INSEM Exam -2023 - Pattern Recognition

Answer Key:

Q1.
a) Draw and Explain Structure of typical pattern recognition system?
Ans- pattern recognition is a technology that concerns the description or classification of
measurements. The three main approaches to pattern analysis are identified by Statistical,
Syntactic and Neural Pattern Analysis. The structure of a typical pattern recognition system
consists a sensor, feature extraction mechanism (algorithm), and a classification or description
algorithm (depending on the approach).

Fig. Typical pattern recognition system structures

Structure of a Typical Pattern Recognition System
1. Sensor:
o The sensor is responsible for data acquisition. It captures raw data from the
environment, which could be in the form of images, sounds, signals, or other
measurements.
o Examples include cameras for image data, microphones for audio data, and various
sensors for capturing physical phenomena.
2. Feature Extraction Mechanism:
o Feature extraction involves transforming the raw data into a set of measurable
features or attributes. These features should capture the essential characteristics of
the data for classification purposes.
o Algorithms for feature extraction vary depending on the type of data and the
pattern recognition approach. For instance, edge detection in images or Mel-
frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) in audio signals.
3. Classification or Description Algorithm:
 o This component uses the extracted features to classify or describe the patterns. The
choice of algorithm depends on the pattern recognition approach.
o In statistical pattern recognition, this might involve statistical models like Gaussian
Mixture Models (GMM) or Support Vector Machines (SVM).
o In syntactic pattern recognition, this could involve grammar-based approaches and
parsing techniques.
o In neural pattern recognition, neural networks are trained to classify the patterns
based on the input features.
b) Explain pattern and Feature with suitable example?
Ans.
Pattern is everything around in this digital world. A pattern can either be seen physically or it can
be observed mathematically by applying algorithms.
A collection of observations or facts that show regularity or structure is referred to as a pattern.
Different sorts of data, including text, audio signals, visual images, and even numerical data, can
all contain patterns. Finding the structures or regularities that set one piece of data apart from
another is necessary to recognise these patterns
Example: The colors on the clothes, speech pattern, etc. In computer science, a pattern is
represented using vector feature values.

What is Pattern Recognition?

Pattern recognition is the process of recognizing patterns by using a machine learning algorithm.
Pattern recognition can be defined as the classification of data based on knowledge already gained
or on statistical information extracted from patterns and/or their representation. One of the
important aspects of pattern recognition is its application potential.
Examples: Speech recognition, speaker identification, multimedia document recognition (MDR),
automatic medical diagnosis.
In a typical pattern recognition application, the raw data is processed and converted into a form
that is amenable for a machine to use. Pattern recognition involves the classification and cluster of
patterns.
 In classification, an appropriate class label is assigned to a pattern based on an abstraction
that is generated using a set of training patterns or domain knowledge. Classification is
used in supervised learning.
 Clustering generated a partition of the data which helps decision making, the specific
decision-making activity of interest to us. Clustering is used in unsupervised learning.
Features may be represented as continuous, discrete, or discrete binary variables. A feature is a
function of one or more measurements, computed so that it quantifies some significant
characteristics of the object.
Example: consider our face then eyes, ears, nose, etc are features of the face.
A set of features that are taken together, forms the features vector.
Example: In the above example of a face, if all the features (eyes, ears, nose, etc) are taken
together then the sequence is a feature vector ([eyes, ears, nose]). The feature vector is the
sequence of a feature represented as a d-dimensional column vector. In the case of speech, MFCC
(Mel-frequency Cepstral Coefficient) is the spectral feature of the speech. The sequence of the
first 13 features forms a feature vector.

Pattern recognition possesses the following features:

 Pattern recognition system should recognize familiar patterns quickly and accurate
 Recognize and classify unfamiliar objects
 Accurately recognize shapes and objects from different angles
 Identify patterns and objects even when partly hidden
 Recognize patterns quickly with ease, and with automaticity.

C) Explain Feature selection process in detailed?

Ans:
Feature Selection is the method of reducing the input variable to your model by using only
relevant data and getting rid of noise in data.
It is the process of automatically choosing relevant features for your machine learning model
based on the type of problem you are trying to solve. We do this by including or excluding
important features without changing them. It helps in cutting down the noise in our data and
reducing the size of our input data.

The feature selection process involves several steps aimed at identifying and retaining the most
relevant features from the dataset to improve model performance and efficiency. Here's a detailed
explanation of the feature selection process:
Steps in Feature Selection
1. Understanding the Data:
o Data Collection: Gather data from various sources relevant to the problem.
o Data Exploration: Understand the data by performing exploratory data analysis
(EDA). This includes visualizing distributions, checking for missing values, and
understanding relationships between features and the target variable.
2. Data Preprocessing:
 o Handling Missing Values: Impute or remove missing values to ensure a complete
dataset.
o Data Cleaning: Remove duplicates, correct inconsistencies, and
normalize/standardize data if necessary.
o Encoding Categorical Variables: Convert categorical variables into numerical
format using techniques like one-hot encoding or label encoding.
3. Feature Selection Techniques:
o Filter Methods: Use statistical measures to evaluate and select features
independently of any machine learning model.
4. Evaluating Feature Selection:
o Model Training and Validation: Split the dataset into training and validation sets.
Train the model using the selected features and evaluate its performance on the
validation set.
Q.2)
a) Compare Classification and Recognition in Pattern Recognition?
Ans:
Aspect Classification Recognition

Definition Assigning a class label to input data. Identifying patterns and objects in
data.

Scope Specific task within recognition. Broader process encompassing

classification and more.

Process Steps Feature extraction, training, Detection, segmentation, feature

prediction. extraction, identification.

Examples Digit recognition, spam detection. Facial recognition, object

detection.

Techniques Naive Bayes, SVM, Decision Trees, Image processing, feature

CNNs. extraction methods, CNNs, RNNs.

Output Discrete class labels. Class labels, bounding boxes,

masks, etc.

Learning Supervised learning. Supervised, unsupervised,

Paradigms reinforcement learning.

Complexity Generally simpler and more focused. More complex, involving multiple
tasks.
When you have a single image to be identified, i.e., whether an image belongs to any single class
or not, it is called recognition.
For example, whether an image of a flower is predicted a flower by a machine algorithm or not.
When you have multiple images belonging to multiple classes, then it is as classification.
For example, the identification of flowers belongs to different classes such as roses, sunflowers,
dandelions, tulips, etc. In this case, machine learning algorithms predict whether the inputted
image is either one of the images of the specified class.

b) Differentiate SyntPR and NeurPR approaches?

Ans:
Syntactic Pattern Recognition (SyntPR) and Neural Pattern Recognition (NeurPR) are two distinct
approaches within the field of pattern recognition, each with its unique methodologies and
applications. Here is a detailed differentiation between these two approaches:
Syntactic Pattern Recognition (SyntPR)
Definition: Syntactic Pattern Recognition, also known as structural pattern recognition, is based
on the premise that complex patterns can be described in terms of simpler sub-patterns and their
relationships. It uses formal grammars to represent and recognize patterns.
Key Characteristics:
 Representation: Patterns are represented as structured, hierarchical models, often using
formal grammars (e.g., context-free grammars).
 Grammar and Parsing: The recognition process involves parsing the input pattern to check
its conformance to a predefined grammar.
 Hierarchical Structure: Emphasizes the decomposition of patterns into sub-patterns,
capturing the structural interrelationships.
 Flexibility: Well-suited for recognizing patterns with a clear and regular structure, such as
strings, trees, or graphs.

Neural Pattern Recognition (NeurPR)

Definition: Neural Pattern Recognition uses artificial neural networks (ANNs) to learn patterns
from data. It is inspired by the functioning of the human brain and involves training a network to
recognize patterns through examples.
Key Characteristics:
 Representation: Patterns are represented as numerical feature vectors.
 Learning-Based: Recognition involves training a neural network on a large set of labeled
examples.
  Adaptability: Can handle a wide range of patterns, including those without clear structure.
 Black-Box Nature: The internal workings of neural networks are often not easily
interpretable.
Aspect Syntactic Pattern Recognition Neural Pattern Recognition
(SyntPR) (NeurPR)

Basis Formal grammars and structured Artificial neural networks and

models learning algorithms

Pattern Structured hierarchies, grammar- Numerical feature vectors

Representation based

Recognition Parsing and grammar matching Learning from data and inference
Method

Flexibility Suitable for structured patterns Suitable for a wide range of patterns

Data Requires well-defined structural Requires large labeled datasets

Requirement rules

Interpretability High, due to structured Low, due to black-box nature

representation

Applications NLP, bioinformatics, document Image recognition, speech

analysis recognition, anomaly detection

Advantages Structured, modular, interpretable Flexible, high performance, scalable

Disadvantages Complex, limited flexibility Data-hungry, computationally

intensive, less interpretable

C) Identify the Procedure for Pattern Recognition system Engineering?

Ans:
Procedure for Pattern Recognition System Engineering
1. Problem Definition:
o Objective: Clearly define the problem you are trying to solve. Identify the type of
patterns you need to recognize and the application domain (e.g., image recognition,
speech recognition, anomaly detection).
o Requirements: Specify the requirements and constraints of the system, including
accuracy, speed, and resource limitations.
2. Data Collection:
 o Gather Data: Collect a large and diverse set of data relevant to the problem.
Ensure that the data represents the variety of patterns you aim to recognize.
o Labeling: If supervised learning is used, label the data accurately. For
unsupervised learning, ensure that the data is well-prepared for clustering or
anomaly detection.
3. Data Preprocessing:
o Cleaning: Remove noise, handle missing values, and correct any inconsistencies in
the data.
o Normalization/Standardization: Scale the data to ensure that it is in a suitable
range for pattern recognition algorithms.
o Segmentation: Divide the data into meaningful segments if necessary (e.g.,
dividing an audio signal into frames).
4. Feature Extraction:
o Identify Features: Determine which features of the data are most relevant for
recognizing patterns. This can include raw pixel values for images, MFCCs for
audio, or statistical features for time-series data.
o Feature Engineering: Create new features or transform existing ones to better
capture the underlying patterns.
5. Feature Selection:
o Select Relevant Features: Use techniques like correlation analysis, mutual
information, or principal component analysis (PCA) to select the most relevant
features and reduce dimensionality.
6. Model Selection:
o Choose Algorithms: Select appropriate pattern recognition algorithms based on
the problem and data characteristics. Common algorithms include decision trees,
SVMs, k-NN, and neural networks.
o Cross-Validation: Use cross-validation techniques to select the best model and
avoid overfitting.
7. Model Training:
o Train Models: Train the selected models using the preprocessed and feature-
engineered data.
o Hyperparameter Tuning: Optimize model hyperparameters using techniques like
grid search or random search to improve performance.
8. Model Evaluation:
o Performance Metrics: Evaluate the models using relevant metrics error for
regression.
 o Validation: Validate the models on a separate validation dataset to ensure
generalization.
o Error Analysis: Analyze errors and misclassifications to understand model
weaknesses and areas for improvement.
9. Deployment:
o Integration: Integrate the trained model into the target system or application.
o Real-Time Processing: Ensure the system can handle real-time data if required.
o Monitoring: Set up monitoring to track the performance of the deployed model
and detect any degradation over time.
10. Maintenance and Updating:
o Continuous Learning: Implement mechanisms for continuous learning and
updating the model with new data to keep it relevant.
o Retraining: Periodically retrain the model with updated data to maintain
performance.

Example Workflow: Handwritten Digit Recognition

1. Problem Definition: Recognize handwritten digits (0-9) from images.
2. Data Collection: Use the MNIST dataset, which contains 60,000 training images and
10,000 test images of handwritten digits.
3. Data Preprocessing:
o Normalize pixel values to the range [0, 1].
o Reshape images to a consistent size (28x28 pixels).
4. Feature Extraction: Use the raw pixel values as features.
5. Feature Selection: Use all pixel values (flattened to a 784-dimensional vector) as features.
6. Model Selection: Choose a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) for its effectiveness in
image recognition.
7. Model Training:
o Train the CNN on the training data.
o Perform hyperparameter tuning for learning rate, batch size, and number of epochs.
8. Model Evaluation:
o Evaluate the CNN on the test dataset using accuracy.
o Use confusion matrix and ROC curves for detailed performance analysis.
9. Deployment:
 o Integrate the trained CNN into a web application for digit recognition.
o Ensure the system can process images in real-time.
10. Maintenance and Updating:
o Monitor model performance using user feedback and new test data.
o Retrain the model periodically with new handwritten digit samples.

Q 3)
a) Describe the different approaches to developing StatPR classifiers?
Ans: Different approaches are-
1. Bayesian Classifiers
 Principle: Use Bayes' theorem to calculate the posterior probability of each class given the
observed data.
Types- Naive Bayes: Assumes independence between features given the class.
Gaussian Naive Bayes: Assumes features follow a Gaussian distribution.
 Advantages: Simple, fast, works well with small datasets.
 Disadvantages: Assumption of feature independence is often unrealistic.

2. k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN)

 Principle: Classifies a sample based on the majority class among its k nearest neighbors in
the feature space.
 Process: Measures distance (e.g., Euclidean) between samples to determine neighbors.
 Advantages: Simple, intuitive, non-parametric, no training phase.
 Disadvantages: Computationally expensive during prediction, sensitive to the choice of k
and feature scaling.

3. Support Vector Machines (SVM)

 Principle: Finds the hyperplane that best separates classes by maximizing the margin
between them.
 Process: Uses kernel functions to handle non-linear separation.
 Advantages: Effective in high-dimensional spaces, robust to overfitting.
 Disadvantages: Requires careful tuning of parameters (e.g., regularization parameter,
kernel choice), computationally intensive for large datasets.
4. Decision Trees
Principle: Recursively partitions the feature space into homogeneous regions based on the most
informative features.
 Process: Splits nodes using criteria like Gini impurity, entropy, or information gain.
 Advantages: Easy to interpret, handles both numerical and categorical data, non-
parametric.
 Disadvantages: Prone to overfitting, unstable (small changes in data can lead to different
trees).
5. Random Forests
 Principle: An ensemble of decision trees, where each tree is trained on a random subset of
the data and features.
 Process: Aggregates the predictions of individual trees to improve accuracy and
robustness.
 Advantages: Reduces overfitting, handles large datasets, robust to noise.
 Disadvantages: Less interpretable than individual decision trees, requires more
computational resources.
6. Logistic Regression
 Principle: Models the probability of the default class using a logistic function.
 Process: Fits a linear model to the log-odds of the probability of the class.
 Advantages: Simple, interpretable, probabilistic output.
 Disadvantages: Assumes linear relationship between features and log-odds, limited to
binary classification (can be extended to multiclass).

b) Discuss hoe to generate Feature Vector with Density Function?

Ans: feature vector with a density function involves a systematic process of data collection,
preprocessing, feature selection, density estimation, feature extraction, and vector construction.
By accurately capturing the underlying distribution of the data, the resulting feature vectors
enhance the performance of statistical pattern recognition models.
how this process can be approached:
1. Understanding Density Functions
Density functions describe the probability distribution of a random variable. In pattern
recognition, common density functions include the probability density function (PDF) for
continuous variables and the probability mass function (PMF) for discrete variables.
2. Feature Vector Generation Process
Step 1: Data Collection
 Gather a representative dataset from the domain of interest.
 Ensure that the data is diverse and captures the different variations of the patterns you aim
to recognize.
Step 2: Preprocessing
 Normalization/Standardization: Scale the data to a consistent range, such as [0, 1] or
having zero mean and unit variance.
 Noise Reduction: Apply filtering techniques to remove noise from the data, enhancing the
signal quality.
Step 3: Selecting Features
 Identify the most relevant attributes that capture the characteristics of the data. These can
be raw features (e.g., pixel values in images) or derived features (e.g., edges, textures).
Step 4: Density Estimation
 Estimate the density function of the selected features. This can be done using parametric or
non-parametric methods:
o Parametric Methods: Assume a specific form for the density function, such as a
Gaussian distribution. Parameters (mean, variance) are estimated from the data.
o Non-Parametric Methods: Do not assume a specific form for the density function.
Methods include:
Step 5: Feature Extraction
 Use the estimated density function to extract features that capture the underlying
distribution. Examples include:
o Moments: Statistical moments (mean, variance, skewness, kurtosis) describe the
shape of the distribution.
o Quantiles: Values that divide the data into intervals with equal probabilities.
o Probability Scores: Use the density function to compute the probability of each
data point or a set of points.
Step 6: Constructing the Feature Vector
 Combine the extracted features into a feature vector that represents each data sample.
Ensure that the feature vector is of a consistent size and format.

c) Define and Explain Discriminant Function?

Ans: Definition: A discriminant function is a function that maps input features to a class label or
a score that indicates the likelihood of belonging to a particular class. It quantifies the relationship
between input data and class labels based on learned parameters.
 • Formulation: Discriminant functions can take various forms depending on the classifier
used:
• Linear Discriminant Functions: Classify data using linear combinations of input
features (e.g., linear SVM, linear discriminant analysis).
• Non-linear Discriminant Functions: Capture complex relationships between
features and classes using non-linear transformations (e.g., kernel SVM, neural
networks).
• Usage: During classification, the discriminant function evaluates input features and
outputs a decision that maximizes the classifier’s accuracy in assigning class
labels.
A discriminant function is a mathematical function used by classifiers to assign a class label to a
given feature vector. It evaluates the input feature vector and outputs a value that indicates the
class of the data point.
Example: In the context of our flower classification, the discriminant function might be used to
determine whether a flower is a rose or tulip based on its petal and sepal measurements. The
function will produce a score, and based on this score, the classifier will assign the appropriate
class label.
Q.4)

a) Describe any simple example of statistical Model?

Ans: Statistical modelling refers to the data science process of applying statistical analysis to
datasets. A statistical model is a mathematical relationship between one or more random variables
and other non-random variables. The application of statistical modeling to raw data helps data
scientists approach data analysis in a strategic manner, providing intuitive visualizations that aid
in identifying relationships between variables and making predictions.
Common data sets for statistical analysis include Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, census data,
public health data, social media data, imagery data, and other public sector data that benefit from
real-world predictions.
The most common statistical modeling methods for analyzing this data are categorized as either
supervised learning or unsupervised learning. Some popular statistical model examples include
logistic regression, time-series, clustering, and decision trees.
A statistical model is a set of assumptions about the probability distribution that generated some
observed data.
Example Suppose that we randomly draw n individuals from a certain population and measure
their height. The measurements can be regarded as realizations of random variables .
In principle, these random variables could have any probability distribution. If we assume that
they have a normal distribution, as it is often done for height measurements, then we are
formulating a statistical model: we are placing a restriction on the set of probability distributions
that could have generated the data.
b) Explain Unsupervised Learning Technique in PR?
Ans: Definition:
Unsupervised learning is a fascinating branch of machine learning that plays a crucial role in data
analysis, pattern recognition, and anomaly detection. Unlike supervised learning, where algorithms
are trained on labelled data, unsupervised learning involves learning from unlabelled data,
uncovering hidden structures and patterns. In this article, we will explore the fundamentals of
unsupervised learning, its applications, and some popular algorithms.

What is Unsupervised Learning?

Unsupervised learning is a subset of machine learning where algorithms are designed to learn
patterns, relationships, or structures within data without any explicit supervision. In essence, it
allows computers to explore data on their own and identify inherent similarities, differences, or
groupings.

Key Concepts in Unsupervised Learning:

Clustering: Clustering is a fundamental concept in unsupervised learning, where the goal is to

group similar data points together. This is useful for tasks like customer segmentation, image
segmentation, and more.

Dimensionality Reduction: Unsupervised learning methods can reduce the dimensionality of data
by extracting relevant features, making it easier to visualize and analyze complex datasets.

Applications of Unsupervised Learning:

Customer Segmentation: Businesses often use unsupervised learning to segment their customer
base into different groups based on purchasing behavior, demographics, or other features. This
enables them to tailor marketing strategies.
Anomaly Detection: Unsupervised learning can help detect outliers or anomalies in data, which is
crucial for fraud detection, network security, and quality control in manufacturing.

Image and Speech Recognition: Clustering and dimensionality reduction techniques are
employed in image and speech processing, allowing for improved recognition and understanding of
these complex data types.

Popular Unsupervised Learning Algorithms:

K-Means Clustering : K-means is a well-known clustering algorithm that groups data into 'k'
clusters based on their similarity. It's widely used for data segmentation and pattern discovery.

Hierarchical Clustering: This method builds a hierarchy of clusters, which can be represented as
a tree-like structure. It's useful when the number of clusters is not known in advance.
 Principal Component Analysis (PCA ): PCA is a dimensionality reduction technique that
identifies the most important features in a dataset while reducing its dimensionality.

Challenges and Considerations:

Unsupervised learning has its challenges, including the difficulty of evaluating model performance
in the absence of labels. Additionally, choosing the right number of clusters or features can be a
non-trivial task.

c) Draw and Explain Pattern vector Classification approach?

Pattern vector classification involves representing data points as vectors in a feature
space and using various techniques to classify these vectors into predefined
categories.

Steps in Pattern Vector Classification

1. Raw Data: The initial data can come from various sources (e.g., images, text, sensor data).
2. Feature Extraction: Transform the raw data into a suitable format (feature vectors) that
captures essential characteristics. This can involve:
o Statistical measures (mean, variance)
o Text representation techniques (TF-IDF, word embeddings)
o Image processing techniques (color histograms, edge detection)
3. Training: The feature vectors from labeled data (where the class/category is known) are
used to train a classification model. Common classifiers include:
o Support Vector Machines (SVM): Finds the hyperplane that best separates different
classes.
o Decision Trees: Splits the data based on feature values to make predictions.
o k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN): Classifies a new instance based on the majority class
of its nearest neighbors.
o Neural Networks: Uses layers of neurons to learn complex relationships between
feature vectors and class labels.
4. Classifier Model: The trained classifier can now predict the class for new, unseen data.
 5. New Data Point: For a new instance, the same feature extraction process is applied to
create a feature vector.
6. Prediction: The classifier uses the feature vector to predict the class of the new data point
based on learned patterns from the training data.

Example of Handwritten Digit Recognition

1. Raw Data
The MNIST dataset consists of 70,000 images of handwritten digits (0-9), each of size 28x28
pixels. Each image represents a digit, and the dataset is divided into a training set (60,000 images)
and a test set (10,000 images).
2. Feature Extraction
In this case, each image can be flattened into a vector. For example, the 28x28 pixel image can be
converted into a feature vector of size 784 (28 * 28). Each pixel value (0-255) becomes an
element in the feature vector.
 Example of a feature vector for a digit '3':
3. Training
Using the feature vectors and corresponding labels (the digit each image represents), a
classification model is trained. Here are a few possible classifiers that could be used:
 Support Vector Machine (SVM): Trains a hyperplane to separate the different digit classes.
 k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN): Classifies digits based on the majority class of the k closest
training examples.
 Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN): A specialized neural network architecture that
effectively captures spatial hierarchies in images.
4. Classifier Model
The CNN is trained on the training set of images, adjusting weights based on the prediction errors
for each class. After training, the CNN learns to recognize patterns associated with different digits.
5. New Data Point
For a new handwritten digit image, the same feature extraction process is applied. The image is
flattened into a vector of size 784.
6. Prediction
The CNN takes the feature vector of the new image and produces an output. This output is a
probability distribution over the 10 digit classes (0-9).
 Example output from the model for a new digit:
Evaluation
After predictions, the performance of the model is evaluated using the test set. Metrics such as
accuracy, confusion matrix, and classification report (precision, recall, F1 score) are calculated to
understand how well the model performs on unseen data.
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