gas is burned in limited supply of air, the resulting soot is
deposited on the underside of a revolving disc. This is carbon black and it is
then scraped off and filled in bags. It differs from lamp black in being not so
greasy. Carbon black is added to the rubber mix used for making automobile
tyres, and has replaced the use of lampblack for a number of purposes.

GasCarbonandPetroleumcoke

Carbon scraped that is from the walls of the retort used for the destructive
distillation of coal in called gas carbon. During refining of crude petroleum,
petroleum coke is deposited on the walls of the distillation tower.

Both, gas carbon and petroleum coke are used for making electrodes in dry
cells and are good conductors of electricity.

Fullerenes
Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon that were discovered as recently as 1985.
They have been found to exist in the interstellar dust as well as in geological
formations on earth. They are large cage like spherical molecules with formulae
C32, C50 C60, C70, C76, C84 etc. The most commonly known fullerene is C60 which
is named as ‘buckminster fullerene after the designer of the geodesic dome,
American architect Buckminister.

C60 molecule has marvelously symmetrical structure. It is a fused-ring of

aromatic system containing 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of C atoms. The
structure bends around and closes to form a soccer ball shaped molecule. It is
therefore, called buckyball also. Fullerene looks different from diamond and
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Fullerenes are All
fascinating because they show unusual characteristics and
applications like:
They are wonderful lubricants because the balls can roll between the
surfaces.

Alkali compounds of C60 (A3C60) are super conducting materials even at

high temperatures of the order of 10-40 K.

Destructive Distillation of
Coal
When coal is heated without air, it does not burn but produces many by-
products. This process of heating coal in the absence of air is called destructive
distillation of coal.

The main by products are:

coke

coal tar

amino acid liquor

coal gas

The destructive distillation of coal can be carried out in the laboratory. The
apparatus is set up as shown in the below figure.

Destructive Distillation of Coal

Finely powdered coal taken in a test tube is heated. As the coal breaks down
coke, coal tar, ammonia and coal gas are produced. Coal tar collects at the
bottom of the second test tube and coal gas escapes out through the side
tube. The ammonia produced is absorbed in the water forming ammoniacal
liquor (ammonium hydroxide). The black residue left in the 1st tube is called
coke.

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monoxide and hydrogen.
Another by product namely coal tar which is a mixture of different carbon
compounds can be used to make soap, fats, dyes plastics perfumes, drugs,
pesticides, explosives etc.

The other by product, ammonia is used for making fertilizers such as

ammonium sulphate, ammonium superphosphate etc.

The coal gas, also called as a town gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane and
carbon monoxide which are combustible making the coal gas an excellent fuel
having high calorific values.

EVALUATION

1.Explain why graphite is a good conductor of electricity while diamond is

not,although both are true allotropes of carbon. Compare the other properties
of graphite and diamond.

2.Write short notes on the preparations and uses of

i. Charcoal ii Coke iii. lamp-black iv. Animal charcoal.

3.When graphite is subjected to a very high temperature and pressure for

several hours in the presence of catalysts nickel, the product is a. soot b.
quartz

c. artificial diamond d. graphite flakes.

4..Acheson process is a process of producing

a. graphite from coke at high temperature b. producing coke using graphite at

high temperature c. anthracite from carbon d. wood-charcoal from coal.

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WEEK 7
OXIDES OF CARBON
Carbon Monoxide
The various names of Carbon Monoxide (CO) are carbonous oxide, carbon (II)
oxide, carbonyl etc. It is an odorless, colorless gas which is less dense than air.
The higher concentration of carbon monoxide can be toxic to humans and
animals due to the great combining affinity of carbon monoxide with
hemoglobin. It is a short lived and spatially variable gas in atmosphere which
can be easily combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and ozone.

Carbon monoxide is a flammable and highly toxic gas. It is a neutral oxide of

carbon element and burns in air to give carbon dioxide. For several chemical
reaction, it acts as a good reducing agent. For example, to reduce cupric oxide
to copper metal and to convert carbon dioxide to C and O2.

CuO + CO → Cu + CO2

It is also an important industrial gas and widely used as a fuel and as an

important reducing agent in the chemical industry.

Laboratory preparation, properties and uses of

carbon monoxides
Carbon monoxide was first prepared in the laboratory in 1776 by J.M.F. de
Lassone, a French chemist. As carbon monoxide is extremely poisonous, its
preparation should be carried out only in a fume chamber. Under no
circumstances must the gas be inhaled or smelled.
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dehydrating
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concentrated sulphuric acid
Experiment 1
Carbon monoxide is prepared with the help of oxalic acid and concentrated
sulphuric acid as shown in figure 11.2.

Oxalic acid has the formula . Sulphuric acid reacts with oxalic acid and removes
from it one molecule of water (both the hydrogen atoms, along with an oxygen
atom). The product left behind due to this reaction, is a molecule of carbon
dioxide and a molecule of carbon monoxide. The carbon dioxide can be
removed by passing it through a concentrated solution of potassium
hydroxide.

Preparation of carbon monoxide by

dehydrating formic acid
Experiment 2
Formic acid has the formula HCOOH. Formic acid can also be dehydrated in a
similar way by hot concentrated sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid removes two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen as a molecule of water from it,
and leaves behind one molecule of carbon monoxide (Fig.11.3).

Physical properties of carbon monoxide

a) Nature
Carbon monoxide is colorless, almost odorless and tasteless gas.

b) Density
It is very slightly lighter than air.

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c) Solubility
Carbon monoxide is only very slightly soluble in water.100 volumes of water
can dissolve only 3.5 volumes of the gas at S.T.P

d) Poisonous nature
This is a highly poisonous gas. Air containing even less than 1% of carbon
monoxide, can be fatal, if breathed in for about 10 to 15 minutes.

Chemical properties of carbon monoxide

a) Nature
Carbon monoxide is a neutral oxide. It is neither acidic nor basic.

b) Stability
It is very stable and cannot be decomposed by heat.

c) Combustibility
It is a combustible gas. It burns well in air or oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
The formation of carbon dioxide is tested by passing it through a solution of
lime water. (Fig.11.4).

This is a highly exothermic reaction. Hence it is a very good fuel.

However, it is not a supporter of combustion,

d)
Combination with chlorine

Carbon monoxide combines with chlorine in presence of sunlight and charcoal

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e) Combination with sodium hydroxide
Carbon monoxide when heated under a pressure of six atmosphere, combines
with sodium hydroxide and flakes to form sodium formate.

f) Reducing property
Carbon monoxide is a powerful reducing agent.

Experiment 3
When CO is passed over heated metallic oxides, it takes away the oxygen to
form carbon dioxide and reduces the oxides to their respective metals
(Fig.11.5).

g) As a synthetic reagent
Carbon monoxide acts as the staring material for the synthesis of many
important organic substances. For e.g., the synthesis of methyl alcohol, or
methanol, (CH3OH) takes place by the reaction of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen.

h) Combination with metals

When carbon monoxide is passed over heated metals under pressure, metal
carbonyls are formed.

i) Combination with cuprous chloride

Carbon monoxide is absorbed by ammonical cuprous chloride to form an
addition compound.

Uses of carbonmonoxide

1. Carbon monoxide is used as a fuel by itself, or in the form of producer gas

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2. It is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals. Carbon monoxide
reduces the metal oxides to metals. Usually coke is used to generate this gas.
In this process coke combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which gets
reduced to carbon monoxide due to the lack of oxygen.

3. Carbon monoxide is used in the manufacture of methyl alcohol, sodium

formate, phosgene, etc.

Effects of Carbon Monoxide

The main product of complete combustion of any organic compound is carbon
dioxide and water. However the incomplete combustion of organic compounds
in the limited amount of oxygen yields carbon monoxide.
Once the gas is inhaled, it becomes very harmful. Since carbon monoxide is
easily absorbed through the lungs, it’s easy for gas to circulate in body. Carbon
monoxide has more binding affinity with hemoglobin compared to oxygen.
Hence, it can easily replace oxygen and can bound with hemoglobin. In the
deficiency of oxygen, tissue becomes starved for it.

Due to high binding affinity of carbon monoxide, it forms carboxyheamoglobin

(HbCO) which starved oxygen supplies in cell.

Exposure to carbon monoxide is most commonly accompanied by the

following symptoms.

Headache, dizziness, nausea, shortness of breath on exertion, impaired

judgment, chest pain and depressionetc.

The low supply of oxygen to the blood leads to hypoxia myoglobin and
mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are thought to be adversely affected.

For the treatment of poisoning due to carbon monoxide, oxygen acts as

the best medicine. Supply of oxygen provides hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

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Domestic carbon monoxide can be detected by using carbon monoxide
detectors.
CARBON (IV)OXIDE

Carbon dioxide occurs in free state in the atmosphere, and accounts for 0.03 to
0.04 % of its total volume. It is also found in mines and caves in the form of
minerals, such as limestone, magnesite and dolomite.
Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere during respiration by living
organisms, combustion of fuels, and fermentation.

Preparation of Carbon dioxide

In the laboratory, carbon dioxide is prepared by the action of calcium
carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3 + dil 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2↑ + H2↑

Test for carbon dioxide

The presence of carbon dioxide can be tested by bringing a burning splinter
near the mouth of the cylinder containing carbon dioxide – it gets
extinguished.
If carbon dioxide is passed through limewater, it turns milky white.

Methods of preparation of Carbon dioxide

The combustion of carbon or methane produce carbon dioxide
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

The decomposition of carbonate salts like calcium carbonate or magnesium

carbonate produces carbon dioxide.

When metallic carbonates or metallic bicarbonates react with sulphuric acid,

they form carbon dioxide.
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Carbon dioxide is also formed in the process of fermentation as a by product.
Physical properties

Colourless and odourless gas with a sour taste.

Slightly soluble in water.

Heavier than air.

Solidifies at room temperature and 70 atmospheres pressure.

Solid CO2 is called Dry ice

Chemical properties
CO2 Reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

CO2 Reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium carbonate. Excess

carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate.
CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NaHCO3

CO2 Reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate and water.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

CO2 Reacts with metals to form metallic oxides.

2Mg + CO2 → 2MgO + C

CO2 Reacts with non-metals to form carbon monoxide.

C + CO2 → 2CO

Uses
To prepare soft drinks and soda, in fire extinguishers, as a refrigerating
agent, to prepare several chemicals like urea, washing soda and baking
soda, to preserve food.
Helps to maintain the temperature of the earth’s surface. Used in welding
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CARBON (IV)OXIDE VERSUS CARBONMONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are both colorless and odorless gases.

Carbon monoxide has a molecular formula of CO while carbon dioxide is

CO2.

Carbon monoxide is composed of one carbon atom and one oxygen

atom while carbon dioxide is composed of one carbon atom and two
oxygen atoms.

Carbon monoxide is produced from the incomplete combustion of fossil

fuels like gas, coal, oil, and solid fuel appliances while carbon dioxide is
produced from the exhalation of people and animals and from the
combustion of organic materials like leaves and wood.

Carbon dioxide is important in the process of respiration and

photosynthesis.

Carbon monoxide at increased levels is poisonous which will likely result

in death.

Carbon Dioxide
There are two tests for carbon dioxide. Firstly it will extinguish a flame,
however, as any oxygen free gas will also extinguish a flame this is a poor gas
test and may result in misidentification.

The best way of testing for Carbon dioxide is to bubble it through lime water.
A positive test will result in the lime water turning milky. Lime water turns milky
as the Calcium hydroxide (chemical name for limewater) reacts with carbon
dioxide to form Calcium Carbonate which is insoluble in water and thus forms
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EVALUATION
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1. Differentiate between carbon (ii )oxide and carbon (iv) oxide in terms of
preparation, properties ,uses and test.

2. Why is carbon(ii)oxide poisonous?

3. Which properties of carbon(iv)oxide account for its use in fire extinguishers?

4. Write a short note on the preparation and uses of producer Gas.

5.One of these is not a reaction of charcoal

a.C +O2͢ CO2 b.CO2+C͢ 2CO c.2CO+O2͢ 2CO2 d.CO2+2CO͢ 2CO

6. Kipp’s apparatus is an instrument for preparing intermittent supply of gases

by reacting a. liquid with gas b. liquid with solid c. solid with gas d.liquid
with liquid

7. Gas which dissolves in ammoniacal copper I chloride but insoluble in water

is a. NH3 b.CO c.N2O d.CO2

WEEK 8

TRIOXOCARBONATES .

INTRODUCTION

You might have seen the effervescence when lime juice is dropped on the
floor, leaving a white mark. Or you might have observed the use of baking
soda as a leavening agent to rise cookies, cakes etc.,. You may wonder about
the fizz when club soda or coke bottles are opened. It is a known fact that our
favorite bakery items are rendered tasty by adding baking powder. The use of
washing soda in laundries, in softening hard water; and the use of lime stone
and lime water in making construction materials like Portland cement, lime
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Carbonates and bicarbonates find their way from household things to
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tooth pastes, black board chalks etc.
FORMULAE & STRUCTURES OF CARBONATES AND BICARBONATE ANIONS

So after all, what are carbonates & bicarbonates? These are the salts of
carbonic acid. The anions are represented as:

Carbonate ion: CO32-

Bicarbonate or hydrogencarbonate ion: HCO3–

These anions are formed from carbonic acid, H2CO3 as follows:

H2CO3 <——-> HCO3– + H+ <——–> CO32- + H+

The structural relationships can be represented as:

Their shape is trigonal planar with 120o of bond angles. The central carbon
atom undergoes sp2 hybridization.

COMPOUNDS CONTAINING CARBONATE OR BICARBONATE ANIONS

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Usually metal ions with bigger atomic size form stable carbonates and
bicarbonates. Some of the bicarbonates can only be detected in aqueous
medium. Some important carbonates and bicarbonates are listed below.

Carbonates &
Bicarbonates

Group compound General formula Examples

Group-1 (alkali Li2CO3, Na2CO3,

carbonates M2CO3
metals) K2CO3 etc.,

LiHCO3, NaHCO3,
bicarbonates MHCO3
KHCO3 etc.,

Group-2 (alkaline MgCO3, CaCO3,

carbonates MCO3
earth metals) BaCO3 etc.,

Mg(HCO3)2,
bicarbonates M(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 etc.,

p-block elements carbonates _ Tl2CO3 and PbCO3

ZnCO3, CuCO3,
Transition
carbonates _ Ag2CO3, FeCO3
elements
etc.,.

OCCURRENCE

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There are several carbonate minerals present in the nature. A few of them are
listed below.

Carbonate
minerals

Formula Name of the mineral

Na2CO3 Soda ash or Natrite

CaCO3 Lime stone or Calcite or Aragonite or Chalk

MgCO3 Magnesite

CaCO3.MgCO3 Dolomite

SrCO3 Strontianite

BaCO3 Witherite

PbCO3 Cerrusite

FeCO3 Siderite

CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Malachite

2[CuCO3].Cu(OH)2 Azurite

Smithsonite (in the old literature it is known as

ZnCO3
calamine)

CdCO3 Otavite

PREPARATION

Carbonic acid is formed when carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in water.

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Though looking simple, this reaction is the basic principle involved in the
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manufacture of club soda, coca cola, Pepsi etc.,. These beverages are made by
dissolving carbon dioxide gas in water at high pressures. Of course, some
other ingredients are also added to improve the taste of the product. That is
another story. When you open the bottle, the carbon dioxide gas will come out
with effervescence (you call it fizz).

It is possible to get either carbonate or bicarbonate by passing carbon dioxide

into alkaline solutions. Usually carbonates are formed when small amounts of
carbon dioxide are passed through alkaline solutions.

E.g.

2NaOH + CO2 <——> Na2CO3 + H2 O

small amount fairly soluble in water

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 <——> CaCO3↓ + H2 O

small amount insoluble in water

But bicarbonates are eventually formed when excess of carbon dioxide is

passed into the solution.

E.g.

NaOH + CO2 <——> NaHCO3

sparingly soluble
excess
in cold water

Ca(OH)2 + 2CO2 <——> Ca(HCO3)2

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Application-1: It is observed that lime water, Ca(OH)2 turns milky initially when
carbon dioxide is passed through it and becomes clear after passing excess of
carbon dioxide. Initially an insoluble white solid, CaCO3 is formed. Hence lime
water turns milky. It is then converted to water soluble bicarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2
upon passing excess of carbon dioxide by making the solution clear again.

The reactions are summarized below.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 ———-> CaCO3↓ + H2 O

Slaked lime small amount white solid

CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2 ———-> Ca(HCO3)2

excess soluble

Note: The formation of calcium carbonate is one of the reaction that occurs
during setting of lime mortar, which was used in the construction of old
buildings

Application-2: It has been observed that a white precipitate is formed when

aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is preserved for longer times in the
containers which are not closed properly. It is because of the formation of
insoluble NaHCO3 when NaOH reacts with excess of carbon dioxide in air.

NaOH + CO2 <——> NaHCO3

sparingly soluble
excess
in cold water

GENERAL PROPERTIES

Physical state:
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to provide a controlled at room temperature. Carbonates of
group-1 and group-2 elements are colorless. Whereas, the carbonates of
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transition elements may be colored.
* The polarizing power of the group-1 metal ions (M+) is less than the
polarizing power of group-2 metal ions (M2+). Hence group-2 carbonates are
more covalent than the carbonates of group-1.

Whereas the polarizing power decreases down the group with increase in the
size of metal ion. Hence the ionic nature increases down the group.

* NaHCO3 and KHCO3 can exist in the solid state. But the bicarbonates of
group-2 elements are only known in aqueous solutions.

Solubility in water:

* Except Li2CO3, The group-1 carbonates are fairly soluble in water. The
solubility increases down the group as the ionic nature nature increases.

* Group-2 carbonates are sparingly soluble in water as their lattice energies are
higher (it is due to increase in covalent nature). There is no clear solubility
trend observed down this group.

But group-2 carbonates are soluble in a solution of CO2 due to formation of

HCO3–.

Thermal stability:

* Carbonates are decomposed to carbon dioxide and oxide upon heating.

Whereas bicarbonates give carbonate, water and carbon dioxide.

* Thermal stability of group-1 and group-2 carbonates (also of bicarbonates)

increases down the group as the polarizing power of the metal ion decreases.

* Due to same reason, carbonates of group-1 are more stable than those of
group-2.

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oxide ion.
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CHEMICAL REACTIONS
The most important reaction shown by these anions is ‘decomposition’ by
liberating carbon dioxide either upon heating or by adding acids. Water or
oxide are the other products.

2HCO3– ——–> CO32- + CO2 + H2O (upon heating)

HCO3– + H+ ——–> CO2 + H2O (in acidic medium)

CO32- ——–> CO2 + O2- (upon heating)

CO32- + 2H+ ———> CO2 + H2O (in acidic medium)

Illustrations:

i) 2NaHCO3 ——–> Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O (upon heating)

ii) NaHCO3 + H+ ——–> Na++ CO2 + H2O

Application: That is why baking soda (NaHCO3) is used as leavening agent to

raise cookies, cakes etc.,. It is decomposed to CO2 and water upon heating.
This makes the cookies porous and palatable.

iii) Ca(HCO3)2 ——–> CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O (upon heating)

Mg(HCO3)2 ——–> MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O (upon heating)

Application: Temporary hardness of water is due to presence of bicarbonates of

Ca and Mg. It is possible to remove temporary hardness by boiling water.
Upon boiling, the soluble bicarbonates are decomposed to insoluble
carbonates, which can be filtered off.

iv) CaCO3 ——–> CaO+ CO2 (upon heating)

Application:
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reaction occurring in the manufacture of Portland cement. Technically this type
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v) CaCO3 + 2HCl ——–> CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

vi) MgCO3 + 2HCl ——–> MgCl2 + H2O + CO2

or in general

CO32- + 2H+ ———> CO2 + H2O

Comment: This reaction is the principle involved in the detection of carbonate

ion present in a given salt.

Calcium carbonate is present in the marble stone. This is decomposed to

carbon dioxide when come into contact with acids. Hence the effervescence is
observed when acids are dropped on the floor. Lime juice contains citric acid,
which liberates carbon dioxide and forms insoluble calcium citrate, which
appears as white marking.

Note: Effervescence is observed sometimes on granite floor which may rarely

contain carbonates. This may be originated from lichens lived on them.

STUDY OF SOME INDIVIDUAL CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES

Li2CO3:

* Lithium carbonate is a colorless salt with polymeric nature.

* It is sparingly soluble in water and its solubility decreases with increase in

temperature. But it dissolves in presence of carbon dioxide due to the
formation of LiHCO3.

* It is used in psychiatry to treat mania. The lithium ions interfere the sodium
pump and inhibit the activity of protein kinase C (PKC).

* It on
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Na2CO3Accept
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* Sodium carbonate is a colorless salt.

* It is fairly soluble in water.

* It is also called as washing soda.

* It is used mainly in laundries and in softening hard water.

* It is also used in making glass.

EVALUATION

1.Describe the effect of the following on trioxocarbonates. Use chemical

equations where necessary.

i .Acid ii .Water iii. Heat

2. State 2 uses of trioxocarbonates with examples.

3.What happens when dilute acids reacts with trioxocarbonates. Use chemical
equations to support your answer.

4.Describe the test for trioxocarbonates.

WEEK 9

HYDROCARBONS

Organic compounds entirely made up of carbon and hydrogen are called as

hydrocarbons. This category includes saturated and unsaturated compounds
as well as open, cyclic and benzenoid aromatic compounds. Hydrocarbons are
classified as saturated and unsaturated based on the nature of the bond
between carbon atoms.
Similarly
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there is special category of benzene and benzene ring containing
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hydrocarbons can be explained by the following chart.

Aliphatic Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbons that don’t have a benzene ring in their structure are called as
aliphatic compounds. Aliphatic can be simply understand as non-aromatic. This
is broad category contains many hydrocarbons like linear, branched, cyclic,
saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Butane a common constituent of LPG and octane a common constituent in

petrol are some of the aliphatic hydrocarbons.

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-(CH2)6-CH3

Butane Octane

Cyclic Hydrocarbon
Aliphatic hydrocarbons whose carbon chain is closed end to end to form a ring
structure is called as cyclic hydrocarbons. For example cyclobutane and
cyclopropane are cyclic hydrocarbons. This category includes both saturated
and unsaturated compounds like cyclobutene.

Saturated Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic hydrocarbons where there is single bond between all the carbon
atom are called as saturated hydrocarbons. They are called so because all the
valence of carbon atom is completely filled in it. In the saturated hydrocarbons
the carbon atom is sp3 hybridized.

The structure of saturated hydrocarbon is tetrahedral with respect to each

carbon atom. They are less reactive and they cannot undergo addition
reaction, where some atoms of groups are added to a compound. Methane,
hexane, cyclopentane are examples for saturated hydrocarbons.

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Aliphatic hydrocarbons where there is double/triple bond between carbon
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atoms are called as unsaturated hydrocarbons. They are called as unsaturated
because the valence of carbon is not completely filled.
Hence they can undergo addition reaction with atoms or groups to give
saturated molecules. The carbon atom is sp2/sp hybridized in alkenes/alkynes.
This category includes alkenes, alkynes. The structure of alkene is trigonal
while the structure of alkyne is linear. Ethylene, isobutene, acetylene are
examples of unsaturated hydrocarbons.

CH2=CH2 CH=CH

Ethylene Acetylene

Aromatic Hydrocarbon
Benzene is a ring hydrocarbon made with three double bonds. But it is
unusually stable and will not show any properties for three double bond.
Hence the compounds containing benzene ring are classified separately as
aromatic compounds.

In aromatic hydrocarbons the root word ‘aroma’ means perfume. All the
aromatic compounds have characteristic smell and many of them are used as
perfumes. Benzene, naphthalene are example for aromatic hydrocarbon.

Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also otherwise called as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. They are hydrocarbons made up of two or more benzene rings
fused together without any other substituents. Naphthalene, anthracein are
some examples of polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
They posses more threat to environment as a major pollutant in soil. They are
obtained from petroleum by distillation.

Sources of hydrocarbons
Until
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Industrial Revolution in Europe, fossil fuels like coal and petroleum gained
prominence
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Today, hydrocarbons are mostly obtained from petroleum. In recent years coal
has started gaining prominence, probably due to the uncertain conditions in
the world oil market.

Origin of coal and petroleum

Coal and petroleum have organic origin, being
decomposed plant and animal matter buried
deep inside the earth. Coal is mined like any other
mineral.
The chief coal producing countries in the world are China, U.S.A., U.S.S.R., U.K.,
Germany, Poland, Australia and India. In India, coal is mainly mined in Bihar,
West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh.

Petroleum occurs deep inside the Earth at depth ranging from a few hundred
to few thousand meters. The name petroleum has been given to the crude oil
because it occurs under the Earth’s crust entrapped in rocks (petra = rocks
oleum = oil). Crude oil (petroleum) is pumped out of Earth by drilling oil wells.
Petroleum is obtained by drilling a hole through the crust till it reaches the oil
reserve. The oil gushes out of its own due to high pressure of the gas over its
surface. However, when the pressure falls, it is pumped out with the help of
pumps. Large quantity of natural gas is generally associated with petroleum.
Petroleum is often referred to as liquid gold, due to its importance in
transportation, commerce and industry. Prosperity of any country depends
upon its petroleum reserves.

The chief petroleum producing countries are, U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, Libya, Nigeria, Algeria, Venezuela China and Mexico.

Composition of coal and petroleum

Coal is mainly composed of carbon. Coal, is classified into different varieties
depending upon its carbon content. Common varieties of coal are,
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Variety of coal: Peat Lignite Bituminous AnthraciteCarbon content:10-15% 40%
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60-70% 80-90%
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Coal also contains arenes or aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene,
xylene, naphthalene and anthracene. It also has some organic compounds of
sulphur and nitrogen.

Crude oil (or petroleum) is a dark brown viscous liquid sometimes having a
greenish tinge. Crude oil is a mixture of about 150 different organic
compounds. Crude oil is largely made up of aliphatic hydrocarbons, with much
lesser amounts of aromatic compounds and organic compounds of sulphur
and nitrogen.

Formation of coal and petroleum in nature

It is believed that coal in nature was formed from the remains of the trees
buried inside the earth some 500 million years ago. Due to the bacterial and
chemical action on the wood, it got converted into peat. Then, as a result of
high temperature and high pressure inside the earth peat got transformed into
coal.

It is believed that the petroleum was formed from the partial decomposition of
the sea animals and prehistoric forests under high temperature and pressure
conditions inside the earth.

Hydrocarbon from petroleum

Crude oil or petroleum pumped out of an oil well, is a viscous and complex
mixture of several hydrocarbons and small amounts of other compounds. It is
not useful in this state. The ‘refining of (crude) petroleum’ involves the process
of fractional distillation, whereby petroleum is separated into many useful
fractions.

Refining of crude oil

The refining of petroleum is done in big refineries. Washing it with acidic or
basic solution first neutralizes crude oil. A furnace is used to heat up the crude
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Fig: 15.4 – Fractional distillation of crude oil

The fractionating tower is a tall cylindrical steel structure divided into

compartments by horizontal trays fitted into it. Each tray has a number of holes
and a short tube with a bubble cap. Due to a regular temperature gradient
along the height of the column, the fractions with lower boiling points rise up
and get liquefied at different heights in the trays, depending on the boiling.
These caps allow the lighter vapors to escape up the column while the
progressively less volatile and heavier fraction condense and flow into the
respective trays (through tray holes and overflow) in the lower section of the
tower. They can then be tapped out. The major products obtained from the
fractional distillation of crude oil are listed below. Gasoline obtained by this
procedure is called straight run gasoline.

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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FRACTIONS

Chain
Product Boiling range Uses %
length

As fuel: in manufacture of
Below room gasoline. rubber, carbon
Gas C1 to C5 2
temperature black. ammonia and
methane black.

Petroleum As a solvent and in dry

C5toC7 303 — 363 K 2
ether cleaning.

C7 to Motor fuel: dry cleaning

Petrol 343 — 473 K 32
C12 solvent.

c1 to
Kerosene 440 — 540 K As a fuel and illuminant. 18
C16

Gas oil Fuel C15 to Furnace fuel: diesel engine

523 — 673 K 20
oil diesel C18 fuel: in cracking

Residue products:- C16 As lubricant.in

623 and
Lubrication and medicines and
up
oil,greases,petroleum jelly up cosmetics(petrol jelly)

C20 Melts at
Making candles
Paraffin wax and 325— 330
andwater proofinq.
up K

c30
As a fuel for making
Petroleum coke and Residue
electrodes.
up

Petroleum
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Accept a by-product from two sources: natural gas processing and
crude oil refining is a mixture of butane, propane and ethane. The main
constituent of liquefied petroleum gas is, however, propane, propylene,
butane, butylene in various mixtures. These hydrocarbons burn readily,
producing a large amount of heat. This makes petroleum gas a very good fuel.

Large quantities of propane and butane are now available from gas and
petroleum industries. These are often employed as fuel for tractors, trucks, and
buses and mainly as a domestic fuel. They are gases under ordinary pressure.
Because of the low boiling point (-44 to 0°C) and high vapor pressure of these
gases, their handling as liquids in pressure cylinders is necessary. Thus, they
can be easily liquefied under pressure. The petroleum gas, which has been
liquefied under pressure is called Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

Petroleum gas is supplied in liquid form so that a cylinder of even small

volume may contain an appreciable amount of the gas. A domestic gas
cylinder whose main constituent is butane, contains about 14 kg of LPG. A
strong smelling substance (Ethyl mercaptan C2H5SH) is added to LPG gas
cylinders to help in the detection of gas leakage. The gas used for domestic
cooking is called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) because it is present in liquid
form in the cylinders and is commonly used for domestic heating purposes.

Owing to demand from industry for butane derivatives, LPG sold as fuel for
automobiles is made up largely of propane. This is because,

All these factors reduce engine wear, increase engine life, and maintenance
costs low.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) and Liquid natural

gas
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usually consists primarily of methane. Its
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One property, which differentiates liquefied natural gas (LNG) from liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), which is principally propane or butane or both, has a
much lower critical temperature, about (-73°C). Unlike LPG, natural gas cannot
be liquefied at normal ambient temperature by increasing pressure; natural gas
must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures to be liquefied and then stored in
well-insulated containers. CNG or LNG is stored in high pressure cylinders or
special tanks.

The natural gas is compressed or liquefied for ease of storing and transporting.
LNG takes up about 1/600 the space that natural gas does in its gaseous form.
LNG technology has made it possible to utilize natural gas from remote areas
where it previously had no common use and was burned. CNG or LNG are very
clean fuels, which cause very little pollution and have very high calorific value.

Cracking and reforming

Cracking of hydrocarbons
The process of breaking higher hydrocarbons with high boiling points into a
variety of lower hydrocarbons that are more volatile (low boiling), is called
cracking (or pyrolysis). For example, a higher hydrocarbon C10H22 splits
according to the reaction.

C10H22 C8H18 + C2H4

higher hydrocarbon lower hydrocarbons

The process of cracking, increases the relative amounts of the lower

hydrocarbons. During cracking, carbon-carbon bonds get broken in a random
manner, leading to various kinds of products being formed.

Cracking is generally carried out in the following ways.

Types of cracking
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Breaking down large molecules by heating at high temperature and pressure is
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termed as thermal cracking. Thermal cracking is further classified into the
following classes.

Catalytic cracking
Higher hydrocarbons can also be cracked at lower temperature (600 – 650 K)
and lower pressure (2 atm) in the presence of a suitable catalyst. Catalytic
cracking produces gasoline of higher octane number and therefore this
method is used for obtaining better quality gasoline. A typical catalyst used for
this purpose is a mixture of silica (SiO2), 4 parts; alumina (Al2O3), 1 part, and
manganese-dioxide (MnO2), 1 part.

Steam cracking
Here, higher hydrocarbons are mixed with steam in their vapor phase and
heated for a short duration to about 900°C, and cooled rapidly. This process is
suitable for obtaining lower unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Applications of cracking
The most important products obtained in straight-run refining are petrol,
diesel and kerosene. The demand for these products outstrips that obtained
during refining of the petroleum. Conversely, high-boiling fractions find lesser
use. So,

Reforming or aromatisation
Reforming or aromatisation involves the conversion of open chain (aliphatic)
hydrocarbons and/or cycloalkanes in the presence of a catalyst, into aromatic
hydrocarbons
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Aromatisation involves reactions of the type, dehydrogenation, cyclisation, and However,
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isomerisation.
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In reforming (or aromatisation), cyclic and acyclic alkanes containing six to
eight carbon atoms are heated at about 670 K in the presence of palladium,
platinum or nickel as catalyst. Platinum seems to be the best catalyst and so
the process is sometimes called platforming.

For example,

Hexane when passed over Cr2O3 supported over alumina at 670 K benzene is
produced.

n-hexane benzene

Under similar conditions, n-heptane yields toluene.

n-heptane toluene

Cyclohexane gives benzene

cyclohexane benzene

Applications of reforming

Aromatic hydrocarbons have octane numbers higher than 100, while the
straight-run gasoline has the octane number of 55.

The straight-run gasoline (octane number 55) is first distilled to obtain a

fraction containing n-hexane, cyclohexane and methylcyclopentane. This
fraction is then heated with a platinum catalyst to convert the cyclohexanes
into benzene and toluene (octane number > 100).

Aliphatic
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The petrol obtained artificially from coal as a mixture of alkanes resembling
petroleum like aliphatic hydrocarbon fuels is called synthetic petrol. Two
important methods for producing synthetic petrol are the Fischer-Tropsch
process and the Bergius process. These processes were developed in Germany
during World War II, when its petroleum supplies were cut off. Germany
produced considerable amounts of fuel from coal by the above processes
during that period.

These processes have once again drawn much attention due to the existing
uncertainties in the world oil markets.

Bergius process
In this process, powdered coal is mixed with heavy oil and heated with
hydrogen under high pressure (200-250 atm) at about 748 K in presence of
iron oxide as catalyst.

The vapours on condensation give a liquid resembling crude oil. This is called
synthetic petroleum, which on fractional distillation gives petrol (gasoline).

Fischer-Tropsch process
In this process, a mixture of water gas and hydrogen under pressure (5-10 atm)
is passed over a cobalt catalyst at 450 – 475 K. The water gas required is
obtained by passing steam over red-hot coke.

C (red hot) + H2O(g) CO + H2water gas

The product so obtained is fractionally distilled to obtain petrol, middle oil and
heavy oil. Further hydrogenation of the middle oil fraction then produces
petrol.

Aromatic hydrocarbon form coal

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Coal is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. It also contains some organic
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compounds containing nitrogen and sulphur in small amounts. It can be
approximated to the formula (C3H4)n.

Coal is a hydrogen-deficient substance. It is assumed that the basic structure of

coal is probably built up of a large number of interlocked benzene rings, upto
thirty, in bituminous/anthracite coal. Hydrogen is present in the aliphatic side
chains. Bituminous coal has to be thermally decomposed, for obtaining organic
compounds from coal. This process is called destructive distillation or
‘pyrolysis’ of coal.

Destructive distillation of coal

Destructive distillation of coal occurs when coal is heated in the absence of air,
at high temperatures. To achieve this, coal is heated in the absence of air in
iron retorts, wherein the volatile material evolved is collected as
distillate/condensate. The process can be carried out under different
temperature conditions, depending upon the nature of the products required.

Low temperature pyrolysis

Coal when heated in the absence of air at about 723 – 973 K gives a soft solid,
smokeless coke called coalite. The yield of coal tar and coal gas is doubled
here. Coal tar so obtained contains more of aliphatic compounds.

High temperature pyrolysis

In this process, coal is heated in the absence of air to about 1273 – 1473 K. The
major products of high temperature pyrolysis are,

Coal

The yield per ton of coal on destructive distillation at higher temperature is,

Coke Coal gas Coal tar Ammonium sulphate Light oil

680 kg 30 m3 15 - 22 kg 1 kg 5 - 6 kg
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The coal tar obtained is a heavy viscous almost black liquid due to carbon
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with anAllunpleasant odor. It is a valuable by-product in the destructive

distillation of coal. Its composition depends upon the nature of coal used
during distillation. However, coal tar generally contains the following
compounds: Acidic compounds (Phenol and cresols etc.), basic compounds
(Pyridine, etc.) and Neutral compounds (Benzene, toluene, naphthalene and
anthracene etc.)

Fractional distillation of coal tar

The outgoing hot vapors from the main iron still preheat coal tar obtained
from the destructive distillation of coal, in a pre-heater. In this process, coal tar
loses most of the water it contains, along with some low boiling hydrocarbons.
It is then sent to the main iron still (a side retort) heated directly in a furnace.
The vapors are condensed to obtain various fractions at different temperatures.
Various fractions obtained during fractional distillation of coal-tar are given
below.

Various fractions obtained from the fractional

distillation of coal tar
Quality of gasoline, octane member and gasoline
additive
The explosive nature of a hydrocarbon is determined by its volatility. The
volatility of any liquid depends upon the temperature.

‘The flash point of any liquid is the lowest temperature at which a liquid
hydrocarbon gives off enough vapor to form an explosive mixture with air’.

The flash point of any liquid hydrocarbon is so adjusted that it remains safe
under the conditions of its use. For example, the minimum flash point
permitted in India is 44°C, while in France it is 33°C and in Britain it is 22°C.

Knocking of fuels
An internal combustion engine works with a system of pistons. A mixture of air
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the mixture is compressed. The
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end of the upstroke of the piston, a spark ignites the compressed air-petrol
(gasoline) mixture. As the gases burn, they expand and the flame front moves
in a smooth manner and supplies power to the engine.

To achieve maximum efficiency of the engine, a high compression ratio of

about seven to eight is required. However the increase in the compression
ratio, results in the burning of petrol-air mixture in an explosive manner, that
produces a metallic sound. This sound is called knocking, and indicates
inefficient performance of the gasoline. High compression ratio engines also
require less fuel, so petrol having less knocking tendencies are very valuable.

It has been found that the knocking tendency of the fuels falls off with the
nature of the fuel as follows.

Straight chain alkanes > Branched chain alkanes > Alkenes

Knocking may also be prevented or minimized by adding compounds such as

tetraethyl lead (TEL) to gasoline. Such compounds are called anti-knocking
agents. To prevent the deposition of lead inside the cylinder, dibromoethane is
added to the gasoline.

Quality of petrol (gasoline) – octane number

The controlled combustion of fuel in the presence of air, gives an internal
combustion engine its power. A low quality fuel does not burn smoothly and
causes an occasional explosive sound, which is known as knocking. This greatly
reduces the power of the engine.

The quality of a fuel is indicated in terms of its octane number. Different

hydrocarbons have different knocking tendencies. A fuel that produces
minimum knocking is considered as a good fuel.

An arbitrary scale of octane number has been set up with n-heptane and 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane (iso-octane) as the reference compounds. All fuels are
graded
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iso-octane) has excellent anti-knocking properties and has been arbitrarily
assignedAccept
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All number of 100, whereas n-heptane, which is very prone to
knocking is assigned an octane number of zero (0). Therefore, the antiknock
property of a fuel increases with the increase in its octane number.

Thus, the octane number of any fuel is defined ‘as the percentage of iso-
octane in a mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane that has the same knocking as
the fuel under examination’.

A fuel having an octane number of 80 behaves in a manner similar to a mixture

having 80% of iso-butane, and 20% of n-heptane. Straight run gasolines may
have octane values ranging from 20 to 73. Aviation fuel is rated as 100 octane.

The octane number of a hydrocarbon depends upon its structure.

Octane ratings of some compounds are:

n-Heptane 0

n-Pentane 62

tert-butyl alcohol 98

neo-octane Benzene 100

Ethanol 112

Methanol 116

Toluene 118

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Quality of diesel – octane number
octane number is defined as the percentage of cetane in a mixture of cetane
and -methyl naphthalene, which has the same ignition quality as the fuel under
examination at the same conditions.

octane is arbitrarily given a octane number of 100 as it ignites rapidly while -

methyl naphthalene ignites is given a octane number of zero as it ignites
slowly.

Gasoline additive

Gasoline additives are compounds added to gasoline, which improve the

octane number of a fuel. Such substances are called antiknock compound that
improve the fuels combustion in an internal combustion engine. Tetraethyl lead
((C2H5)4Pb) is a main additive and is a common antiknock compound . A small
quantity of tetraethyl lead (TEL) improves the anti-knock quality of the
gasoline. Gasoline containing tetraethyl lead is called leaded petrol or ethyl
gasoline.

A gasoline-engine (internal combustion engine) discharges various substances

into the atmosphere. These are carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, unburnt hydrocarbons from leaded gasoline and certain
compounds of lead. About 0.1 g of lead per litre of the gasoline burnt escapes
into the atmosphere. Most of it finds its way into the soil.

Steps to reduce pollution due to automobile

exhausts
While many compounds present in the exhaust of any automobile are harmful,
lead is extremely toxic and poisonous. The increasing emission of such harmful
substances into the atmosphere due to the increasing use of automobiles, is a
serious pollution problem. Methods adopted to improve this pollution
problem
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EVALUATION
1. What are Hydrocarbons? Give three examples and three main sources in
nature.

2. With the aid of a diagram, briefly describe the industrial fractionation of

petroleum.

3. Write short notes on the following i. cracking ii. octane number and

iii. petrochemicals.

4. State the products of fractional distillation of crude oil in increasing order

of boiling points.

WEEK 10

THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

The chemical industry involves the use of chemical processes such as chemical
reactions and refining methods to produce a wide variety of solid, liquid, and
gaseous materials. Most of these products are used in manufacture of other
items, although a smaller number are used directly by consumers. These
chemicals are used to produce plastics, synthetic fibers, lightweight automobile
parts, fertilizers, cosmetics, household materials, computers, and many more
products.- Learn more at www.technofunc.com. Your online source for free
professional tutorials.

Sectors of Chemical Industry

Fundamentally, the chemicals industry can be divided into two sectors;

commodity/basic chemicals and specialty chemicals. Commodity chemicals are
manufactured by many different companies however the end product is
generally the same with very little variations. There exits other segmentations
for this industry as well. Understand the main sectors of chemical domain.
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Sales of the chemical business can be divided into following broad
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categories/sectors:
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Basic or Commodity Chemicals – Approximately 35 to 37 percent of the
dollar output

Life Sciences- Approximately 30 percent of the dollar output

Specialty Chemicals – Approximately 20 to 25 percent of the dollar output

Consumer Products- Approximately 10 percent of the dollar output

Basic Classification of Chemical Industry Sectors:

Fundamentally, the chemicals industry can be divided into two sectors;

commodity/basic chemicals and specialty chemicals. Commodity chemicals are
manufactured by many different companies however the end product is
generally the same with very little variations. Specialty chemicals are typically
made to suit the needs of a specific customer, and are generally only available
from a few suppliers. These chemicals are often protected by patents.

Basic/Commodity Chemicals: They are also called basic chemicals, are typically
inexpensive and include polymers, bulk petrochemicals, basic industrial
chemicals, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers. Polymers make up the largest
segment of this sector. Commodity chemicals are generally made in large
volumes.

Specialty Chemicals: They are also called fine chemicals; include industrial
gases, adhesives, sealants, industrial cleaning chemicals, coatings, and
electronic chemicals. A Specialty Chemical is a chemical produced for a
specialized use. They are produced in lower volume than bulk chemicals, of
which petrochemicals, made from oil feedstock, are the most common.
However, both are produced in a chemical plant. Some examples of specialty
chemicals are adhesives, additives, antioxidants, corrosion inhibitors, cutting
fluids, dyes, lubricants, pigments, etc. These chemicals are generally more
expensive than commodity chemicals. Chemicals are made from elements and
every element has a unique set of physical and chemical properties. Specialty
chemists understand how to combine certain elements that result in a chemical
with the required properties.
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of Chemical Industry:

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Further classification of chemicals industry can be done to separate Life
Science Chemicals, Science and Technology Chemicals and Commodity
Chemicals. Definition of these two sectors is provided below:

Life Science Chemicals: These are differentiated biological and chemical

substances used to induce specific outcomes in humans, animals, plants and
other life forms. The major products of this segment include agrochemicals,
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology products. Life sciences (about 30 percent
of the dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical
and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health
products, vitamins, and pesticides. Life science products are usually produced
with very high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government
agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration. Pesticides, also called
“crop protection chemicals”, are about 10 percent of this category and include
herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides.

Science and Technology Chemicals: These products include advanced

materials that transform current technologies. They enhance the characteristics
of traditional specialty chemical products, as listed above.

Consumer Products: Consumer products include direct product sale of

chemicals such as soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Typical growth rates are
0.8 to 1.0 times GDP. They include sulfuric acid, nitrogen, ethylene, oxygen,
lime, ammonia, propylene, polyethylene, chlorine and phosphoric acid.

Sub-Segments of Chemicals Industry:

Given below are some of the sub-segments of the chemicals industry. They
help the learner to understand the various sub-classifications as well as key
products and manufacturing operations in the chemicals domain:

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Chemical Wholesaling Industry

Organic Chemicals Industry

Inorganic Chemicals Industry

Fertilizer Manufacturing Industry

Pesticide Manufacturing Industry

Soap & Cleaning Compound Manufacturing Industry

Chemical Product Manufacturing Industry

Dye & Pigment Manufacturing Industry

Generic Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Industry

Chemical Wholesaling Industry: As a key intermediary within the supply

chain, the Chemical Wholesaling industry plays an important role in overall
chemical manufacturing. Because chemical wholesalers have diversified
product offerings, no operator holds a dominant share of the market. As a
result, this industry is highly competitive, with wholesalers competing on
storage efficiency and distribution. This industry wholesales chemicals and
related products, including compressed gas, chemical additives and synthetic
rubber, to the manufacturing, construction and mining industries. This industry
does not wholesale agricultural and medicinal chemicals, paints and varnishes,
fireworks or plastics materials. Major industry products are detergents and
soaps, alkalies and chlorine, industrial gases, adhesives, sealants and glues,
sanitation chemicals, polishes and waxes, synthetic rubber, dyes and pigments.

Organic Chemicals Industry: Organic chemicals industry is one of the most

significant sectors of the chemical industry. It plays a vital developmental role
by providing chemicals and intermediates as inputs to other sectors of the
industry like paints, adhesives, pharmaceuticals, dye stuffs and intermediates,
leather chemicals, pesticides etc. Methanol, acetic acid, formaldehyde,
pyridines, phenol, alkyl amines, ethyl acetate and acetic anhydride are the
major organic chemicals produced. Formaldehyde and acetic acid are
important methanol derivatives and are used in numerous industrial
applications.
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of surfactants. Pyridine derivatives are used in the manufacture of
pharmaceuticals.
Cookie Settings Accept All Ethyl acetate is the ester of ethanol and acetic acid and is
manufactured for use as a solvent. Acetic anhydride is widely used as a
reagent. Natural gas/ naphtha are mainly used as feedstock for the
manufacture of these organic chemicals. Alcohol is also an important feedstock
for the industry, with sizable production of acetic acid and entire production of
ethyl acetate being based on alcohol. Global production of organic chemicals
was around 400 million tons during 2010-11. Major producers of organic
chemicals are USA, Germany, U.K, Japan, China and India. Few Latin American
countries, for example Brazil and Chile are increasing their presence in global
organic chemicals market.

Inorganic Chemicals Industry: This industry manufactures a variety of basic

inorganic chemicals. Inorganic chemicals are generally mineral-based. Most
organic chemicals, on the other hand, are carbon-based. Inorganic chemicals
are used as inputs in a number of manufacturing and industrial processes. Key
identifiable industry segments include chlor-alkali and carbon black products.
Major industry products are Chlorine, Caustic soda, Potassium, sodium and
other alkali compounds, Chemical catalysts, Inorganic acids, Carbon black and
Other inorganic chemicals.

Fertilizer Manufacturing Industry: This industry primarily manufactures

fertilizer products. These products contain a different mixture of the three vital
nutrients essential for plant growth: nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. The
products are distributed via wholesale arrangements with third parties or, in
the case of vertically integrated operations, by the manufacturer. Major
industry products are phosphate fertilizers, nitrogenous fertilizers and mixed
fertilizers. The major activities include manufacturing ammonia, ammonium
nitrate, ammonium sulfate and ammonium phosphates, natural organic and
animal waste or sewage origin fertilizers, nitric acid and phosphoric acid,
nitrogenous fertilizer materials, urea, phosphatic fertilizer materials, potting
soil, plant foods and compost etc.

Pesticide Manufacturing Industry: This industry formulates and prepares

agricultural and household pest control chemicals. Key products include
pesticides (herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) and agricultural chemical
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Soap & Cleaning Compound Manufacturing Industry: This industry produces
substances that loosen and remove soil from a surface for personal hygiene,
sanitization or cleaning clothes, linens and furnishings. The industry does not
include manufacturers of synthetic glycerin, industrial bleaches or shampoos.
Major industry products include household soaps and detergents, commercial
soaps and detergents, polishes and other sanitation goods and surface active
agents.

Chemical Product Manufacturing Industry: This industry manufactures a

diverse range of chemical products. Key product groups include custom
compounding plastic resins and manufacturing toners, toner cartridges,
photographic chemicals and sensitized photographic film, paper and plates.
Custom compounding of plastic resins includes custom mixing and blending of
purchased plastic resins and reformulating plastic resins from recycled plastic
products. Major industry products include custom compounding of resins,
photographic chemicals and materials and other related products and
preparations.

Dye & Pigment Manufacturing Industry: This industry manufactures synthetic

organic and inorganic dyes and pigments, such as lakes and toners (except:
electrostatic and photographic). As such, the industry produces various
pigments and dyes, including color, lead, chrome, metallic and zinc-based
pigments as well as disperse, vat and direct dyes. A chemical intermediate
product, these pigment and dyes are used to impart color to numerous
products. Major industry products include inorganic dyes and pigments and
synthetic organic dyes and pigments.

Generic Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Industry: Generic pharmaceutical and

medicine manufacturers develop prescription and over-the-counter drug
products that are used to prevent or treat illnesses in humans or animals.
Generic drugs are produced and distributed without patent protection, and
industry operators are not significantly engaged in the research and
development of new drugs. The industry does not include manufacturers of
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controlled drugs, cardiovascular drugs, central
nervous system drugs, psychotherapeutic drugs and other drugs. It includes
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medicinal and botanical products, in-vitro diagnostic substance products and
biological products (except: diagnostic). The main activities of this industry are
to develop and produce drugs, market and distribute them after gaining
regulatory approval for respective drugs. Generic firms can be smaller, because
the cost of research and development is significantly lower than it is in the
brand name industry. Economies of scale exist when increasing the size of a
company increases its productivity.

IMPORTANCE OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

Importance of Chemicals Industry in Agriculture:

The agricultural industry makes use of many different chemicals. Fertilizers,

insecticides, fungicides, and pesticides are all used to protect crops. Chemical
companies contribute to the development of sustainable crops by producing
slow-release fertilizers that plants can use more efficiently. Because smaller
amounts of these fertilizers are required, less energy is used. In addition,
reduced runoff decreases contamination of water systems and subsequent
release of nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. The end result is a markedly
improved means of growing crops. Many chemical companies have also
developed crops that are drought tolerant or pesticide resistant, and these
properties reduce environmental impact by allowing no-till farming and other
“green” practices. These products help sustain higher yields, reduce the loss of
crops, and decrease the level of natural toxins produced by bacteria and fungi.

All of these products must undergo an approval process and be deemed safe
before they can be used on crops. Many chemical companies are pioneers in
the development of seeds, both traditional and genetically modified. They are
involved in the production and delivery of fertilizers and soil conditioners.
Development and scale-up of processes for effecting chemical transformations
and separations of solids, liquids, and gases are the specialty of many
companies engaged in producing commodity and specialty chemicals.

Impact of Chemicals Industry on Environment:

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a controlled interactions between the physical,
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to understanding the interactions on a molecular scale. This can involve
aspects of climate change, conservation, biodiversity, groundwater and soil
contamination, use of natural resources, waste management, air pollution and
noise pollution. Chemistry has traditionally been viewed as a scientific tool
which could harness natural resources to enhance our lives. However the
production, processing, and use of chemicals in modern society have been
accompanied by global-scale environmental pollution, natural resource
depletion, and health impacts. However, now the focus is shifting to
development of less toxic chemical products with specific functional properties.
Now, the chemical industry has brought its expertise and capital investment
into action for solving environmental problems for over fifty years. The industry
is continuing to expand its roles in energy efficiency, trace chemical detection
and mitigation, applications of natural biochemical materials and processes,
and water and air pollution control technology development and application.
The industry expects to be a major contributor to expanding the science and
technology that supports life cycle environmental assessment and sustainable
development policies.

Importance of Chemicals Industry in Hygiene & Health:

Chemical Sciences help us gain understanding on the development reasons of

the various diseases like cancer, help us improve care and protection by
diagnostics and sensors for the prevention and detection of deadly diseases.
The chemical sciences will be able to answer many of challenges of the 21st
century including improving the health protection and care. Even the
detergents are made up of a combination of ingredients, including soap and
other surfactants. They are used for washing fabrics, dishes, kitchen utensils,
hard surfaces, and laundry.

Chemicals Industry and Sustainable Energy Solutions:

The major cause of global warming is the combustion of fossil fuels and
subsequent emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and
reductions in manmade gas emissions are imperative to halt the rise in global
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helping us manage waste products from energy production and help to reduce
the energy demand of domestic living.

Importance of Chemical Sciences on Food:

Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all

biological and non-biological components of foods. This discipline also
encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques
and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. An example
of enhancing a process would be to encourage fermentation of dairy products
with microorganisms that convert lactose to lactic acid; an example of
preventing a process would be stopping the browning on the surface of freshly
cut Red Delicious apples using lemon juice or other acidulated water. Similarly,
chemicals, such as salt, spices, and sulfides, have been added to food for
centuries, both to improve taste and help with preservation. Processed food
industry depends on identification of new additives that can help preserve the
foods. Similarly, food emulsifiers are used in salad dressings, margarine, and
ice cream. Another example could be the use of citric acid to enhance the
flavor of lemon or lime soft drinks.

Importance of Painting & Coating:

The Paint Manufacturing industry plays an important role within specific

sectors of the economy because they provide protective and decorative
finishes for many products in various end-use markets. Paints and coatings are
used to cover a large number of products, from computers, circuit boards, and
microchips to buildings, cars, planes, and ships. Construction sector needs
paint for the houses and commercial buildings it constructs, and the
manufacturing sector requires paint for certain products, particularly cars and
boats. Although their primary purpose is to protect products and make them
more attractive, they also serve a number of other functions. For example, they
can help save resources by making products last longer. They can also be used
to absorb or reflect light, conduct electricity, or as anti-skid surfaces. Products
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Importance of Petro-Chemistry:

Petro chemistry involves transforming crude oil and natural gas into basic
petrochemicals, such as ethylene, propylene, butadiene, and benzene. The
process of refining crude oil leads to the production of a number of by
products which are classified as petroleum products. These petrochemicals
form the basic building blocks for a large variety of products. These products
are present in our daily trivial things to the most significant things available.
The uses of these products are so significant that it is simply impossible to live
life without it. Some of the most common products which contain these by
products include paints, thinners, dry cleaning chemicals, inks, insecticides,
charcoal lighters, construction chemicals and so forth. With an endless list it is
quite impossible to categorize all the items.

These products have a wide variety of uses, wax is widely used to make
candles, various types of polishes, cartons and so forth, synthetic is of immense
importance and used as a raw material for manufacturing different types of
garments, fertilizers are used to protect crops from damage, preservatives used
in canned food and for producing different types of vitamins, dyes are used in
ink pens and cloth dyes, and majority of the plastic containers, plates and cups
contain this by- product of crude oil. Hence petrochemical products are used
in varied forms in all fields, ranging from common household items to complex
applications; the uses are extensively wide and different. Through the
development of new technologies and materials, petro chemistry enables the
creation of products like computer chips, cell phones, automobiles, and
pharmaceuticals. Petro chemistry is known as an enabling industry. That is, it
supports a wide range of essential industries, including health care,
construction, telecommunications, and transportation.

Importance of Pharmaceuticals:

Biological science involves studying the science of life. However, chemistry is

important to a variety of sub-disciplines. These can include health science, the
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(typically pharmaceuticals) interact with living organisms to produce a change
in function. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital
processes occurring in living organisms, studying biomolecules such as
proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. Molecular biology is looking at biology at
the molecular level, analyzing the processes that control cells, including
replication, transcription and translation of genetic material within cells. This
discipline also includes biotechnology, the use of biological systems to modify
or derive new products, typically drugs or foodstuffs.

Chemicals and Construction Industry:

The residential construction market is a major consumer of chemicals.

Chemicals comprise approximately 17% of all materials used in new
construction. Home construction and buying consumes synthetic materials
such as pipes and siding, manufactured from plastics. Construction stimulates
demand for appliances, carpeting, furniture, and paints – also produced from
chemicals. The strength of the construction industry directly impacts the
strength of the chemical industry.

Chemicals and Automobile Industry:

Car manufacturing consumes a significant amount of chemical products in the

form of plastics, rubber, fibers, and paint. Every automobile contains over
$2,000 worth of chemical processing and products. Most of the major
Diversified chemical firms serve the automotive sector in the areas of
specialized coatings and plastics.

EVALUATION

1. List six divisions of the chemical industry and briefly discuss any two of
them.

2. Briefly highlight the importance of chemical industries.

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4. What Accept All
are Hydrocarbons. Give 2 examples.
5.Fine chemicals have the following characteristics except

a. they are chemically pure b. they are produced by batch process c. they are
produced in large quantity because of high applicability.

d. they are produced in small quantity because of limited applicability.

6.Exceptional large number of carbon compounds is essentially due to the

ability of a. carbon to catenate liberally b. various groups to catenate

c. Nitrogen, Hydrogen, phosphorus and the Halogens to catenate with

themselves

d. Hydrocarbons to dominate other groups.

Lesson Note Chemistry SS1 First Term –

Edudelight.com
SCHEME OF WORK FOR FIRST TERM CHEMISTRY SS1

WEEKS TOPICS

1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

2. NATURE OF MATTER

3. ELEMENTS

4. MOLECULES AND ATOMICITY

5. PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

6. THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES OF ELEMENTS

7. COMPOUNDS

8. IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

9. MIXTURES
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WEEK 1
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Chemistry as a Subject and as a Central Science

CHEMISTRY AS A DISCIPLINE
Human mind has always been very curious to make investigations and know
about various activities/phenomena occurring around him. This curiosity has
led him to collect information through experiments and observations. The
curious mind has also been responsible for the research activities of various
people all over the world. The knowledge and data base acquired like this is
then systematized in a way that the mankind takes maximum benefit out of it.
This knowledge base is known as science. Science may, thus, be broadly
defined as systematized knowledge gained by mankind through observations
and experimentation. Science has been further classified into different
branches due to its enormous expansion and diversified fields. Some examples
are: Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Geology, etc. Chemistry is one of the most
important discipline of science to which this present book is devoted.

CHEMISTRY AS A SUBJECT AND AS A CENTRAL

SCIENCE
Chemistry may be defined as the branch of science which deals with the study
of matter, its composition, its properties and the changes which it undergoes
in composition as well as in energy during various processes.

The word chemistry has been derived from the word alchemy, which means
‘study of met also Alchemy itself might have come from al chemical marked
effect on our present day life. Chemistry has helped us to meet all our
requirement for better living. The continuous

research in the field of chemistry has resulted in the production of useful

materials such as, clothes, drugs, artificial foods, plastics, rubbers, fertilizers,
insecticides, weed killers, life

supporting products, etc., which have revolutionised our life.

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everywhere in the world around us;
it is, in what we eat; in what we breathe; in how we live and even in what we
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are.
CHEMISTRY-A CENTRAL SCIENCE
Modem chemistry is an abstract subject whose study presents a great
intellectual challenges and rewards. It is a practical field at the hub of man’s
future.

Modern chemistry is CENTRAL DISCIPLINE, which correlates almost all

branches of science. It is used to study biological, physical, medical as well as
environmental phenomena. For example, a chemist works with:

• biologist to understand life processes and metabolic activities,

• physicist to understand properties of matter and to develope new sources of

energy,

• geologist to probe outer and inner space,

• physician to design new drugs and medicines,

• ecologist to make improvement in environment,

• engineers and technical manager to provide material and energy for better
life.

Chemistry, thus responds to all social needs. It plays critical role in any attempt
to: discover new processes; tap new energy sources; develop new materials
feed the people properly; improve health and conquer disease, monitor and
protect our environment.

BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry can be broadly divided into Pure Chemistry and Applied Chemistry.

A. PURE CHEMISTRY
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Pure chemistry is further divided into three main branches. Organic chemistry,
Inorganic Chemistry and Physical chemistry. These main branches have been
further divided into large number of sub-sections. The main branches meaning
divided into large number of sub-sections. The main branches are described
briefly as follows:

1. Organic Chemistry. This branch of chemistry deals with the study of

structure, chemical composition and characteristics of compounds of
carbon and hydrogen elements (Hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.

2. Inorganic Chemistry. This branch concerns itself to the study of structure,

composition and behaviour of the inorganic compounds, i.e., the
compounds other than hydrocarbons or their derivatives. Such
compounds are found in the crust of the earth and constitute non-living
matter.

3. Physical Chemistry. This branch deals with the study of fundamental

principles governing various chemical transformations and chemical
systems. It is primarily concerned with laws and theories of different
branches of chemistry.

B. APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Applied chemistry deals with the application of the knowledge of chemistry for
the benefit of mankind. The different branches of applied chemistry are as
under:

1. Analytical Chemistry. This branch involves collection of techniques which

allows exact determination of the composition of the given sample of material.
It has been further divided into two categories:

(a) Qualitative analysis. It deals with the identification of various constituent

particles (atoms, ions, molecules) present in the material.

(b) Quantitative analysis. It deals with the estimation of various constituents in

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2. Industrial Chemistry. This branch deals with the chemistry involved in
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different industrial processes such as manufacture of various chemical
substances.

3. Biochemistry. This branch concerns itself to the study of metabolic

pathways and enzymology pertaining to living organism. It deals with
molecular, cellular and chemical activities of living organisms.

4. Geochemistry. This branch deals with the chemical processes occurring

on earth such as metamorphism of rocks, formation of petroleum, etc. It also
deals with the composition of soils and rocks.

5. Petrochemistry. It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the

transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products
and raw materials.

6. Radiochemistry. It is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of

radioactive materials, both natural as well as man-made. It also involves the
use of radioactive materials to study the pathways/mechanism of ordinary
chemical reactions.

7. Biotechnology. It refers to the technological applications which uses

biological systems, living organisms or their cterivatives to make or modify
products or process for specific use. Biotechnology, infact, combines various
disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology and cell
biology for developing techniques for beneficial effects.

8. Medicinal or Pharmaceutical Chemistry. It is scientific discipline at the

intersection of chemistry and pharmacology, which is involved with designing
synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry
involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities
suitable for therapeutic use. Medicinal chemistry is highly interdisciplinary
science that combines organic chemistry with biochemistry, pharmacology,
*pharmacognosy; molecular biology, statistics and physical chemistry.

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Environmental chemistry is also an interdisciplinary science that includes
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atmospheric, aquatic, and soil chemistry along with analytical chemistry,
environmental studies and other areas of science.
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
Since chemistry is a central science because of its multidisciplinary nature,
therefore, chemistry students can persue their careers in the field of industries,
education, research work, government agencies and other non raditional fields.
Some of the careers opportunities, that a student with degree in chemistry can
have are as follows:

1. Industries. Chemical industries employ about 66% of all the chemists. The
majority of them find opportunity in research and product development (Rand
D), sales, or marketing. Many of them work in quality control analysis and
testing products. Other find work in areas like industrial hygiene and safety or
regulatory work for environmental compliance.

*pharmacognosy is a study of medicines derived from natural

2. Academic Institutions. Educational institutions employ about 26% of the

chemists. Ph. D. degrees are required for most of academic positions at the
colleges and universities. Some of chemists having graduation degree in
education take up teaching assignments in high schools.

3. Government Agencies. Government-employ about 7Cfr: of all the

chemists. Federal, local and state Government agencies hire chemists for
variety of jobs including basic research, testing work required to enforce
government regulations, technical program managers, authors/ editors of
technical documents and government regulations.

4. Non-traditional Fields. A small percentage of chemists (about 1%) find

work in non -traditional fields. They get opportunities to become patent
lawyers, science writers, information specialists, technical librarians, technical
consultants or business owners.

Group Discussion
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practice.
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Hints: For reference, the two important professions associated with applied
chemistry are being discussed as follows:

1. Analyst: Analysts find jobs in chemical industry, food industry and

pathological laboratories. In chemical industries, they control the quality
of final product through chemical analysis of the product. In food
laboratories, they analyse the food items to detect adultration. In
pathological labs they carry out chemical tests on sample of blood or
urine to help the doctor for diagnosis of disease.

2. Research scientist. Research scientists find jobs in pharmaceutical

companies where they can use their knowledge of chemistry in
developing more convenient and economical methods for the synthesis
of drugs. They can also help in designing new drugs.

Different career options in chemistry are summarized in Fig. 11

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Various careers associated with chemistry.

Chemistry is the study of matter, its composition, its properties and changes
which it undergoes in composition as well as energy during various
transformations. Chemistry is a central science discipline which correlates
various important branches of science. Chemistry can be divided into pure and
applied chemistry. Pure Chemistry has three main branches viz organic,
inorganic and physical chemistry while chemistry applied has branches namely
biochemistry, analytical

chemistry, radiochemistry, geochemistry, petro chemistry, environmental

chemistry and biotechnology.

EVALUATION

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l. Which website
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(a) Physical All
chemistry (b) Organic chemistry
(c) Biochemistry (d) Inorganic chemistry

2. Which of the following is not a applied chemistry?

(a) Geochemistry (b) Biochemistry

(c) Radiochemistry (d) inorganic chemistry.

3. In order to design new drug, a chemist has to seek the help of

(a) Engineer (b) Geologist

(c) Zoologist (d) Physician.

4. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of hydrocarbons is called

(a) Organic chemistry (c) Radiochemistry

(b) Inorganic chemistry (d) Nuclear chemistry.

II. Fill in the Blanks

5. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) Ecologist and chemist work together to ….. .

(ii) The branch of pure chemistry which deals with study of fundamental laws
and principles is called …..

(iii) Qualitative analysis deals with ….. .

(iv) Radiochemistry deals with the study of ….. substances.

(v) on
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Discussion
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6. Define chemistry and its various disciplines.

7. Comment on the statement that chemistry is a central science discipline.

8. Write the names of various disciplines of applied chemistry. Define any two
of them.

9. Name and define various branches of pure chemistry.

10. Give a brief account of various career options of degree holder in

chemistry.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect
measurable, empiricalevidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often
in the form of an if/then statement), the results aiming to support or contradict
a theory.

The steps of the scientific method s are:

1. Make an observation or observations.

2. Ask questions about the observations and gather information.

3. Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what’s been observed,

and make predictions based on that hypothesis.

4. Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be

reproduced.

5. Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or
modify the hypothesis if necessary.

6. Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between

observations and theory.

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CHEMISTRY LABORATORY COMMON EQUIPMENT

Below are photos and names of common lab equipment you will encounter
in Chemistry.

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Balance (electronic) Beakers Bunsen Burner Buret

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Dropper Pipets Dropper in action Erlenmeyer Flasks Evapo

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Plastic and Rubber

Pinch Clamp Pipets and Bulbs Ring C
Policemen

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Scoopula Stirring Rods Thermometers Test T

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A List of Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus and
Their Uses
Functions of common pieces of laboratory equipment.

Functions of common pieces of laboratory equipment.

In most labs, you’ll encounter the same basic apparatus. Here, the use for each
is explained. You will learn about:

Safety goggles and safety equipment

Beakers

Erlenmeyer flasks, AKA conical flasks

Florence flasks, AKA boiling flasks

Test tubes

Watch glasses

Crucibles

Funnels

Graduated cylinders

Volumetric flasks

Droppers

Pipettes

Burets

Ring stands, rings, and clamps

Tongs and forceps

Spatulas and scoopulas

Thermometers

Bunsen Burners

Balances

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Safety Goggles and Safety Equipment
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Safety goggles.
Safety goggles.

The first and foremost rule of any laboratory is to be safe! This may seem
obvious, but people often disregard safety protocols for one reason or
another, putting themselves and those around them in danger. The best thing
you can do is to make sure you follow all safety protocols at all times.

Safety goggles are required wear in all chemistry labs. Not wearing them puts
you in danger of eye irritation and possibly blindness in the case of an
accident. A small droplet of acid could splash out of the container at any time.
Better safe than permanently blinded!

Latex gloves should be used when there is a possibility of corrosive chemicals

spilling onto your hands.

A lab apron or coat can also prevent injury in case of spills or splashes.

Never wear open-toed shoes or sandals in a lab.

Beakers
Beakers of various sizes.

Beakers of various sizes.

A beaker is a common container in most labs. It is used for mixing, stirring, and
heating
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volume they contain, although they are not a precise way to measure liquids.
Beakers Accept
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in a wide range of sizes.
Because of the lip that runs around the rim, a lid for a beaker does not exist.
However, a watch glass can be used to cover the opening to prevent
contamination or spl

Erlenmeyer Flasks, AKA Conical Flasks

Erlenmeyer flask.

Also known as a conical flask, the Erlenmeyer flask was named after its inventor
in 1861. It has a narrow neck and expands toward its base. This allows easy
mixing and swirling of the flask without too much risk of spilling. The narrow
opening also allows for the use of a rubber or glass stopper. It can easily be
clamped to a ring stand as well as heated or shaken mechanically.

Once again the marks on the side are meant primarily for estimation rather
than precision.

An important safety tip here is to never heat this flask while it is capped. This
could cause a pressure build-up that could result in explosion.

Florence Flasks, AKA Boiling Flasks

Also known as a boiling flask, the Florence flask has a round bottom and a long
neck. It is used to hold liquids and can be easily swirled and heated. It can also
easily be capped by rubber or glass stoppers.

Once again, safety dictates that this flask never be heated when capped.
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Test Tubes
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Test tubes held in spring clamps.
Test tubes held in spring clamps.

A test tube is a glass tube with one end open and the other end closed. The
closed end is rounded. Test tubes are used to hold small samples. They are
primarily used for qualitative assessment and comparison. A common place to
see these is the biochemistry lab. When a large number of samples need to be
tested and compared, test tubes are used to make this easier. They are also
easily capped with a rubber or glass stopper.

They are generally held in a test tube rack specifically designed for the
purpose. If heated or unsafe to touch with bare hands, test-tube tongs can be
used to move them.

Never heat a capped test tube.

Watch Glasses
A watch glass holding a powder.

A watch glass holding a powder.

A watch glass is just a round piece of glass that is slightly concave/convex

(think of a lens). It can hold a small amount of liquid or solid. They can be used
for evaporation purposes and also can function as a lid for a beaker.

CRUCIBLES:
Crucibles

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consent.

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Funnels
An inverted funnel positioned above a watch glass.

An inverted funnel positioned above a watch glass.

A lab funnel is just like any other funnel except that it was designed to be used
in a laboratory setting. They can be made of plastic or glass and can have
either a short stem or a long stem, depending on what they are needed for.
There are several sizes that can be chosen from based on the amount of liquid
that needs to go through them quickly.

Graduated Cylinders

Graduated cylinders.

This is a primary measuring tool for the volume of a liquid. There are several
markings up and down the length of the container with specific increments.
Graduated cylinders come in many sizes. The smaller they are, the more
specific the volume measurements will be.

When reading the volume from a graduated cylinder, you will notice that the
liquid seems to have an indentation. The liquid around the edges will be higher
than the liquid in the center, sloping down loke the sides of a trampoline when
someone is standing in the middle. This is called the meniscus. Line the lowest
point of the meniscus up with the nearest marking, keeping the cylinder level.
That is how to properly read the volume.

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Volumetric Flasks
A 500-ml volumetric flask.

A 500-ml volumetric flask.

A volumetric flask is a round flask with a long neck and flat bottom. It is used
to measure an exact volume of liquid. There is a small line on the neck that
indicates how far to fill the bottle (Use the bottom of the meniscus). They come
with special caps that will not let anything in or out.

Remember that temperature affects volume; therefore avoid using liquids that
will fluctuate in temperature (hot water that will cool, for example).

Droppers

A glass dropper.

These are small glass tubes with narrow tips and a rubber bulb on the end.
They suck up liquid that can then be squeezed out in small drops. These can be
used to add an indicator to a solution about to be titrated.

Pipettes
A Pasteur pipette.

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A Pasteur pipette.
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There are a large variety of pipettes designed to accomplish specific goals.
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However, they are all for measuring an exact volume of liquid and placing it
into another container.

Buirets

A Mohr burette.

A buret is a glass tube that is open at the top and comes to a narrow pointed
opening at the bottom. Right above the bottom opening is a stopcock that can
be turned to control the amount of liquid being released. There are markings
along the length of the tube that indicate the volume of liquid present.

A buret is used for extremely accurate addition of liquid. By adjusting the

stopcock, the amount of liquid that is released can be slowed to a drop every
few seconds. Burets are one of the most accurate tools in the lab.

Burets are set up by using a buret clamp in combination with a ring stand,
discussed below.

To determine how much liquid is added, write down how much is initially in the
buret. Then when you’re finished adding, write down how much is left. Subtract
the final amount from the initial amount and you have the volume of liquid
added.

Remember to measure from the bottom of the meniscus!

Ring Stands, Rings, and Clamps

The ring stand is used to suspend burets, beakers, flasks, crucibles, etc. above
other containers or in some cases a heat source (Bunsen burner, discussed
below).
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clamping
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When using a ring on the stand, there are usually other pieces necessary to
accomplish the goal. Wire mesh is laid across the ring to distribute evenly heat
and support the beaker. A clay triangle with an open center is used to suspend
crucibles.

Make sure everything is balanced! Do not let the whole setup tip over.

Tongs and Forceps

Foreceps.

Tongs and forceps are for grabbing things that should not be touched by hand.
Some tongs are specially made to hold beakers, others to hold test tubes, and
so on. There are also general tongs.

Forceps are used to grab small things like solid chemicals that are broken into
chunks, so they can be safely handled and added to containers.

Spatulas and Scoopulas

Two scoopulas.

Spatulas and scoopulas are for scooping solid chemicals. The typical use for
these in a lab is scooping chemical out of its original container onto a weigh
boat so that it can be weighed on a balance.

Thermometers
Glass thermometer.

Glass thermometer

A laboratory thermometer is a glass thermometer used for measuring the

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Bunsen Burners
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A lit Bunsen burner.
A lit Bunsen burner.

A Bunsen burner is a mechanical apparatus that is connected to a flammable

gas source. There is a knob to adjust the amount of gas flow and a rotating
collar that controls airflow. These both must be adjusted to get an ideal flame
for heating purposes. The burner is lit with a striker.

Utmost safety is required when using a Bunsen burner.

Balances
Triple beam balance.

Triple beam balance.

A balance is used to weigh chemicals. The chemicals are always in some form
of container and never placed directly on the balance. It is important not to
move a balance because they have been calibrated for the exact position they
are in. Some balances have plastic housing with small doors to keep air
currents from affecting the measurement. Close these doors whenever the
balance is in use.

To use a balance to determine the weight of a chemical, first put the empty
container that the chemical will be in on the balance. Once you have a reading,
press the “tare” or “zero” button on the balance. Remove the container from
the balance and add the chemical (never add chemicals to a container while it
is on the balance). Reweigh after adding the chemical to find the weight of
only the chemical.

It is important to keep the balance clean.

EVALUATION

l. Which branch of pure chemistry deals with the study of compounds

associated
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(a) Physical chemistry (b) Organic chemistry
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(c) Biochemistry (d) Inorganic chemistry

2. Which of the following is not a applied chemistry?

(a) Geochemistry (b) Biochemistry

(c) Radiochemistry (d) inorganic chemistry.

3. In order to design new drug, a chemist has to seek the help of

(a) Engineer (b) Geologist

(c) Zoologist (d) Physician.

4. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of hydrocarbons is called

(a) Organic chemistry (c) Radiochemistry

(b) Inorganic chemistry (d) Nuclear chemistry.

II. Fill in the Blanks

5. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) Ecologist and chemist work together to ….. .

(ii) The branch of pure chemistry which deals with study of fundamental laws
and principles is called …..

(iii) Qualitative analysis deals with ….. .

(iv) Radiochemistry deals with the study of ….. substances.

(v) The phenomenon of metamorphosis of rocks is studied by ….. branch of

chemistry. m.
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Discussion By clicking “Accept All”, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. However,
Questions
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6. DefineAccept
Cookie Settings chemistry
All and its various disciplines.
7. Comment on the statement that chemistry is a central science discipline.

8. Write the names of various disciplines of applied chemistry. Define any two
of them.

9. Name and define various branches of pure chemistry.

10. Give a brief account of various career options of degree holder in

chemistry.

Lesson Note Chemistry SS1 First Term – Edudelight.com

WEEK 2

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

In our daily life, we come across many objects, the knowledge about which can
be gained by one or more of our senses like sight, touch, hearing, taste and
smelling. These objects possess mass, occupy space and may have different
shapes, sizes and colours. All these objects constitute matter. Matter may thus,
be defined as anything that occupies space, possesses mass, offers resistance
and can be felt by one or more of our senses. Some examples of matter are,
water, air, metals, plants, animals, etc. Thus, matter has countless forms. The
matter can be classified into different categories depending upon its physical
or chemical nature. Matter is categorized as a gas, a liquid or a solid on the
basis of physical state. Air is gas, water is liquid whereas sand is solid. Gases
and liquids are fluids but solids are rigid.

On the basis of chemical nature matter is classified as an element, compound

or mixture.

Elements and compounds are pure substances whereas mixtures contain two
or more pure substances.

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PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Matter is made up of small particles

The particle nature of matter can be demonstrated in activity 4.1:

ACTIVITY4.1

To demonstrate particle nature of matter

1. Take about 50 cm3 water in a 100 cm3 beaker.

2. Mark the level of water.

3. Add some sugar to the beaker and stir with the help of a glass rod.

4. Observe the change in water level.

Fig. 4.1. Dissolution of sugar in water. In solution particles of sugar are present
in the spaces between particles of water

It is observed that the crystals of sugar disappear. The level of water remains
unchanged. These observations can be explained by assuming that matter is
made up of small particles. On dissolution, the particles of sugar get
distributed into the spaces between particles of water.

• The constituent particles of matter are extremely small in size

The following activity demonstrates that the constituent particles of matter are
very small

ACTIVITY 4.2

To demonstrate that the particles of matter are very small

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2. Now add 2-3 crystals of KMnO4 and stir with a glass rod in order to dissolve
the crystals.

3. Take 10 cm3 of this solution and add to 100 cm3 of water taken in another
beaker.

4. Take 10 cm3 of this diluted solution and put into 100 cm3 of water taken in
still another beaker.

5. Repeat this process 10 times. Observe the colour of the solution in the last
beaker.

It is observed that the water in the last beaker is still coloured but the intensity
of colour becomes light It indicates that KMnO4 crystal contains millions of tiny
particles, some of which are still present even in the last beaker after so much
dilution.

• There are spaces between particles of matter In activity 4.1 we observed that
when sugar is dissolved in water, the volume of the liquid remains unchanged.
During dissolution, the particles of sugar get into the spaces between the
particles of water. As a result, they get evenly Distributed and there is no
noticeable change in volume. Similarly, when KMnO4 is dissolved in water, its
particles get evenly distributed throughout the bulk of water. This is indicated
by uniform colour of the solution. This indicates that there are spaces between
particles of matter. The particles of KMnO4 get uniformly distributed in the
spaces between water molecules.

• The particles of matter are continuously moving The motion of particles of

matter can be demonstrated by the following practical activities:

ACTIVITY 4.3

To demonstrate motion of particles of matter

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corner of the room. Remove the stopper.
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What do you observe?

It is observed that ammoniacal smell can be sensed sitting at a distance.

It demonstrates that the particles of ammonia are moving. Due to this motion
they are able to reach the observer.

Similarly, if an incense stick is lighted and placed in one comer of a room, its
pleasant smell spreads in the whole room quickly. It demonstrates that the
particles of matter possess motion. A burning incense stick produces some
gases (vapour) having pleasant smell. The particles of these gases due to
motion spread in the entire room and their presence can be felt by sensing the
smell.

ACTIVITY 4.4

To demonstrate motion of particles in water and ink

1. Take a 250 cm3 beaker and add about 100 cm3 of water to it.

2. Put a drop of blue ink to the water taken in the beaker. What do you
observe?

It is observed that the blue ink gets evenly distributed in the water.

This demonstrates that the particles of water and ink possess motion.

Due to motion of the particles, the particles of the two liquids are able to mix
with each other.

ACTIVITY 4.5

To demonstrate that the kinetic energy of particles increases with increase in

temperature

1. Take
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2. Now add
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Accept All of potassium permanganate to both the beakers.
What do you observe?

It is observed that the purple colour of potassium permanganate starts

The above activities demonstrate that when two different forms of matter are
brought in contact they intermix spontaneously. This intermixing is possible
due to motion of the particles of matter and also due to the spaces between
them. The intermixing takes place due to movement of particles of one form
into the spaces between the particles of the other form of matter. This
spontaneous intermixing of particles of two different types of matter is called
diffusion. The rate of diffusion becomes faster with increase in temperature
because at higher temperature, the particles have more energy and hence
move faster.

• Particles of matter attract each other

There are forces of attraction between particles of matter. The evidence for
forces of attraction in gases is obtained from the fact that they can be liquefied
by applying pressure.

The important characteristics of particles of matter are summarized below:

1. The particles of matter are extremely small in size.

2. The particles of matter have spaces between them.

3. The particles of matter are continuously moving.

4. The particles of matter attract each other.

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The constituent particles of matter may be atoms, molecules or ions. Some
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examples are given below in tabular form:
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Constituent particles Examples

1. Atoms Argon, neon, helium, diamond

2. Molecules Sucrose , glucose,urea,methane carbon(IV) oxide

3. Ions Sodium chloride, magnesium oxide, zinc sulphide

STATES OF MATTER
Matter can be classified into three categories depending upon its physical
state, namely: solids, liquids and gases. These states of matter arise due to
variation in the characteristics of the particles of matter.

PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
(i) The matter in solid state possesses a definite volume, a definite shape,
distinct boundaries and a definite mass.

(ii) Solids are rigid and almost incompressible.

(iii) Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape.

(iv) Solids generally possess high densities.

(v) Solids do not exhibit diffusion. Some common examples are: table, chair,
common salt, silver, ice, diamond, etc.

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
(i) The matter in liquid state possesses a definite volume, a definite mass, but
no definite shape.

(ii) Liquids are also almost incompressible but are not rigid. In fact, they can
flow and acquire the shape of the container in which they are kept.

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(iv) Liquids also have high densities but less than that of solids.
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Some examples are: milk, water, alcohol, petrol, kerosene, fruit juices, etc.
PROPERTIES OF GASES
(i) The matter in gaseous state has neither definite volume nor definite shape
but it has definite mass. It acquires the shape and volume of the container.

(ii) Gases are highly compressible. For example, natural gas in compressed
form is used as fuel (Compressed Natural Gas-CNG) in internal combustion
engines. Oxygen supplied to hospitals in cylinders is also in compressed form.
Due to high compressibility large volumes of gas can be compressed into a
small cylinder and transported easily.

(iii) The gases exhibit the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.

(iv) Gases exert pressure on the walls of the container in which they are stored.

(v) Gases have very low densities.

Some common examples of gases are: air, hydrogen carbon(IV) oxide,

hydrogen, sulphide, ammonia, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.

In solids, the interparticle spaces are small. They have smaller amounts of
energy than the same particles in the liquid and gaseous states.
Consequently, the particles in solid state cannot overcome the strong
forces of attraction which are holding them together. In solids, particles
can only vibrate about fixed positions. Thus, particles in a solid have
vibrational and rotational motion but no translational motion. Because of
smaller interparticle spaces, solids are almost incompressible while due to
absence of translational motion they are rigid.

In liquids, interparticle spaces are somewhat larger than in solids and the
particles have larger amounts of energy. The particles in liquids can
overcome the interparticle forces between each other to some extent and
hence can move freely. However, the intermolecular forces in liquids are
strong enough to keep the particles within the bulk. The particles in liquid
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In gases, the interparticle spaces are very large and the particle possess
much larger amounts of energy than those in solids and liquids. The gas
particles have sufficient energy to overcome the interparticle attractive
forces almost completely. As a result the gas particles move rapidly and
randomly into any space available to them. Thus, a gas fills completely
the vessel in which it is kept. That is why gases have neither definite
shape nor definite volume. Since particles in gaseous state are free to
move, they collide with one another and also against walls of the
container. The pressure of the gas is due to collisions of molecules
against walls of the container.

Solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of matter due to
smaller interparticle spaces” and negligible compressibility.

Liquids and gases are known as fluids because of their ability to flow and
take the shape of container

PLASMA STATE-The Fourth State of matter

The matter in this state is in the form of ionized gas. It consists of neutral
mixture of positive ions and unbound electrons. The matter exists in this state
at temperatures in the range 10000°C to 15000°C. The matter in the sun and
stars exists in plasma state. It is estimated that 99% of the matter in the
universe exists in plasma state. Neon in neon lights is also in plasma state.

Plasma Plasma has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. Plasma
often is seen in ionized gases. Plasma is distinct from a gas because it
possesses unique properties. Free electrical charges (not bound to atoms or
ions) cause plasma to be electrically conductive. Plasma may be formed by
heating and ionizing a gas.

A comparison of the characteristic properties of solids, liquids and gases are

given in Table 4.1.
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of Characteristic consentof
Properties toSolids,
the useLiquids
of ALL and
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Gases
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Property Solids Liquids Gases
l.Sbape Definite Take the shape Take the
shape of

of the con the container by

tainer, but do occupying whole

not necessarily of the space avaoccupy

all of it. ilable to them.

2. Volume Definite Definite Take the

volume

of the container.

3. Compre- Almost nil Almost nil Very

large.

ssibility

4. Fluidity or Rigid Fluid Fluid

Rigidity

5. Density Large Large Very small.

6. Diffusion Generally Diffuse slowly Diffuse

rapidly.

do not

diffuse
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surface.
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Surfaces number of surface
free

surfaces

Why Solids, Liquids and Gases Exhibit Different Properties?

The properties of matter in the three states of matter are different because the
characteristics of the particles vary in the three states of matter.

Now let us understand how the characteristics of particles vary in the three
states of matter.

Changes in states Chemical properties: Properties that do change tha

chemical nature of matter Examples of physical properties are: color, smell,
freezing point, boiling point, melting point, infra-red spectrum, attraction
(paramagnetic) or repulsion (diamagnetic) to magnets, opacity, viscosity and
density. There are many more examples. Note that measuring each of these
properties will not alter the basic nature of the substance. Examples of
chemical properties are: heat of combustion, reactivity with water, PH, and
electromotive force. The more properties we can identify for a substance,
the better we know the nature of that substance. These properties can then
help us model the substance and thus understand how this substance will
behave under various conditions. Physical and Chemical Properties All
substances have properties that we can use to identify them. For example
we can idenify a person by their face, their voice, height, finger prints, DNA
etc.. The more of these properties that we can identify, the better we know
the person. In a similar way matter has properties – and there are many of
them. There are two basic types of properties that we can associate with
matter. These properties are called Physical properties and Chemical
properties: Physical properties: Properties that do not change the chemical
nature of matter Chemical properties: Properties that do change tha chemical
nature of matter Examples of physical properties are: color, smell, freezing
point, boiling point, melting point, infra-red spectrum, attraction
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Note that measuring each of these
properties
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will not alter the basic nature of the substance. Examples of
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chemical properties are: heat of combustion, reactivity with water, PH, and
electromotive force. The more properties we can identify for a substance,
the better we know the nature of that substance. These properties can then
help us model the substance and thus understand how this substance will
behave under various conditions.

Changing States of Matter

A material will change from one state or phase to another at specific
combinations of temperature and surrounding pressure. Typically, the pressure
is atmospheric pressure, so temperature is the determining factor to the
change in state in thosecases.

Names such as boiling and freezing are given to the various changes in states
of matter. The temperature of a material will increase until it reaches the point
where the change takes place. It will stay at that temperature until that change
is completed.

Changes in states
The states of matter are solid, liquid, gas and plasma. Since there is some
debate on whether plasma should be classified as a state of matter and since
it is not commonly experienced, we will not discuss its properties here.

Order of changes
When heat is applied to a material, its change in state typically goes from
solid to liquid to gas. There are some exceptions where the material will go
directly from a solid to a gas.

When a material is cooled, its change in state typically goes from gas to
liquid to solid. There are some exceptions where the material will go directly
from a gas to asolid.
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Names of changes
Each change in the state of matter has a specific name.

Start from: Change to: Name

solid liquid melting

liquid solid freezing

liquid gas boiling

gas liquid condensation

gas
solid sublimation
(skipping liquid phase)

solid
gas deposition
(skipping liquid phase)

Change in temperature
When a material reaches the temperature at which a change in state occurs,
the temperature will remain the same until all the energy is used to change
the state.

Melting
When a solid is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches its melting
point. Any additional heat added to the material will not raise the
temperature until all of the material is melted.

Thus, if you heat some ice, its temperature will rise until it reaches 0° C (32°
F). Then the ice will stay at that temperature until all the ice is melted. The
heat energy is used to melt the ice and not to raise the temperature. After
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Boiling
When a liquid is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches its boiling
point. The temperature will then remain at that point until all of the liquid is
boiled away.

For example, the temperature of a pot of water will increase until it reaches
100° C (212° F). It will stay there until all the water is boiled away. The
temperature of the steam can then be increased.

Cooling
Likewise, when a gas is cooled, its temperature will drop until it reaches the
condensation point. Any additional cooling or heat loss will not lower the
temperature until all of the gas is condensed into the liquid state.

Then the temperature of the liquid will continue to drop as more cooling is
applied. Once the liquid reaches the freezing point, the temperature will
remain at that point until all of the liquid is solidified. Then the temperature
of the solid cancontinue to decrease.

Chemical Changes Chemical changes take place on the molecular level. A

chemical change produces a new substance. Examples of chemical changes
include combustion (burning), cooking an egg, rusting of an iron pan, and
mixing hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide to make salt and water.
Physical Changes Physical changes are concerned with energy and states of
matter. A physical change does not produce a new substance. Changes in
state or phase (melting, freezing, vaporization, condensation, sublimation)
are physical changes. Examples of physical changes include crushing a can,
melting an ice cube, and breaking a bottle. How to Tell Chemical & Physical
Changes Apart A chemical change makes a substance that wasn’t there
before. There may be clues that a chemical reaction took place, such as light,
heat, color change, gas production, odor, or sound. The starting and ending
We use cookies materials of a physical
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different. Examples of Chemical Changes burning wood dissolving salt in
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water mixing acid and base digesting food Examples of Physical Changes
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crumpling All of paper melting an ice cube casting silver in a mold
a sheet
breaking a bottle How to Tell? Look for an indication that a chemical change
occurred. Chemical reactions release or absorb heat or other energy or may
produce a gas, odor, color or sound. If you don’t see any of these
indications, a physical change likely occurred. In some cases, it may be hard
to tell whether a chemical or physical change occurred. For example, when
you dissolve sugar in water, a physical change occurs. The form of the sugar
changes, but it remains the same chemically (sucrose molecules). However,
when you dissolve salt in water the salt dissociates into its ions (from NaCl
into Na+ and Cl–) so a chemical change occurs. In both cases a white solid
dissolves into a clear liquid and in both cases you can recover the starting
material by removing the water, yet the processes are not the same.
Difference between chemical and physical change

Chemical change is any change that results in the formation of new

chemical substances. At the molecular level, chemical change involves
making or breaking of bonds between atoms. These changes are chemical:
iron rusting (iron oxide forms) gasoline burning (water vapor and carbon
dioxide form) eggs cooking (fluid protein molecules uncoil and crosslink to
form a network) bread rising (yeast converts carbohydrates into carbon
dioxide gas) milk souring (sour-tasting lactic acid is produced) suntanning
(vitamin D and melanin is produced) Physical change rearranges molecules
but doesn’t affect their internal structures. Some examples of physical
change are: whipping egg whites (air is forced into the fluid, but no new
substance is produced) magnetizing a compass needle (there is realignment
of groups (“domains”) of iron atoms, but no real change within the iron
atoms themselves). boiling water (water molecules are forced away from
each other when the liquid changes to vapor, but the molecules are still
H2O.) dissolving sugar in water (sugar molecules are dispersed within the
water, but the individual sugar molecules are unchanged.) dicing potatoes
(cutting usually separates molecules without changing them.)
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SUMMARY
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Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Matter can be classified as solids, liquids and gases on the basis of its
physical state.

Matter is made up of extremely small particles.

There are spaces between particles of matter.

The particles of matter are continuously moving.

The particles of matter attract each other.

The spaces between particles are minimum in solid state and maximum in
gases.

The kinetic energy of particles minimum in solid state and maximum in

gaseous state.

The force of attraction between particles is maximum in solid state and

negligible in gaseous state.

Liquids and gases exhibit diffusion because their particles possess

translatory motion and possess larger interparticle spaces.

Solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of matter due to
smaller interparticle spaces and very little compressibility.

Liquids and gases are known as fluids because of their ability to flow and
take the shape of the container.

EVALUATION

1.Which of the following is not an example of matter?

(a) Air (b) Almonds

(c) Cold-drink (d) Love.

2. Which of the following has the strongest interparticle forces?

(a) on
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Water
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(c) Iron d) Neon.

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3 Which of the following has atoms as the constituent particles?
(a) Dry ice (b) Argon

(c) Glucose (d) Potassium chloride.

Fill in the blanks

Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) The particles in …… state do not possess translator motion.

(ii) …… and …… states of matter are known as fluid states of matter.

(iii) Particles in …… state possess maximum kinetic energy.

(iv) Kinetic energy of particles of matter …… with increase in temperature.

I .Discussion Question

5 What are the characteristics of the particles of matter?

6. Which out of iron and chalk has stronger interparticle forces?

7. Give reasons for the following observations:

We can get the smell of perfume sitting from several meters away.

8. A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Which property of

matter does this observation show?

9. Describe an activity to demonstrate that the matter consists of particles and

that the particles are of extremely small size.

10. What are the characteristics of matter in solid state?

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(i) SolidsAccept
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diffusion readily.
(ii) Gases are highly compressible.

12. Give reasons for the following:

(i) A gas fills completely the vessel in which it is kept.

(ii) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container.

11. Explain why solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of
matter.

14. Give reasons:

(i) Sponge is a solid yet we are able to compress it.

(ii) Sugar when kept in jars of different shapes it takes the shape of the jar yet
we call it a solid.

15.With two examples in each case,mention physical and chemical processes in

your environment.

16.What are states of matter?Use a suitable diagram to show how one state
can be converted to another state.

WEEK 3. ELEMENTS Element Definition: A chemic

W These are the first 20 elements, listed in order: 1 – H – Hydrogen

2 – He – Helium
3 – Li – Lithium
4 – Be – Beryllium
5 – B – Boron
6 – C – Carbon
7 – N – Nitrogen
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9 – F – Fluorine
10 – Ne – Neon
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11 – Na – Sodium
12 – Mg – Magnesium
13 – Al – Aluminum
14 – Si – Silicon
15 – P – Phosphorus
16 – S – Sulfur
17 – Cl – Chlorine
18 – Ar – Argon
19 – K – Potassium
20 – Ca – Calcium States of Matter – Elements
The states of matter of all of the elements is given for normal condit
Structure of an atom

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Accept All of other particles called quarks. There are three quarks in each
surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbitals. The inner o
configuration and principles of physics, chemists can predict an atom
symbol for a noble gas in brackets. This method of notation vastly si
the shape of the orbitals and the superscript gives the number of ele
quarks. Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. The
neutrons both are baryons, the mass number A is identical with the b
nucleus, and thus uniquely identifies an element. Hence, the differen
example, the most common isotope of carbon is carbon-12, or 12C,
6C.[2] This is technically redundant, as each element is defined by its
number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbo
twenty elements into the three states of matter. 3.Define atomic nu
are made up of atom s that are held together by chemical bonds. Th
some elements do not easily bond with other atoms. Examples are n
found in the earth’s atmosphere; it has two atoms of oxygen. Howev
consisting of one carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms (CO 2 )
gases(neon,argon,helium),sodium magnesium, in short all metals are
5,sulphur 8 Foundations of Dalton’s atomic theory Dalton’s atomic
although Newton used arguments based on atoms to explain the ga
smaller parts or transformed into atoms of another element. Dalton
discovery of nuclear processes showed that it was even possible to t
more restrictive wording is “Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or
(Dalton used the word “weight” rather than mass, and chemists have
amended to read: “Elements are characterized by the nuclear charge
Experimental atomic weights could then be used to explain the fixed
atoms sometimes combine in more than one simple, whole-numbe
his explanation, and it persuaded many of them that his atomic theo
to be a binary one, unless some cause appear to the contrary” [2]. He
incorrect and his experimental data did not support many of the con
data, and how they explain three basic laws of chemistry. EVAL

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Structure of an atom

Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of ele
exist in a cloud orbiting the nucleus. The electron cloud has a radius
of protons and neutrons is usually the same as well. Adding a proton
resides in the nucleus. The nucleus is held together by the “strong fo
positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei. They were di
atoms have eight. The number of protons in an atom is referred to a
made of other particles called quarks. There are three quarks in each
surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbitals. The inner o
configuration and principles of physics, chemists can predict an atom
symbol for a noble gas in brackets. This method of notation vastly si
the shape of the orbitals and the superscript gives the number of ele
quarks. Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. RU
type is filled before moving to the next subshell of higher energy. Ru
counterclockwise spin. Two electrons with opposite spins found in th
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to thealluse
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energy of the atom. Therefore, the electrons in an atom fill the princ

Cookie Settings pattern,

Accept All probably the easiest, is to refer to the periodic table and rem
subshells.jpg

Pauli Exclusion Principle The Pauli exclusion principle states that no t

opposing spins; otherwise they would have the same four quantum
electrons, the p subshell has 3 orbitals that can hold up to 6 electron
can correspond to these, which would be either ms = -1/2 or ms = +
hydrogen) if both are given we would have 1s2 (denoting helium). Vi
Atoms at ground states tend to have as many unpaired electrons as
as far as possible from each other before having to pair up. Example
Nitrogenexample.jpg

We can clearly see that p orbitals are half-filled as there are three ele
period, Oxygen (Z = 8) its electron configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p4 (for a
oxygenexample.jpg

Oxygen has one more electron than Nitrogen and as the orbitals are
electron configuration for an atom, orbitals are filled in order of incre
example focuses on the p subshell, which fills from boron to neon. B
the Aufbau rule accurately predicts the electron configuration of mo
(Table 1). Table 1: Exceptions to Electron Configuration Trends Period 4
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Period to6: give
Periodyou7:the most relevant
Lanthanum: Z:57 experience
[Xe] 6s2 5d1byActinium:
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Z:89 [Rn]
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2
Z:93 [Rn]
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Z:96 [Rn] 7s2 5f7 6d1 Lawrencium: Z:1
Curium: consent.
a controlled
The total number of electrons is the atomic number, Z. The rules abo
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and each has its own drawbacks. Orbital Diagrams An orbital diagram
electron according to the stated rules above. Example 4: Aluminum a
13. Now we shall look at the orbitals it will fill: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p. We k
block, the subshells become filled as you complete each section of th
period 3 p-block). This gives the following:
Aluminum.jpg

Note that in the orbital diagram, the two opposing spins of the elect
in spdf notation and noble gas notation. Another example is the elec
Ir1.jpg

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/files/49479/143339123440

Ir3.jpg

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The electron a controlled
configuration consent.is much longer than aluminum
of iridium
is also followed, as each electron fills up each 5d orbital before being
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in the diagram, the total number of electrons in each energy level is
This is the electron configuration of helium; it denotes a full s orbital
electron configuration of the element yttrium. As always, refer to the
a much simpler and more efficient way to portray electron configura
example, there are 2 elements in the s-block, and 10 elements in the
to the atomic number. In this case, 2+2+6+2+6+2+10+6+2+1= 39 a
3d10 4p65s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p3 The reason why this electron
often overlook this break in the table and skip that energy level. Its i
commonly used) of writing the spdf notation is the expanded notatio
full orbitals would look like: 2px2 2py2 2pz2. The expanded notation fo
orbitals, indicate the two half filled orbitals. The expanded notation f
This brings up an interesting point about elements and electron con
configurations, and are known for being relatively inert. All noble ga
period above the element that is being analyzed is used to denote th
Example 6: Vanadium What is the electronic configuration of vanadiu
the reference noble gas. The noble gas in the configuration is denote
Vanadium, V: [Ar] 4s2 3d3 This method streamlines the process of dis
configurations of the valance electrons. In the example above, there
electrons in atoms are equal. But there are cases in which an atom ca
protons and 11 electrons, which means it has 11 positive charges an
i
This unequal number of negative and positive charges can occur in o
or lose protons. So atoms become ions by gaining or losing electron
positive charges than negative charges, which means it’s now called
image1.
Likewise, when the neutral magnesium atom loses two electrons, it fo
image2.p
Now consider the chlorine atom in sodium chloride. The neutral chlo
image3
Other details about ions Here are some extra tidbits about ions: You
image4.pn
The sodium cation has lost an electron — the valence electron, whic
image5
The electron configuration of the chloride ion is:
image6.png
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preferences and repeat visits. same “Accept
clicking electronAll”,
configuration
you consentastothe neutral
the use ofArgon atom.
ALL the If However,
cookies.
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ion, or, to provide a acontrolled
specifically, polyatomicconsent.
cation. It is written as:
im
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The nitrate ion, is also a polyatomic ion, or, specifically, a polyatomic
im
Ions are commonly found in a class of compounds called salts, or ion
example. On the other hand, when table sugar (sucrose) is dissolved
electrolyte, the compound is probably ionically bonded. If it’s a none
element is represented by X. How many electrons,protons and neu
numbers of neutrons. Isotopes are different forms of a single elemen

Examples: Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are both isotopes of carbon, on

weighted mass of the elements isotopes (if any) and their relative ab
occurring isotopes with isotopic weights of 106.90509 and 108.90470
associated with 106.90509. Since the sum of the isotopic abundance
106.90509x = – 108.90470 + 107.868 – 1.9996x = – 1.0367 x = 0.518
%. What is the percentage abundance of the heaviest isotope? In thi
other two percentages (1 – 0.4238 – x). 92.9469 (0.4238) + 93.2923 [(

EVALUATION Define the following terms i. Atomic number ii. ma

substance that results from a combination of two or more different c
smallest unbreakable unit of a compound is called a molecule Examp
substances composed of all the same type of atoms, and have specif
Sometimes they are the same element, like air molecules. Air molec
different elements. Compounds are combinations of elements into n
developed a system of nomenclature that gave each compound a u
Some compounds have been known for so long that a systematic no
metals) The names of ionic compounds are written by listing the nam
negative ions before we can name the salts these ions form. Nam
oxidation state. One of the earliest methods of distinguishing betwe
now use a simpler method, in which the charge on the ion is indicate
suffix -onium. H3O+ hydronium NH4+ ammonium Naming Negati
carbide Common Polyatomic Negative Ions -1 ions HCO3– bicarbon
peroxide SO42- sulfate CrO42- chromate SO32- sulfite Cr2O72- dichrom
hopeless. There are several general rules, however, that can bring so
ion, for example, is the nitrate ion. The prefix hypo– is used to indicat
handful of exceptions to these generalizations. The names of the hyd
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also play an important role in naming simple covalent compounds. T
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rule, chemists
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to provide formulas inconsent.
a controlled which the element in the positive oxi
element. 1 mono- 6 hexa- 2 di- 7 hepta- 3 tri- 8 octa- 4 tetra- 9 nona
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HCN, often dissolve in water to produce acids. These solutions are na
acid; and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) forms hydrocyanic acid. Many of t
hydrochloric acid F– fluoride HF hydrofluoric acid S2- sulfide H2S hyd
sulfuric acid ClO4– perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid PO43- phosphat
chlorous acid NO2– nitrite HNO2 nitrous acid SO32- sulfite H2SO 3 sul
sodium hydrogen sulfite (also known as sodium bisulfite) KH2PO4 po
Notice that once again the nature of the substance in question requ
known formula. Every atom within a substance is assigned a valency
unknown compounds using the valency method. Remember that the
Example: From the water molecule above we know that the valency o
hydrogen atoms. The formula of ammonia = NH3 top Working with
Find the formula of the sulfate (2-) ion given that the valency of the
Therefore (xO) = -2 -6 = -8 each O =-2 therfore there are four oxgen
useful to follow chemical reactions by looking at changes in the oxid
that atom would have if the compound was composed of ions. 1. Th
equal to the charge on the ion. The oxidation number of sodium in t
hydrogen is -1 when it is combined with a metal as in. LiH, NaH, CaH
atom has a +2 oxidation number. 7. Oxygen usually has an oxidation
nonmetal has a -1 oxidation number. 9. The sum of the oxidation nu
because the sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in this ion m
oxidation number in SO2, for example, because it is below oxygen in
mixture is made from different substances that are not chemically jo
picked out from a mixed packet and put into separate piles.
A mixed pile of sweets is separated into 4 piles of different colours
green, yellow and purple

Mixture and compounds Mixtures have different properties from co

element in a compound. Joined or not The different substances are
Separation Each substance is easily separated from the mixture. It ca
sulphur react together when they are heated to make a compound c
sulphur.The iron and sulphur atoms are not joined together in the m
using a magnet but this does not work for iron sulphide. SEPARAT
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heterogeneous
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type of mixture and difference in the chemical properties of the cons
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Centrifugation Separating funnel Magnetic separation Precipitatio
the other phase is an organic solvent. This separation is based on the
kerosene oil and water. Chromatography: Chromatography is a sep
phase. The mobile phase may be a gas or liquid. The mobile phase is
them to separate. There are different types of chromatographic tech
a liquid solvent as the mobile phase. In paper chromatography, the s
one another.
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Applications: To separate colors in a dye. To separate pigments fro

mixtures are separated by centrifugation. So, centrifugation is the p
principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and th
amounts of the solid-liquid mixture. On rapid rotation of the rotor, t
top. Applications: Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urin
containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition an
the condensed liquid in a container. In this process, when the tempe
of the apparatus until they come into contact with the cold surface o

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Applications: Separation of acetone and water. Distillation of alcoh

that of simple distillation, except that a fractionating column is fitted
through the fractionating column, because of the repeated condensa
in similar fashion in another receiver flask.

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Applications: Separation of different fractions from petroleum prod

Separating solids from

liquids – evaporation
Evaporation is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid. For example,
copper sulfate is soluble in water – its crystals dissolve in water to form copper
sulfate solution. During evaporation, the water evaporates away leaving solid
copper
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on our crystals
website behind.
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A solution is placed in an evaporating basin and heated with a Bunsen
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A solution is placed in an evaporating basin and heated with a Bunsen burner.

Separating solids from

liquids – filtration
If a substance does not dissolve in a solvent, we say that it is insoluble. For
example, sand does not dissolve in water – it is insoluble.

Filtration is a method for separating an insoluble solid from a liquid. When a

mixture of sand and water is filtered:

the sand stays behind in the filter paper (it becomes the residue)

the water passes through the filter paper (it becomes the filtrate)

Shows a beaker with a mixture of solid and liquid in it. Another beaker has a
funnel with some filter paper in

A beaker containing a mixture of insoluble solid and liquid. There is filter paper
in a filter funnel above another beaker.

Separating Mixtures

components in a mixture retain their identities

exploit properties that distinguish the components to separate mixtures

Some manufacturers add iron filings to cereal to increase its iron content! The
bits of iron will stick to a magnet, but the cereal won’t. So you can easily
separate the mixture by stirring a bar magnet through a slurry of water and
finely crushed cereal.

the more similar the properties are, the more difficult it is to separate them

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consent to For
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ALL the cookies. However,
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"Cookie occurs
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uranium-235, which can consent.
be used to construct atomic
bombs, and uranium-238, which can’t. The two are very difficult to separate
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because they are nearly identical otherwise. The technical difficulties in
separating this mixture is one of the factors that has limited the proliferation of
nuclear weapons.

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basic strategies

phase conversion: convert components of the mixture into other

forms that are easy to isolate

phase transfer: add a new phase that collects some components

from the mixture, but not others

technique basis for separation apply this technique to:

liquid or gaseous
adsorption / phase transfer to a solid mixtures that contain at
desorption surface least one component that
adsorbs

liquid or gaseous
phase transfer from a solutions that contain
chromatography mobile mixture to a several components with
stationary phase differing affinities for the
stationary phase

gaseous mixtures
phase separation by containing at least one
condensation condensing gases in the gas with a much higher
mixture to liquids boiling point than the
others

phase transfer through a

porous membrane that solutions containing
dialysis allows some molecules to small molecules mixed
pass through, but not with very large molecules
others

gases with faster

gaseous mixtures
molecules flow through
containing gases with
effusion tiny pinholes faster than
different molecular
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slowrelevant experience by remembering your
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molecules
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dissolution
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(washing, solvent be washed away, leaving different solubilities
extraction) behind insoluble
components (phase
transfer to a washing
solvent)

separate a metal from

impurities by dissolving it solid mixtures with a
electrorefining
and then plating it onto metal as one component
an electrode

collect solid particles on a heterogeneous mixture

filtration
filter containing a solid phase

heterogeneous mixture
dense components sink,
floatation with phases with different
and lighter ones float
densities

ions in the mixture bind

to surfaces with
ion exchange oppositely charged sites solutions containing ions
(phase transfer to an ion
exchange resin)

convert solutes to an solutions containing a

precipitation easily separated solid solute that can be
form precipitated

bubble mixture through a gaseous mixtures

solution that selectively containing a solute that
scrubbing absorbs a component can be selectively
(phase transfer from gas absorbed by a scrubbing
to solution) solution

a gas bubbled through

the mixture carries off the a liquid mixture

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on our website to givemost
you volatile
the most components containing
relevant experience at least one your
by remembering
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(phase All”,from
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to the use of ALL the cookies. However,
component
you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent.
solution to gas)
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volatilization components with widely a mixture containing
(drying, distillation, differing volatility can be components with
sublimation) driven out of the mixture differing volatility
by heating (phase change
from solid or liquid to
gas)

Adsorption and desorption

some solids bind gases and organic materials to their surfaces, removing
them from mixtures

adsorbed gases or liquids can recovered from the adsorbent material by

washing with a solvent

examples

activated charcoal adsorbs many gases and liquids

used as a “universal antidote” for poisoning

used in water purifiers (removes particulates, lead, copper,

mercury, chlorine, hypochlorite, organics)

used to adsorb drugs from the blood of overdose victims

silica gel absorbs moisture from air

Condensation
cooling a vapor causes components with the highest boiling points to
condense as liquids first

examples

separating steam and air

separating oxygen and nitrogen in air

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Dialysis
a semipermeable membrane allows some components in a mixture
through, but not others

how does the membrane distinguish components?

some membranes act as a “molecular sieve” that discriminates

between large and small molecules

some membranes dissolve one component better than others

development of new membranes is an active area of research in

industry and government

components flow spontaneously from the high concentration to low

concentration side

pressure applied to the low concentration side can stop or even

reverse this flow (reverse osmosis)

examples

purification of blood in dialysis machines

purification of seawater by reverse osmosis

separation of pollutants from drinking water

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Effusion
use porous membranes to separate light gases from heavy ones

average speed of gas molecules depends on the masses of their

molecules

heavy molecules in a mixture move slower on average than light

ones

gases made of light molecules diffuse through pores in membranes

faster than heavy molecules

differences from dialysis

membrane is permeable, not semipermeable: all gas molecules in the

mixture can pass through it

size of molecules isn’t usually important: pores in membrane are

much larger than gas molecules

…molecular velocity (and so, molecular mass) is the basis for

separation, not size

examples

separating helium from oxygen

separating uranium isotopes as volatile UF6

Dissolution (washing)
separate solids by washing away those that are soluble

examples

separating sand and salt by water washing

separating feldspars from quartz in rocks by washing with hot

concentrated phosphoric acid

separating organic stains from clothing by washing with organic

solvents (dry cleaning)

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Electrorefining
used to separate metals from impurities

strategy

dissolve the impure metal

plate it on an electrode, using a strong electric current

pure metal deposits on the electrode, and the impurities stay in

solution

Filtration
pass a mixture that contains solid particles through a porous filter

if pores are smaller than particles, solid particles stay on filter and
liquid/gaseous components pass through

often used after separation by precipitation

Ion exchange
used to separate ions from mixtures

pass the mixture over a surface that is covered with charged sites

some ions stick to the charged sites

examples

water deionization

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Precipitation
precipitation is the conversion of a solute to solid form by chemical or
physical change

solids are then separated by filtration or floatation

examples

separating mud and bacteria from water

a gooey aluminum hydroxide precipitate is formed in the water

to carry particulates and bacteria to the bottom of a vat

clean water is drawn off the top

separating sulfate ions from water by adding barium ions

barium ion + sulfate = insoluble barium sulfate

water softening with washing soda

carbonate + calcium ion = insoluble calcium carbonate

Scrubbing
scrubbing is bubbling a gas stream through a solution that traps some
components

examples

CO2 can be separated from air by bubbling it through a solution of

barium hydroxide

H2S can be removed from air by bubbling it through a zinc acetate

solution

Solvent extraction
a component moves into a solvent shaken with the mixture

works best with solvents that dissolve only one component

Solvent extraction can be used to extract vanillin from vanilla beans.
Shaking the beans with an organic solvent like chloroform transfers
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to provide hydroxideconsent.
a controlled solution transfers the vanillin into
the sodium hydroxide solution.
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Stripping
a stream of gas bubbled through the mixture will carry off the most
volatile components

Blowing air through a straw in a glass of soda will cause it to go flat, because
the air carries off the volatile carbon dioxide.

volatile components can be reclaimed from the gas by scrubbing

Volatilization
heating a mixture can cause low-boiling components to volatilize
(vaporize)

several variations

distillation is collecting and condensing volatilized components

Alcohol can be separated from fermented corn mash by heating the mash to
vaporize the alcohol. The vapor is collected and passed through coils of copper
tubing, where it cools and condenses as a liquid once again. Moonshiners
sometimes used old car radiators for the condensation step; the soldered joints
added a toxic quantity of lead to the shine!

drying is complete volatilization of some components in the mixture

Separation of water from clothes on a clothesline is one obvious example. The

separation of salt from seawater using evaporating pools is another.

sublimation is volatilization of a solid (without melting!)

Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) is probably the most familiar example of a solid
that sublimes. But water ice can also be converted directly into water vapor
without melting, at low pressure. Snow on mountain peaks disappears without
moistening the soil.
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manufactured by freeze drying. (Boiling the coffee destroys the delicate
molecules
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Accept give coffee its flavor, and so does exposure to air after a certain
time, so distillation or simple drying isn’t used). Fresh coffee is frozen to form a
mixture of ice and coffee crystals. The pressure over the mixture is lowered so
that the ice sublimates, leaving the coffee crystals behind.

EVALUATION

1. Define and give one example each of i. A homogenous mixture and ii. A
heterogenous mixture.

2. Define the following terms.i. filtrate ii. distillate iii sublimate

3. How would you separate a mixture of salt and sand?Explain.

4. How would you separate the component of black ink.

5. List and explain all the separation techniques .Describe their industrial
application.

WEEK 10

PRACTICALS ON SEPERATION TECHNIQUES

SCHEME OF WORK FOR FIRST TERM

WEEKS TOPICS

1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

2. NATURE OF MATTER

3. ELEMENTS

4. MOLECULES AND ATOMICITY

5. PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

6. THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES OF ELEMENTS

7. COMPOUNDS

8. IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

9. MIXTURES

10. PRACTICALS ON SEPERATION OF MIXTURES

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Chemistry as a Subject and as a Central Science
Chemistry as a Subject and as a Central Science

CHEMISTRY AS A DISCIPLINE

Human mind has always been very curious to make investigations and know
about various activities/phenomena occurring around him. This curiosity has
led him to collect information through experiments and observations. The
curious mind has also been responsible for the research activities of various
people all over the world. The knowledge and data base acquired like this is
then systematized in a way that the mankind takes maximum benefit out of it.
This knowledge base is known as science. Science may, thus, be broadly
defined as systematized knowledge gained by mankind through observations
and experimentation. Science has been further classified into different
branches due to its enormous expansion and diversified fields. Some examples
are: Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Geology, etc. Chemistry is one of the most
important discipline of science to which this present book is devoted.

CHEMISTRY AS A SUBJECT AND AS A CENTRAL SCIENCE

Chemistry may be defined as the branch of science which deals with the study
of matter, its composition, its properties and the changes which it undergoes
in composition as well as in energy during various processes.

research in the field of chemistry has resulted in the production of useful

materials such as, clothes, drugs, artificial foods, plastics, rubbers, fertilizers,
insecticides, weed killers, life

supporting products, etc., which have revolutionised our life.

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controlled without the knowledge of
consent.
chemistry. In fact, we can say, chemistry is everywhere in the world around us;
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it is, in what we eat; in what we breathe; in how we live and even in what we
are.
CHEMISTRY-A CENTRAL SCIENCE

Modem chemistry is an abstract subject whose study presents a great

intellectual challenges and rewards. It is a practical field at the hub of man’s
future.

Modern chemistry is CENTRAL DISCIPLINE, which correlates almost all

branches of science. It is used to study biological, physical, medical as well as
environmental phenomena. For example, a chemist works with:

• biologist to understand life processes and metabolic activities,

• physicist to understand properties of matter and to develope new sources of

energy,

• geologist to probe outer and inner space,

• physician to design new drugs and medicines,

• ecologist to make improvement in environment,

• engineers and technical manager to provide material and energy for better
life.

BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry can be broadly divided into Pure Chemistry and Applied Chemistry.

A. PURE
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Pure chemistry deals with the attempt to get better understanding of nature.
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Pure chemistry is further divided into three main branches. Organic chemistry,
Inorganic Chemistry and Physical chemistry. These main branches have been
further divided into large number of sub-sections. The main branches meaning
divided into large number of sub-sections. The main branches are described
briefly as follows:

1. Organic Chemistry. This branch of chemistry deals with the study of

structure, chemical composition and characteristics of compounds of
carbon and hydrogen elements (Hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.

2. Inorganic Chemistry. This branch concerns itself to the study of structure,

3. Physical Chemistry. This branch deals with the study of fundamental

principles governing various chemical transformations and chemical
systems. It is primarily concerned with laws and theories of different
branches of chemistry.

B. APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Applied chemistry deals with the application of the knowledge of chemistry for
the benefit of mankind. The different branches of applied chemistry are as
under:

1. Analytical Chemistry. This branch involves collection of techniques which

allows exact determination of the composition of the given sample of material.
It has been further divided into two categories:

(a) Qualitative analysis. It deals with the identification of various constituent

particles (atoms, ions, molecules) present in the material.

(b) Quantitative analysis. It deals with the estimation of various constituents in

3. Biochemistry. This branch concerns itself to the study of metabolic

pathways and enzymology pertaining to living organism. It deals with
molecular, cellular and chemical activities of living organisms.

4. Geochemistry. This branch deals with the chemical processes occurring

on earth such as metamorphism of rocks, formation of petroleum, etc. It also
deals with the composition of soils and rocks.

5. Petrochemistry. It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the

transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products
and raw materials.

6. Radiochemistry. It is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of

radioactive materials, both natural as well as man-made. It also involves the
use of radioactive materials to study the pathways/mechanism of ordinary
chemical reactions.

7. Biotechnology. It refers to the technological applications which uses

8. Medicinal or Pharmaceutical Chemistry. It is scientific discipline at the

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Since chemistry is a central science because of its multidisciplinary nature,

therefore, chemistry students can persue their careers in the field of industries,
education, research work, government agencies and other non raditional fields.
Some of the careers opportunities, that a student with degree in chemistry can
have are as follows:

*pharmacognosy is a study of medicines derived from natural

2. Academic Institutions. Educational institutions employ about 26% of the

3. Government Agencies. Government-employ about 7Cfr: of all the

4. Non-traditional Fields. A small percentage of chemists (about 1%) find

work in non -traditional fields. They get opportunities to become patent
lawyers, science writers, information specialists, technical librarians, technical
consultants or business owners.

Group Discussion
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"Cookietwo applied
Settings" to chemistry professionsconsent.
provide a controlled and explain the chemistry they
practice.
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Hints: For reference, the two important professions associated with applied
chemistry are being discussed as follows:

1. Analyst: Analysts find jobs in chemical industry, food industry and

2. Research scientist. Research scientists find jobs in pharmaceutical

companies where they can use their knowledge of chemistry in
developing more convenient and economical methods for the synthesis
of drugs. They can also help in designing new drugs.

Different career options in chemistry are summarized in Fig. 11

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Various careers associated with chemistry.

chemistry, radiochemistry, geochemistry, petro chemistry, environmental

chemistry and biotechnology.

EVALUATION

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(a) Physical All
chemistry (b) Organic chemistry
(c) Biochemistry (d) Inorganic chemistry

2. Which of the following is not a applied chemistry?

(a) Geochemistry (b) Biochemistry

(c) Radiochemistry (d) inorganic chemistry.

3. In order to design new drug, a chemist has to seek the help of

(a) Engineer (b) Geologist

(c) Zoologist (d) Physician.

4. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of hydrocarbons is called

(a) Organic chemistry (c) Radiochemistry

(b) Inorganic chemistry (d) Nuclear chemistry.

II. Fill in the Blanks

5. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) Ecologist and chemist work together to ….. .

(ii) The branch of pure chemistry which deals with study of fundamental laws
and principles is called …..

(iii) Qualitative analysis deals with ….. .

(iv) Radiochemistry deals with the study of ….. substances.

Discussion
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6. Define chemistry and its various disciplines.

7. Comment on the statement that chemistry is a central science discipline.

8. Write the names of various disciplines of applied chemistry. Define any two
of them.

9. Name and define various branches of pure chemistry.

10. Give a brief account of various career options of degree holder in

chemistry.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The steps of the scientific method s are:

1. Make an observation or observations.

2. Ask questions about the observations and gather information.

3. Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what’s been observed,

and make predictions based on that hypothesis.

4. Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be

reproduced.

5. Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or
modify the hypothesis if necessary.

6. Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between

observations and theory.

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CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

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COMMON EQUIPMENT
Below are photos and names of common lab equipment you will encounter
in Chemistry.

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Balance (electronic) Beakers Bunsen Burner Buret

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Clay Triangle Crucible Crucible in Triangle Crucib

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Dropper Pipets Dropper in action Erlenmeyer Flasks Evapo
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Forceps Funnels Goggles Gradu

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Plastic and Rubber

Pinch Clamp Pipets and Bulbs Ring C
Policemen

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Scoopula Stirring Rods Thermometers Test T

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Tube & Holder in

Test Tube Holder Utility Clamp Clamp
Action

Comb
Wash Bottle Watch Glasses Wire Gauze
Heati

A List of Chemistry
Laboratory Apparatus and
Their Uses
Functions of common pieces of laboratory equipment.
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In most labs, you’ll encounter the same basic apparatus. Here, the use for each
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is explained. You will learn about:
Safety goggles and safety equipment

Beakers

Erlenmeyer flasks, AKA conical flasks

Florence flasks, AKA boiling flasks

Test tubes

Watch glasses

Crucibles

Funnels

Graduated cylinders

Volumetric flasks

Droppers

Pipettes

Burets

Ring stands, rings, and clamps

Tongs and forceps

Spatulas and scoopulas

Thermometers

Bunsen Burners

Balances

Safety Goggles and Safety Equipment

Safety goggles.

The first and foremost rule of any laboratory is to be safe! This may seem
obvious, but people often disregard safety protocols for one reason or
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Latex gloves should be used when there is a possibility of corrosive chemicals

spilling onto your hands.

A lab apron or coat can also prevent injury in case of spills or splashes.

Never wear open-toed shoes or sandals in a lab.

Beakers
Beakers of various sizes.

Beakers of various sizes.

A beaker is a common container in most labs. It is used for mixing, stirring, and
heating chemicals. Most beakers have spouts on their rims to aid in pouring.
They also commonly have lips around their rims and markings to measure the
volume they contain, although they are not a precise way to measure liquids.
Beakers come in a wide range of sizes.

Because of the lip that runs around the rim, a lid for a beaker does not exist.
However, a watch glass can be used to cover the opening to prevent
contamination or spl

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Erlenmeyer Flasks, AKA Conical Flasks
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Erlenmeyer
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Erlenmeyer flask.
Also known as a conical flask, the Erlenmeyer flask was named after its inventor
in 1861. It has a narrow neck and expands toward its base. This allows easy
mixing and swirling of the flask without too much risk of spilling. The narrow
opening also allows for the use of a rubber or glass stopper. It can easily be
clamped to a ring stand as well as heated or shaken mechanically.

Once again the marks on the side are meant primarily for estimation rather
than precision.

An important safety tip here is to never heat this flask while it is capped. This
could cause a pressure build-up that could result in explosion.

Florence Flasks, AKA Boiling Flasks

Once again, safety dictates that this flask never be heated when capped.
Pressure build-up and explosions can and do occur.

Test Tubes
Test tubes held in spring clamps.

Test tubes held in spring clamps.

A test tube is a glass tube with one end open and the other end closed. The
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tested and compared, test tubes are used to make this easier. They are also
easily capped with a rubber or glass stopper.

They are generally held in a test tube rack specifically designed for the
purpose. If heated or unsafe to touch with bare hands, test-tube tongs can be
used to move them.

Never heat a capped test tube.

Watch Glasses
A watch glass holding a powder.

A watch glass holding a powder.

A watch glass is just a round piece of glass that is slightly concave/convex

(think of a lens). It can hold a small amount of liquid or solid. They can be used
for evaporation purposes and also can function as a lid for a beaker.

CRUCIBLES:

Crucibles

A crucible is a small clay cup made of a

material that can be heated to extreme
temperatures. This is because they are
used
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An inverted funnel positioned above a watch glass.

Graduated Cylinders

Graduated cylinders.

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Volumetric Flasks
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Cookie SettingsA 500-ml volumetric

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A 500-ml volumetric flask.

Remember that temperature affects volume; therefore avoid using liquids that
will fluctuate in temperature (hot water that will cool, for example).

Droppers

A glass dropper.

Pipettes
A Pasteur pipette.

A Pasteur pipette.

There are a large variety of pipettes designed to accomplish specific goals.

However, they are all for measuring an exact volume of liquid and placing it
into another container.

Buirets

A Mohr burette.

A Mohr
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A buret is a glass tube that is open at the top and comes to a narrow pointed
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bottom. Right above the bottom opening is a stopcock that can
be turned to control the amount of liquid being released. There are markings
along the length of the tube that indicate the volume of liquid present.

A buret is used for extremely accurate addition of liquid. By adjusting the

stopcock, the amount of liquid that is released can be slowed to a drop every
few seconds. Burets are one of the most accurate tools in the lab.

Burets are set up by using a buret clamp in combination with a ring stand,
discussed below.

Remember to measure from the bottom of the meniscus!

Ring Stands, Rings, and Clamps

The ring stand is used to suspend burets, beakers, flasks, crucibles, etc. above
other containers or in some cases a heat source (Bunsen burner, discussed
below).

Always make sure everything is clamped to the stand tightly. When clamping
glass, be careful not to shatter the glass. Only tighten that end until snug.

When using a ring on the stand, there are usually other pieces necessary to
accomplish the goal. Wire mesh is laid across the ring to distribute evenly heat
and support the beaker. A clay triangle with an open center is used to suspend
crucibles.

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Tongs
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Foreceps.
Foreceps.

Tongs and forceps are for grabbing things that should not be touched by hand.
Some tongs are specially made to hold beakers, others to hold test tubes, and
so on. There are also general tongs.

Forceps are used to grab small things like solid chemicals that are broken into
chunks, so they can be safely handled and added to containers.

Spatulas and Scoopulas

Two scoopulas.

Thermometers
Glass thermometer.

Glass thermometer

A laboratory thermometer is a glass thermometer used for measuring the

temperature of liquids.

Bunsen Burners
A lit Bunsen burner.

A lit Bunsen burner.

A Bunsen
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collar that controls airflow. These both must be adjusted to get an ideal flame
for heating
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Utmost safety is required when using a Bunsen burner.

Balances
Triple beam balance.

Triple beam balance.

It is important to keep the balance clean.

EVALUATION

l. Which branch of pure chemistry deals with the study of compounds

associated with non-living sources?

(a) Physical chemistry (b) Organic chemistry

(c) Biochemistry (d) Inorganic chemistry

2. Which of the following is not a applied chemistry?

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(a) Engineer (b) Geologist

(c) Zoologist (d) Physician.

4. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of hydrocarbons is called

(a) Organic chemistry (c) Radiochemistry

(b) Inorganic chemistry (d) Nuclear chemistry.

II. Fill in the Blanks

5. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) Ecologist and chemist work together to ….. .

(ii) The branch of pure chemistry which deals with study of fundamental laws
and principles is called …..

(iii) Qualitative analysis deals with ….. .

(iv) Radiochemistry deals with the study of ….. substances.

(v) The phenomenon of metamorphosis of rocks is studied by ….. branch of

chemistry. m.

Discussion Questions

6. Define chemistry and its various disciplines.

7. Comment on the statement that chemistry is a central science discipline.

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9. Name and define various branches of pure chemistry.
10. Give a brief account of various career options of degree holder in
chemistry.

WEEK 2

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

On the basis of chemical nature matter is classified as an element, compound

or mixture.

Elements and compounds are pure substances whereas mixtures contain two
or more pure substances.

In this Unit, we shall study classification of matter on the basis of its physical
properties.

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is made up of small particles

The particle nature of matter can be demonstrated in activity 4.1:

To demonstrate
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1. Take about 50 cm3 water in a 100 cm3 beaker.

2. Mark the level of water.

3. Add some sugar to the beaker and stir with the help of a glass rod.

4. Observe the change in water level.

Fig. 4.1. Dissolution of sugar in water. In solution particles of sugar are present
in the spaces between particles of water

• The constituent particles of matter are extremely small in size

The following activity demonstrates that the constituent particles of matter are
very small

ACTIVITY 4.2

To demonstrate that the particles of matter are very small

1. Take a 250 cm3 beaker and add 100 cm3 water to it

2. Now add 2-3 crystals of KMnO4 and stir with a glass rod in order to dissolve
the crystals.

3. Take 10 cm3 of this solution and add to 100 cm3 of water taken in another
beaker.

4. Take
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5. Repeat
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beaker.
It is observed that the water in the last beaker is still coloured but the intensity
of colour becomes light It indicates that KMnO4 crystal contains millions of tiny
particles, some of which are still present even in the last beaker after so much
dilution.

• The particles of matter are continuously moving The motion of particles of

matter can be demonstrated by the following practical activities:

ACTIVITY 4.3

To demonstrate motion of particles of matter

Place a bottle containing concentrated aqueous solution of ammonia in a

corner of the room. Remove the stopper.

What do you observe?

It is observed that ammoniacal smell can be sensed sitting at a distance.

It demonstrates that the particles of ammonia are moving. Due to this motion
they are able to reach the observer.

Similarly, if an incense stick is lighted and placed in one comer of a room, its
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motion spread in the entire room and their presence can be felt by sensing the
smell.
ACTIVITY 4.4

To demonstrate motion of particles in water and ink

1. Take a 250 cm3 beaker and add about 100 cm3 of water to it.

2. Put a drop of blue ink to the water taken in the beaker. What do you
observe?

It is observed that the blue ink gets evenly distributed in the water.

This demonstrates that the particles of water and ink possess motion.

Due to motion of the particles, the particles of the two liquids are able to mix
with each other.

ACTIVITY 4.5

To demonstrate that the kinetic energy of particles increases with increase in

temperature

1. Take two beakers. To one beaker add 100 cm3 of cold water and to the other
beaker add 1 00 cm3 of hot water.

2. Now add a crystal of potassium permanganate to both the beakers.

What do you observe?

It is observed that the purple colour of potassium permanganate starts

spreading and after sometime the entire solution becomes purple. The rate of
mixing is faster in case of hot water. This experiment demonstrates that the
particles of matter possess motion and that the kinetic energy of the particles
increases with increase in temperature
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matter are However,
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brought in contact they intermix spontaneously. This intermixing is possible
due to motion
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them. The intermixing takes place due to movement of particles of one form
into the spaces between the particles of the other form of matter. This
spontaneous intermixing of particles of two different types of matter is called
diffusion. The rate of diffusion becomes faster with increase in temperature
because at higher temperature, the particles have more energy and hence
move faster.

• Particles of matter attract each other

There are forces of attraction between particles of matter. The evidence for
forces of attraction in gases is obtained from the fact that they can be liquefied
by applying pressure.

The important characteristics of particles of matter are summarized below:

1. The particles of matter are extremely small in size.

2. The particles of matter have spaces between them.

3. The particles of matter are continuously moving.

4. The particles of matter attract each other.

The constituent particles of matter may be atoms, molecules or ions. Some

examples are given below in tabular form:

Constituent particles Examples

1. Atoms Argon, neon, helium, diamond

2. Molecules Sucrose , glucose,urea,methane carbon(IV) oxide

3. Ions Sodium chloride, magnesium oxide, zinc sulphide

STATES
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Matter can be classified into three categories depending upon its physical
state, namely:
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All liquids and gases. These states of matter arise due to
variation in the characteristics of the particles of matter.
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

(i) The matter in solid state possesses a definite volume, a definite shape,
distinct boundaries and a definite mass.

(ii) Solids are rigid and almost incompressible.

(iii) Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape.

(iv) Solids generally possess high densities.

(v) Solids do not exhibit diffusion. Some common examples are: table, chair,
common salt, silver, ice, diamond, etc.

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

(i) The matter in liquid state possesses a definite volume, a definite mass, but
no definite shape.

(ii) Liquids are also almost incompressible but are not rigid. In fact, they can
flow and acquire the shape of the container in which they are kept.

(iii) Liquids can undergo diffusion.

(iv) Liquids also have high densities but less than that of solids.

Some examples are: milk, water, alcohol, petrol, kerosene, fruit juices, etc.

PROPERT ES OF GASES

(i) The matter in gaseous state has neither definite volume nor definite shape
but it has definite mass. It acquires the shape and volume of the container.

(ii) on
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engines. Oxygen supplied to hospitals in cylinders is also in compressed form.
Due to high
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small cylinder and transported easily.
(iii) The gases exhibit the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.

(iv) Gases exert pressure on the walls of the container in which they are stored.

(v) Gases have very low densities.

Some common examples of gases are: air, hydrogen carbon(IV) oxide,

hydrogen, sulphide, ammonia, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.

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Solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of matter due to
smaller interparticle spaces” and negligible compressibility.

Liquids and gases are known as fluids because of their ability to flow and
take the shape of container

PLASMA STATE-The Fourth State of matter

A comparison of the characteristic properties of solids, liquids and gases are

given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. Comparison of Characteristic Properties of Solids, Liquids and

Gases

Property Solids Liquids Gases

l.Sbape Definite Take the shape Take the

shape of

of the con the container by

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not necessarily of the space avaoccupy
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all of it. ilable to them.

2. Volume Definite Definite Take the
volume

of the container.

3. Compre- Almost nil Almost nil Very

large.

ssibility

4. Fluidity or Rigid Fluid Fluid

Rigidity

5. Density Large Large Very small.

6. Diffusion Generally Diffuse slowly Diffuse

rapidly.

do not

diffuse

7. Free Any Only one free No free

surface.

Surfaces number of surface

free

surfaces

Why Solids, Liquids and Gases Exhibit Different Properties?

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characteristics of the particles vary in the three states of matter.
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Now let us understand how the characteristics of particles vary in the three
states of matter.

Changes in states Chemical properties: Properties that do change tha

chemical nature of matter Examples of physical properties are: color, smell,
freezing point, boiling point, melting point, infra-red spectrum, attraction
(paramagnetic) or repulsion (diamagnetic) to magnets, opacity, viscosity and
density. There are many more examples. Note that measuring each of these
properties will not alter the basic nature of the substance. Examples of
chemical properties are: heat of combustion, reactivity with water, PH, and
electromotive force. The more properties we can identify for a substance,
the better we know the nature of that substance. These properties can then
help us model the substance and thus understand how this substance will
behave under various conditions. Physical and Chemical Properties All
substances have properties that we can use to identify them. For example
we can idenify a person by their face, their voice, height, finger prints, DNA
etc.. The more of these properties that we can identify, the better we know
the person. In a similar way matter has properties – and there are many of
them. There are two basic types of properties that we can associate with
matter. These properties are called Physical properties and Chemical
properties: Physical properties: Properties that do not change the chemical
nature of matter Chemical properties: Properties that do change tha chemical
nature of matter Examples of physical properties are: color, smell, freezing
point, boiling point, melting point, infra-red spectrum, attraction
(paramagnetic) or repulsion (diamagnetic) to magnets, opacity, viscosity and
density. There are many more examples. Note that measuring each of these
properties will not alter the basic nature of the substance. Examples of
chemical properties are: heat of combustion, reactivity with water, PH, and
electromotive force. The more properties we can identify for a substance,
the better we know the nature of that substance. These properties can then
help us model the substance and thus understand how this substance will
behave under various conditions.

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Changing States of Matter
A material will change from one state or phase to another at specific
combinations of temperature and surrounding pressure. Typically, the pressure
is atmospheric pressure, so temperature is the determining factor to the
change in state in thosecases.

When a material is cooled, its change in state typically goes from gas to
liquid to solid. There are some exceptions where the material will go directly
from a gas to asolid.

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Names of changes
Each change in the state of matter has a specific name.

Start from: Change to: Name

solid liquid melting

liquid solid freezing

liquid gas boiling

gas liquid condensation

gas
solid sublimation
(skipping liquid phase)

solid
gas deposition
(skipping liquid phase)

Change in temperature
When a material reaches the temperature at which a change in state occurs,
the temperature will remain the same until all the energy is used to change
the state.

Melting
When a solid is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches its melting
point. Any additional heat added to the material will not raise the
temperature until all of the material is melted.

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Boiling
When a liquid is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches its boiling
point. The temperature will then remain at that point until all of the liquid is
boiled away.

Chemical Changes Chemical changes take place on the molecular level. A

Chemical change is any change that results in the formation of new

Matter can be classified as solids, liquids and gases on the basis of its
physical state.

Matter is made up of extremely small particles.

There are spaces between particles of matter.

The particles of matter are continuously moving.

The particles of matter attract each other.

The spaces between particles are minimum in solid state and maximum in
gases.

The kinetic energy of particles minimum in solid state and maximum in

gaseous state.

The force of attraction between particles is maximum in solid state and

negligible in gaseous state.

Liquids and gases exhibit diffusion because their particles possess

translatory motion and possess larger interparticle spaces.

Solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of matter due to
smaller interparticle spaces and very little compressibility.

Liquids and gases are known as fluids because of their ability to flow and
take the shape of the container.

EVALUATION

1.Which of the following is not an example of matter?

(a) Air (b) Almonds

(c) Cold-drink (d) Love.

2. Which of the following has the strongest interparticle forces?

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3 Which of the following has atoms as the constituent particles?
(a) Dry ice (b) Argon

(c) Glucose (d) Potassium chloride.

Fill in the blanks

Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) The particles in …… state do not possess translator motion.

(ii) …… and …… states of matter are known as fluid states of matter.

(iii) Particles in …… state possess maximum kinetic energy.

(iv) Kinetic energy of particles of matter …… with increase in temperature.

I .Discussion Question

5 What are the characteristics of the particles of matter?

6. Which out of iron and chalk has stronger interparticle forces?

7. Give reasons for the following observations:

We can get the smell of perfume sitting from several meters away.

8. A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Which property of

matter does this observation show?

9. Describe an activity to demonstrate that the matter consists of particles and

that the particles are of extremely small size.

10. What are the characteristics of matter in solid state?

(i) SolidsAccept
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diffusion readily.
(ii) Gases are highly compressible.

12. Give reasons for the following:

(i) A gas fills completely the vessel in which it is kept.

(ii) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container.

11. Explain why solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of
matter.

14. Give reasons:

(i) Sponge is a solid yet we are able to compress it.

(ii) Sugar when kept in jars of different shapes it takes the shape of the jar yet
we call it a solid.

15.With two examples in each case,mention physical and chemical processes in

your environment.

16.What are states of matter?Use a suitable diagram to show how one state
can be converted to another state.

WEEK 3. ELEMENTS Element Definition: A chemic

W These are the first 20 elements, listed in order: 1 – H – Hydrogen

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Structure of an atom

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Accept All probably the easiest, is to refer to the periodic table and rem
subshells.jpg

Pauli Exclusion Principle The Pauli exclusion principle states that no t

We can clearly see that p orbitals are half-filled as there are three ele
period, Oxygen (Z = 8) its electron configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p4 (for a
oxygenexample.jpg

Note that in the orbital diagram, the two opposing spins of the elect
in spdf notation and noble gas notation. Another example is the elec
Ir1.jpg

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Ir3.jpg

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The electron a controlled
configuration consent.is much longer than aluminum
of iridium
is also followed, as each electron fills up each 5d orbital before being
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in the diagram, the total number of electrons in each energy level is
This is the electron configuration of helium; it denotes a full s orbital
electron configuration of the element yttrium. As always, refer to the
a much simpler and more efficient way to portray electron configura
example, there are 2 elements in the s-block, and 10 elements in the
to the atomic number. In this case, 2+2+6+2+6+2+10+6+2+1= 39 a
3d10 4p65s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p3 The reason why this electron
often overlook this break in the table and skip that energy level. Its i
commonly used) of writing the spdf notation is the expanded notatio
full orbitals would look like: 2px2 2py2 2pz2. The expanded notation fo
orbitals, indicate the two half filled orbitals. The expanded notation f
This brings up an interesting point about elements and electron con
configurations, and are known for being relatively inert. All noble ga
period above the element that is being analyzed is used to denote th
Example 6: Vanadium What is the electronic configuration of vanadiu
the reference noble gas. The noble gas in the configuration is denote
Vanadium, V: [Ar] 4s2 3d3 This method streamlines the process of dis
configurations of the valance electrons. In the example above, there
electrons in atoms are equal. But there are cases in which an atom ca
protons and 11 electrons, which means it has 11 positive charges an
i
This unequal number of negative and positive charges can occur in o
or lose protons. So atoms become ions by gaining or losing electron
positive charges than negative charges, which means it’s now called
image1.
Likewise, when the neutral magnesium atom loses two electrons, it fo
image2.p
Now consider the chlorine atom in sodium chloride. The neutral chlo
image3
Other details about ions Here are some extra tidbits about ions: You
image4.pn
The sodium cation has lost an electron — the valence electron, whic
image5
The electron configuration of the chloride ion is:
image6.png
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ALL the If However,
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ion, or, to provide a acontrolled
specifically, polyatomicconsent.
cation. It is written as:
im
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The nitrate ion, is also a polyatomic ion, or, specifically, a polyatomic
im
Ions are commonly found in a class of compounds called salts, or ion
example. On the other hand, when table sugar (sucrose) is dissolved
electrolyte, the compound is probably ionically bonded. If it’s a none
element is represented by X. How many electrons,protons and neu
numbers of neutrons. Isotopes are different forms of a single elemen

Examples: Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are both isotopes of carbon, on

EVALUATION Define the following terms i. Atomic number ii. ma

Mixture and compounds Mixtures have different properties from co

Applications: To separate colors in a dye. To separate pigments fro

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Applications: Separation of acetone and water. Distillation of alcoh

that of simple distillation, except that a fractionating column is fitted
through the fractionating column, because of the repeated condensa
in similar fashion in another receiver flask.

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Applications: Separation of different fractions from petroleum prod

Separating solids from

liquids – filtration
If a substance does not dissolve in a solvent, we say that it is insoluble. For
example, sand does not dissolve in water – it is insoluble.

Filtration is a method for separating an insoluble solid from a liquid. When a

mixture of sand and water is filtered:

the sand stays behind in the filter paper (it becomes the residue)

the water passes through the filter paper (it becomes the filtrate)

Shows a beaker with a mixture of solid and liquid in it. Another beaker has a
funnel with some filter paper in

A beaker containing a mixture of insoluble solid and liquid. There is filter paper
in a filter funnel above another beaker.

Separating Mixtures

components in a mixture retain their identities

exploit properties that distinguish the components to separate mixtures

the more similar the properties are, the more difficult it is to separate them

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basic strategies

phase conversion: convert components of the mixture into other

forms that are easy to isolate

phase transfer: add a new phase that collects some components

from the mixture, but not others

technique basis for separation apply this technique to:

liquid or gaseous
adsorption / phase transfer to a solid mixtures that contain at
desorption surface least one component that
adsorbs

liquid or gaseous
phase transfer from a solutions that contain
chromatography mobile mixture to a several components with
stationary phase differing affinities for the
stationary phase

gaseous mixtures
phase separation by containing at least one
condensation condensing gases in the gas with a much higher
mixture to liquids boiling point than the
others

phase transfer through a

porous membrane that solutions containing
dialysis allows some molecules to small molecules mixed
pass through, but not with very large molecules
others

gases with faster

separate a metal from

impurities by dissolving it solid mixtures with a
electrorefining
and then plating it onto metal as one component
an electrode

collect solid particles on a heterogeneous mixture

filtration
filter containing a solid phase

heterogeneous mixture
dense components sink,
floatation with phases with different
and lighter ones float
densities

ions in the mixture bind

to surfaces with
ion exchange oppositely charged sites solutions containing ions
(phase transfer to an ion
exchange resin)

convert solutes to an solutions containing a

precipitation easily separated solid solute that can be
form precipitated

bubble mixture through a gaseous mixtures

solution that selectively containing a solute that
scrubbing absorbs a component can be selectively
(phase transfer from gas absorbed by a scrubbing
to solution) solution

a gas bubbled through

the mixture carries off the a liquid mixture

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Adsorption and desorption

some solids bind gases and organic materials to their surfaces, removing
them from mixtures

adsorbed gases or liquids can recovered from the adsorbent material by

washing with a solvent

examples

activated charcoal adsorbs many gases and liquids

used as a “universal antidote” for poisoning

used in water purifiers (removes particulates, lead, copper,

mercury, chlorine, hypochlorite, organics)

used to adsorb drugs from the blood of overdose victims

silica gel absorbs moisture from air

Condensation
cooling a vapor causes components with the highest boiling points to
condense as liquids first

examples

separating steam and air

separating oxygen and nitrogen in air

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Dialysis
a semipermeable membrane allows some components in a mixture
through, but not others

how does the membrane distinguish components?

some membranes act as a “molecular sieve” that discriminates

between large and small molecules

some membranes dissolve one component better than others

development of new membranes is an active area of research in

industry and government

components flow spontaneously from the high concentration to low

concentration side

pressure applied to the low concentration side can stop or even

reverse this flow (reverse osmosis)

examples

purification of blood in dialysis machines

purification of seawater by reverse osmosis

separation of pollutants from drinking water

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Effusion
use porous membranes to separate light gases from heavy ones

average speed of gas molecules depends on the masses of their

molecules

heavy molecules in a mixture move slower on average than light

ones

gases made of light molecules diffuse through pores in membranes

faster than heavy molecules

differences from dialysis

membrane is permeable, not semipermeable: all gas molecules in the

mixture can pass through it

size of molecules isn’t usually important: pores in membrane are

much larger than gas molecules

…molecular velocity (and so, molecular mass) is the basis for

separation, not size

examples

separating helium from oxygen

separating uranium isotopes as volatile UF6

Dissolution (washing)
separate solids by washing away those that are soluble

examples

separating sand and salt by water washing

separating feldspars from quartz in rocks by washing with hot

concentrated phosphoric acid

separating organic stains from clothing by washing with organic

solvents (dry cleaning)

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Electrorefining
used to separate metals from impurities

strategy

dissolve the impure metal

plate it on an electrode, using a strong electric current

pure metal deposits on the electrode, and the impurities stay in

solution

Filtration
pass a mixture that contains solid particles through a porous filter

if pores are smaller than particles, solid particles stay on filter and
liquid/gaseous components pass through

often used after separation by precipitation

Ion exchange
used to separate ions from mixtures

pass the mixture over a surface that is covered with charged sites

some ions stick to the charged sites

examples

water deionization

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Precipitation
precipitation is the conversion of a solute to solid form by chemical or
physical change

solids are then separated by filtration or floatation

examples

separating mud and bacteria from water

a gooey aluminum hydroxide precipitate is formed in the water

to carry particulates and bacteria to the bottom of a vat

clean water is drawn off the top

separating sulfate ions from water by adding barium ions

barium ion + sulfate = insoluble barium sulfate

water softening with washing soda

carbonate + calcium ion = insoluble calcium carbonate

Scrubbing
scrubbing is bubbling a gas stream through a solution that traps some
components

examples

CO2 can be separated from air by bubbling it through a solution of

barium hydroxide

H2S can be removed from air by bubbling it through a zinc acetate

solution

Solvent extraction
a component moves into a solvent shaken with the mixture

works best with solvents that dissolve only one component

Blowing air through a straw in a glass of soda will cause it to go flat, because
the air carries off the volatile carbon dioxide.

volatile components can be reclaimed from the gas by scrubbing

Volatilization
heating a mixture can cause low-boiling components to volatilize
(vaporize)

several variations

distillation is collecting and condensing volatilized components

drying is complete volatilization of some components in the mixture

Separation of water from clothes on a clothesline is one obvious example. The

separation of salt from seawater using evaporating pools is another.

sublimation is volatilization of a solid (without melting!)

EVALUATION

1. Define and give one example each of i. A homogenous mixture and ii. A
heterogenous mixture.

2. Define the following terms.i. filtrate ii. distillate iii sublimate

3. How would you separate a mixture of salt and sand?Explain.

4. How would you separate the component of black ink.

5. List and explain all the separation techniques .Describe their industrial
application.

WEEK 10

PRACTICALS ON SEPERATION TECHNIQUES

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