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UNIT I

INTRODUCTION

Fundamentals of Wireless Communication Technology – The Electromagnetic spectrum–

Radio propagation Mechanisms – Characteristics of the Wireless Channel –mobile ad hoc
networks (MANETs) and wireless sensor networks (WSNs): concepts and architectures.
Applications of Ad Hoc and Sensor networks. Design Challenges in Ad hoc and Sensor
Networks.
PART- A
1. What is an ad hoc network?

An ad hoc network is a multi hop, infrastructure less network which has no

centralized server to control the communication between the nodes and resources cannot
be reserved beforehand. It is used in battlefields and military applications.

2. What are the challenging issues in ad hoc network maintenance?

The challenging issues in ad hoc network are

Medium access scheme

Routing

Multicast routing

Transport layer protocol

Pricing Schemes

Quality of Service Provisioning

Self-Organization

Security

Addressing and Service Discovery

Energy Management

Scalability

Deployment considerations

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3. Why are ad hoc networks needed?

Ad hoc networking is often needed where an infrastructure network cannot be

deployed and managed. The presence of dynamic and adaptive routing protocols
enables quick formation of ad hoc networks and is suitable for emergency situations
like natural disasters, spontaneous meetings or military conflicts.

4. List the applications of ad hoc networks.

Ad hoc networks are widely used in

Military applications and battlefields
Collaborative and distributed computing
Emergency search and rescue operations
Wireless sensor and mesh networks

5. List the transmission impediments of wireless channel. (or) List the

characteristics of wireless channels.

The characteristics of wireless channel are

Path loss

Fading

Interference

Doppler Shift

rate constraints


6. What is fading? List the different types of fading.

Fading refers to the fluctuations in signal strength, when received at the receiver.
It occurs due to multipath propagation. The different types of fading are
1.Slow/long term fading 2.Fast/short term fading

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7. List the characteristics and Applications of

MANETs.
The characteristics of MANETs are
Dynamic topologies

Bandwidth-constrained and variable capacity links.

Energy-constrained operation.

Limited physical security.
The applications of MANET are
Defense applications.

Crisis-management applications

Telemedicine

Tele-geo processing applications (e)Virtual navigation

Education via the internet


8. Define- MANET.

MANET is defined as an autonomous system of nodes or Mobile Stations (also

serving as routers) connected by wireless links, the union that forms a communication
networks, modeled in the form of an arbitrarily communication graph.

9. What is scattering?(Nov 2016)

When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is

spread out in all directions. This is called scattering. It occurs when the
wavelength of medium is small when compared to wavelength of travelled wave.
e.g. Foliage, lamp post, sharp edges.
10. Define Reflection

When the propagating radio wave hits an object which is very large
compared to its wavelength (such as the surface of the Earth, or tall buildings), the
wave gets reflected by that object. Reflection causes a phase shift of 180 degrees
between the incident and the reflected rays.

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11. Write the equation for maximum data rate according to Shannon’s theorem.

Shannon’s theorem states the maximum data rate possible on a noisy

channel. The maximum data rate is
C = B x log 2 (1+(S/N)) bits per second
Where C = maximum data rate, B = bandwidth S/N = signal to noise ratio.
The Noise level is represented by SNR – Signal to Noise Ratio.

PART B

1. Explain in detail about Cellular and Ad Hoc Wireless Networks (Nov/Dec 2016)

Figure1.1 Cellular and Ad hoc and wireless networks

The current cellular wireless networks are classified as the infrastructure

dependent network. The path setup for a call between two nodes, say, node C to E, is
completed through base station as illustrated in the figure 1.2
Ad hoc wireless networks are defined as a category of wireless network that utilize
multi-hop radio replaying and are capable of operating without the support of any fixed

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infrastructure. Absence of any central coordinator or base station makes the routing
complex.

Figure1.2 Cellular networks

Ad hoc wireless network topology for the cellular network shown in above figure
is illustrated below.
The path setup for a call between 2 nodes, say, node C to E , is completed through
the intermediate mobile node F.

Wireless mesh network and Wireless sensor networks are specific examples of ad
hoc wireless networks.

The presence of base station simplifies routing and resource management in a
cellular network.

But in ad hoc networks, routing and resource management are done in a
distributed manner in which all nodes co-ordinate to enable communication among
them.

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Figure 1.3 An Ad hoc wireless network

Difference between cellular networks and adhoc wireless networks.

Cellular Networks Ad hoc Wireless network

Fixed Infrastructure based Infrastructure less

Single hop wireless links Multi-hop wireless links
Guaranteed Bandwidth(voice traffic) Shared radio channel( data traffic)
Circuit-switched(evolving toward packet Packet-switched(evolved toward emulation
switching) of circuit switching)
High cost and time of deployment Quick and cost – effective deployment
Reuse of frequency spectrum through Dynamic frequency reuse based on carrier
geographical channel reuse sense mechanism
Easier to achieve time synchronization Time synchronization is difficult and
consumes bandwidth.

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Cellular Networks Ad hoc Wireless network

Easier to employ bandwidth reservation Bandwidth reservation requires complex

medium access control and protocols.
Application domains include mainly Application domains include battle fields,
civilian and commercial sectors emergency search and reuse operations and
collaborative computing
High cost of network maintenance(backup Self organization and maintenance
Power source, staffing) properties are built into the networks
Mobile hosts are of relatively low Mobile host requires more intelligence
complexity
Major goals of routing and call admission Main aim of routing is to find paths with
are to maximize the call acceptance ratio minimum overhead and also quick
and minimize the call drop ratio reconfiguration of broken paths.
rd
Widely deployed and currently in the 3 Several issues are to be addressed for
generation of Evolution successful commercial deployment even
though widespread use exists in defense.

2. Explain in detail about Applications of Ad Hoc Wireless

Networks Military Application:

Ad hoc wireless networks can be very useful in establishing communication

among a group of soldiers for tactical operations.

Setting up of a fixed infrastructure for communication among group of soldiers
in enemy territories or in inhospitable terrains may not be possible.

In such a case, ad hoc wireless networks provide required communication
mechanism quickly.

The primary nature of the communication required in a military environment
enforces certain important requirements on adhoc wireless networks namely,
Reliability, Efficiency, Secure communication & Support for multicast routing.

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Collaborative & Distributed computing

Adhoc wireless network helps in collaborative computing, by establishing

temporary communication infrastructure for quick communication with
minimal configuration among a group of people in a conference.

In distributed file sharing application reliability is of high importance which
would be provided by adhoc network.

Other applications such as streaming of multimedia objects among participating
nodes in ad hoc wireless networks require support for soft real-time
communication

Devices used for such applications could typically be laptops with add-on
wireless interface cards, enhanced personal digital assistants (PDAs) or mobile
devices with high processing power
Emergency Operations

Ad hoc wireless networks are very useful in emergency operations such as

search and rescue, crowd control and commando operations.

The major factors that favour ad hoc wireless networks for such tasks are
self-configuration of the system with minimal overhead, independent of fixed or
centralized infrastructure, the freedom and flexibility of mobility, and
unavailability of conventional communication infrastructure.

In environments, where the conventional infrastructure based communication
facilities are destroyed due to a war or due to natural calamities, immediate
deployment of ad hoc wireless networks would be a good solution for co-
ordinating rescue activities.

They require minimum initial network configuration with very little or no
delay.

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Wireless Mesh Network

Wireless mesh networks are adhoc wireless network that are formed to provide
an alternate communication infrastructure for mobile or fixed nodes/users,
without the spectrum reuse constraint & requirement of network planning of
cellular network.

It provides many alternate paths for a data transfer session between a source &
destination, resulting in quick reconfiguration of the path when the existing
path fails due to node failure.

Since the infrastructure built is in the form of small radio relaying devices, the
investment required in wireless mesh networks is much less than what is
required for the cellular network counterpart.

The possible deployment scenarios of wireless mesh networks include:
residential zones, highways, business zones, important civilian regions and
university campuses

Wireless mesh networks should be capable of self-organization and
maintenance.

It operates at license-free ISM band around 2.4 GHz & 5 GHz.

It is scaled well to provide support to large number of points.

Major advantage is the support for a high data rate, quick & low cost of
deployment, enhanced services, high scalability, easy extend ability, high
availability & low cost per bit.

Wireless Sensor Networks:

Sensor networks are special category of Ad hoc wireless network that are used
to provide a wireless communication infrastructure among the sensors deployed in
a specific application domain.
Sensor nodes are tiny devices that have capability of sensing physical
parameters processing the data gathered, & communication to the monitoring

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system. The issues that make sensor network a distinct category of ad hoc wireless
network are the following:
Mobility of nodes:
Mobility of nodes is not a mandatory requirement in sensor networks.
For example, the nodes used for periodic monitoring of soil properties are not
required to be mobile & the nodes that are fitted on the bodies of patients in a
post-surgery ward of a hospital are designed to support limited or partial mobility.
In general, sensor networks need not in all cases be designed to support

mobility of sensor nodes.

Size of the network:

The number of nodes in sensor network can be much larger than that in a
typical ad hoc wireless network.

Density of deployment :

The density of nodes in a sensor network varies with the domain of

application. For example, Military applications require high availability of the
network, making redundancy a high priority.

Power constraints :

The power constraints in sensor networks are much more stringent than
those in ad hoc wireless networks. This is mainly because the sensor nodes are
expected to operate in harsh environmental or geographical conditions, with
minimum or no human supervision and maintenance. In certain case, the
recharging of the energy source is impossible.
Running such a network, with nodes powered by a battery source with
limited energy, demands very efficient protocol at network, data link, and physical

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layer. The power sources used in sensor networks can be classified into the
following 3 categories:

Replenishable Power source: The power source can be replaced when the
existing source is fully drained.
Non-replenishable Power source: The power source cannot be
replenished once the network has been deployed. The replacement of sensor
node is the only solution.
Regenerative Power source: Here, Power source employed in sensor
network have the capability of regenerating power from the physical
parameter under measurement.

Data / Information fusion :

Data fusion refers to the aggregation of multiple packets into one before
relaying it.
Data fusion mainly aims at reducing the bandwidth consumed by redundant
headers of the packets and reducing the media access delay involved in
transmitting multiple packets.
Information fusion aims at processing the sensed data at the intermediate
nodes and relaying the outcome to the monitor node.

Traffic Distribution :

Communication traffic pattern varies with the domain of application in

sensor networks. For example, the environmental sensing application generates
short periodic packets indicating the status of the environmental parameter under
observation to a central monitoring station. This kind of traffic requires low
bandwidth. Ad hoc wireless networks generally carry user traffic such as
digitized & packetized voice stream or data traffic, which demands higher
bandwidth.

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3. Explain in detail about Issues in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks.(Apr/May 2017)

The major issues that affect the design, deployment, & performance of an ad hoc
wireless network system are:

Medium Access Scheme.

Transport Layer Protocol.
Routing.
Multicasting.
Energy Management.
Self-Organization.
Security.
Addressing & Service discovery.
Deployment considerations.
Scalability.
Pricing Scheme.
Quality of Service Provisioning

1. Medium Access Scheme

The primary responsibility of a Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol in ad hoc

wireless networks is the distributed arbitration for the shared channel for
transmission of packets. The major issues to be considered in designing a MAC
protocol for ad hoc wireless networks are as follows:
a. Distributed Operation:
The ad hoc wireless networks need to operate in environments where no
centralized coordination is possible.
The MAC protocol design should be fully distributed involving minimum
control overhead.

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b. Synchronization:
The MAC protocol design should take into account the requirement of time
synchronization. Synchronization is mandatory for TDMA-based systems for
management of transmission and reception slots.
c. Hidden Terminals:

Hidden terminals are nodes that are hidden(or not reachable) from the
sender of a data transmission session, but are reachable to the receiver of the
session.
d. Exposed terminals:

Exposed terminals, the nodes that are in the transmission range of the
sender of an on-going session, are prevented from making a transmission.
e. Throughput:

The MAC protocol employed in adhoc wireless networks should attempt to

maximize the throughput of the system.
f. Access delay:

The average delay that any packet experiences to get transmitted. The
MAC protocol should attempt to minimize the delay.
g. Fairness:

Fairness refers to the ability of the MAC protocol to provide an equal share
or weighted share of the bandwidth to all competing nodes. Fairness can be either
node-based or flow-based.
h. Real-time Traffic support:

In a contention-based channel access environment, without any central

coordination, with limited bandwidth, and with location-dependent contention,
supporting time- sensitive traffic such as voice, video, and real-time data requires
explicit support from the MAC protocol.

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i. Resource reservation:
The provisioning of QoS defined by parameters such as bandwidth, delay,
and jitter requires reservation of resources such as bandwidth, buffer space, and
processing power.
j. Ability to measure resource availability:

In order to handle the resources such as bandwidth efficiently and perform

call admission control based on their availability, the MAC protocol should be
able to provide an estimation of resource availability at every node.This can also
be used for making congestion control decisions.
k. Capability for power control:

The transmission power control reduces the energy consumption at the

nodes, causes a decrease in interference at neighboring nodes, and increases
frequency reuse.
l. Adaptive rate control:

This refers to the variation in the data bit rate achieved over a channel.
A MAC protocol that has adaptive rate control can make use of a high data
rate when the sender and receiver are nearby & adaptively reduce the data rate as
they move away from each other.
m. Use of directional antennas:

This has many advantages that include

Increased spectrum reuse.

Reduction in interference and

Reduced power consumption
2. Routing

The responsibilities of a routing protocol include exchanging the route

information; finding a feasible path to a destination. The major challenges that a
routing protocol faces are as follows:

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Mobility :

The Mobility of nodes results in frequent path breaks, packet collisions, transient
loops, stale routing information, and difficulty in resource reservation.
Bandwidth constraint :

Since the channel is shared by all nodes in the broadcast region, the bandwidth
available per wireless link depends on the number of nodes & traffic they handle.
Error-prone and shared channel :

-5 -3
The Bit Error Rate (BER) in a wireless channel is very high [ 10 to 10 ]
-12 -9
compared to that in its wired counterparts [ 10 to 10 ].
Consideration of the state of the wireless link, signal-to-noise ratio, and path loss for
routing in ad hoc wireless networks can improve the efficiency of the routing protocol.
Location-dependent contention :
The load on the wireless channel varies with the number of nodes present in a
given geographical region.
3.Multicasting

It plays important role in emergency search & rescue operations & in military
communication. Use of single-link connectivity among the nodes in a multicast group
results in a tree-shaped multicast routing topology. Such a tree-shaped topology provides
high multicast efficiency, with low packet delivery ratio due to the frequency tree breaks.
The major issues in designing multicast routing protocols are as follows:
Robustness

Efficiency

Control overhead

Quality of Service

Efficient group management

Scalability

Security

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Transport Layer Protocol

The main objectives of the transport layer protocols include :


Setting up & maintaining end-to-end connections,

Reliable end-to-end delivery of packets,

Flow control &Congestion control.


Pricing Scheme

Assume that an optimal route from node A to node B passes through node C, &
node C is not powered on.
Then node A will have to set up a costlier & non-optimal route to B.
The non-optimal path consumes more resources & affects the throughput of the system.
As the intermediate nodes in a path that relay the data packets expend their
resources such as battery charge & computing power, they should be properly
compensated.
Hence, pricing schemes that incorporate service compensation or service
reimbursement are required.

6. Quality of Service Provisioning (QoS)

QoS is the performance level of services offered by a service provider or a

network to the user. QoS provisioning often requires, Negotiation between host & the
network. Resource reservation schemes, Priority scheduling &Call admission control.
QoS-aware routing :
Finding the path is the first step toward a QoS-aware routing protocol.The
parameters that can be considered for routing decisions are,

 Network throughput.

 Packet delivery ratio.

Reliability.

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
 Delay.

 Delay jitter.

 Packet loss rate.

 Bit error rate.

Path loss.
QoS framework :
A framework for QoS is a complete system that attempts to provide the
promised services to each user or application.
The key component of QoS framework is a QoS service model which
defines the way user requirements are served.

7. Self-Organization

One very important property that an ad hoc wireless network should exhibit is
organizing & maintaining the network by itself.
The major activities that an ad hoc wireless network is required to perform for
self- organization are,
Neighbour discovery.
Topology organization &
Topology reorganization (updating topology information)

8. Security

Security is an important issue in ad hoc wireless network as the information can be

hacked.
Attacks against network are of 2 types :
Passive attack → Made by malicious node to obtain information transacted in
the network without disrupting the operation.
Active attack → They disrupt the operation of network.
Further active attacks are of 2 types :
External attack: The active attacks that are executed by nodes outside the network.

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Internal attack: The active attacks that are performed by nodes belonging to
the same network.

9. Addressing and service discovery

Addressing & service discovery assume significance in ad hoc wireless network

due to the absence of any centralised coordinator.
An address that is globally unique in the connected part of the ad hoc wireless
network is required for a node in order to participate in communication.
Auto-configuration of addresses is required to allocate non-duplicate addresses to
the nodes.

10. Energy Management

Energy management is defined as the process of managing the sources &

consumers of energy in a node or in the network for enhancing the lifetime of a network.

11. Scalability

Scalability is the ability of the routing protocol to scale well in a network with a
large number of nodes.
It requires minimization of control overhead & adaptation of the routing protocol
to the network size.

12. Deployment Considerations

The deployment of a commercial ad hoc wireless network has the following
benefits when compared to wired networks
Low cost of deployment

Incremental deployment

Short deployment time

Reconfigurability
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4. Explain in detail about Electromagnetic spectrum.

Wireless communication is based on the principles of broadcast and reception of

electromagnetic waves. These waves can be characterized by their frequency (f) or their
wavelength (λ). Frequency is the number of cycles (oscillations) per second of the wave
and is measured in Hertz (Hz), in honor of Heinrich Hertz, the German physicist who
discovered radio, and wavelength is the distance between two consecutive maxima or
minima in the wave. The speed of propagation of these waves (c) varies from medium to
medium, except in a vacuum where all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed,
the speed of light. The relation between the above parameters can be given as

C=λ*f

where c is the speed of light (3 × 108m/s), f is the frequency of the wave in Hz, and λ is
its wavelength in meters.
ITU, located in Geneva and a sub organization of the United Nations, coordinates
wired and wireless telecommunication activities worldwide. There are no official names
for the bands in which the very high-frequency X-rays and Gamma rays fall.
The low-frequency bands comprised of the radio, microwave, infrared, and visible
light portions of the spectrum can be used for information transmission by modulating
the amplitude, frequency, or the phase of the waves.

The high frequency waves such as X-rays and Gamma rays, though theoretically
better for information propagation, are not used due to practical concerns such as the
difficulty to generate and modulate these waves, and the harm they could cause to
living things.

Radio waves are easy to generate and are widely used for both indoor and outdoor
communication due to properties such as their ability to pass through buildings and
ability to travel long distances. Since radio transmission is omni directional (when
radio waves are generated, they spread out from the transmitting antenna in all

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directions) in nature, the need to physically align the transmitter and receiver also
does not arise.
The frequency of the radio wave determines many of the characteristics of the
transmission.

At low frequencies the waves can pass through obstacles easily, but their power falls
with an inverse-squared relation with respect to the distance. The higher frequency
waves are more prone to absorption by rain drops, and they get reflected by obstacles.

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands the propagation of waves, also called as ground waves
The maximum transmission ranges of these waves are of the order of a few hundred
kilometers. They are used for low bandwidth transmissions such as amplitude
modulated (AM) radio broadcasting

The HF and VHF band transmissions are absorbed by the atmosphere near the Earth’s
surface.

However, a portion of the radiation, called the sky wave, radiates outward and upward
to the ionosphere in the upper atmosphere.

SNR is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power on a transmission medium,
and is used to categorize the quality of a transmission. However, because of the higher
frequency of operation they do not pass through buildings.

Infrared waves and waves in the EHF band (also known as millimeter waves) are used
for short-range communication.

Figure 1.4 Frequency Spectrum

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Spectrum Allocation
Worldwide, an agency of the International Telecommunications Union Radio
communication (ITU-R) Bureau called World Administrative Radio Conference
(WARC) tries to coordinate the spectrum allocation by the various national
governments, so that communication devices that can work in multiple countries can be
manufactured. Methods used for this frequency allocation are comparative bidding,
lottery system and auctioning method.

5. Explain in detail about Radio Propagation Mechanisms (April/May 2017)

Radio waves generally experience the following three propagation mechanisms:

• Reflection:
When the propagating radio wave hits an object which is very large
compared to its wavelength (such as the surface of the Earth, or tall buildings), the
wave gets reflected by that object. Reflection causes a phase shift of 180 degrees
between the incident and the reflected rays.
• Diffraction:

The propagation effect is undergone by a wave when it hits an impenetrable

object. The wave bends at the edges of the object, thereby propagating in different
directions. This phenomenon is termed as diffraction. The dimensions of the object
causing diffraction are comparable to the wavelength of the wave being diffracted.
The bending causes the wave to reach places behind the object which generally
cannot be reached by the line-of-sight transmission. The amount of diffraction is
frequency-dependent, with the lower frequency waves diffracting more.

• Scattering:

When the wave travels through a medium, which contains many objects
with dimensions small when compared to its wavelength, scattering occurs. The
wave gets scattered into several weaker outgoing signals. In practice, objects such
as street signs, lamp posts, and foliage cause scattering.

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Figure 1.5 Radio Propagation mechanism.

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UNIT II

MAC PROTOCOL FOR AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS

Issues in designing a MAC Protocol- Classification of MAC Protocols- Contention based

protocols- Contention based protocols with Reservation Mechanisms- Contention based
protocols with Scheduling Mechanisms – Multi channel MAC-IEEE 802.11

1. List the design goals of a MAC protocol for ad-hoc networks.

Design goals of a MAC protocol for ad-hoc networks are
The operation of the protocol should be distributed.

The protocol should provide QoS support for real-time traffic.

The access delay, which refers to the average delay experienced by any packet
to get transmitted, must be kept low.

The available bandwidth must be utilized efficiently.

The protocol should ensure fair allocation of bandwidth to nodes.

Control overhead must be kept as low as possible.

The protocol should minimize the effects of hidden and exposed terminal
problems.

The protocol must be scalable to large networks.

The protocol should have power control mechanisms.

The protocol should have mechanisms for adaptive data rate control.

The protocol should try to use directional antennas.

The protocol should provide synchronization among nodes.



2. List the issues of designing a MAC protocol for ad-hoc networks
The main issues in designing MAC protocol for ad hoc wireless network are:
Bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth must be utilized in efficient manner
Quality of service support
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 Essential for supporting time-critical traffic sessions

 They have resource reservation mechanism that takes into considerations the
nature of wireless channel and the mobility of nodes.
Synchronization
MAC protocol must consider synchronization between nodes in the network
Synchronization is very important for BW (time slot) reservation by nodes

Exchange of control packets may be required for achieving time
synchronization among nodes.
Hidden and exposed terminal problems
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a receiving
node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not within
the direct transmission range of the sender but are within the transmission
range of the receiver.

Collision occurs when both nodes transmit packets at the same time without
knowing about the transmission of each other.

3. List the five phases of FPRP.

The five phases of FPRP are

Reservation request phase
Collision report phase
Reservation confirm phase
Reservation acknowledge phase
Packing/elimination phase

4. What are the mechanisms used in the MAC layer?

The mechanisms used in the MAC layer are

 Contention based protocols
 Contention based protocols with reservation mechanisms

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Contention based protocols with scheduling mechanisms


Protocols with directional antennas.


5. List out the types of Contention-based protocols with reservation Mechanisms.

Synchronous protocols: All nodes need to be synchronized. Global time

synchronization is difficult to achieve.
Asynchronous protocols: These protocols use relative time information for
effecting reservations.

6. List the services provided by IEEE 802.11.

The services provided by IEEE 802.11 are

Association
De authentication
Disassociation
Integration
MSDU Delivery
Privacy
Re association

7. List out the types of Contention-based protocols

Sender-initiated protocols:
Packet transmissions are initiated by the sender node.Single-channel
sender-initiated protocols: A node that wins the contention to the channel can make
use of the entire bandwidth. Multichannel sender-initiated protocols: The available
bandwidth is divided into multiple channels.
Receiver-initiated protocols:
The receiver node initiates the contention resolution protocol.

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8. Define MARCH Protocol .

Media Access with Reduced Handshake Protocol (MARCH)
It is a receiver-initiated protocol.

It doesn’t require any traffic prediction mechanism.

It exploits the broadcast nature of traffic from Omni-directional antennas to
reduce the number of handshakes involved in the data transmission.

9.Define the term PCL in Multichannel MAC.
Each node maintains a data structure called PCL (PreferableChannelList).
PCL contains the usage of the channels within the transmission-range of the
node. Based on their usage, channels can be classified into three types:
1) High preference channel (HIGH): The channel has been selected by the current
node and is being used by the node in the current beacon-interval.
2) Medium preference channel (MID): The channel is free and is not being
currently used in the transmission-range of the node.
3) Low preference channel (LOW): The channel is already being used in the
transmission-range of the node by other neighboring nodes. A counter is
associated with each LOW state channel.

List out Classification Of Mac Protocols

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PART- B

1. a) Explain in detail about Issues in Designing Mac Protocol for Ad Hoc

Wireless Network. (April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2016)

The main issues in designing MAC protocol for ad hoc wireless network are:
Bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth must be utilized in efficient
manner Minimal Control overhead
BW = ratio of BW used for actual data transmission to the total available BW
Quality of service support
Essential for supporting time-critical traffic sessions

They have resource reservation mechanism that takes into considerations

The nature of wireless channel and the mobility of nodes
Synchronisation
MAC protocol must consider synchronisation between nodes in the
network Synchronisation is very important for BW (time slot) reservation
by nodes.

Exchange of control packets may be required for achieving time
synchronisation among nodes
Hidden and exposed terminal problems
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a receiving
node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not
within the direct transmission range of the sender but are within the
transmission range of the receiver.

Collision occurs when both nodes transmit packets at the same time without
knowing about the transmission of each other.

S1 and S2 are hidden from each other & they transmit simultaneously to R1
which leads to collision

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The exposed terminal problem refers to the inability of a node, which is

blocked due to transmission by a nearby transmitting node, to transmit to
another node.

If S1 is already transmitting to R1, then S3 cannot interfere with on-going
transmission & it cannot transmit to R2.

The hidden & exposed terminal problems reduce the throughput of a
network when traffic load is high.

Figure 2.1 Hidden and exposed terminal problem

Error-prone shared broadcast channel

When a node is receiving data, no other node in its neighborhood should
transmit data. A node should get access to the shared medium only when its
transmission do not affect any ongoing session
MAC protocol should grant channel access to nodes in such a manner that
collisions are minimized. Protocol should ensure fair BW allocation.
Distributed nature/lack of central coordination
Do not have centralized coordinators

Nodes must be scheduled in a distributed fashion for gaining access to the
channel

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MAC protocol must make sure that additional overhead, in terms of BW

consumption, incurred due to this control information is not very high.
Mobility of nodes
 Nodes are mobile most of the time
The protocol design must take this mobility factor into consideration so that the
performance of the system is not affected due to node mobility.

1b) Explain the Design Goals of a Mac Protocol for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

The operation of a protocol should be distributed


The protocol should provide QoS support for real-time traffic

The access delay, which refers to the average delay experienced by any packet
to get transmitted, must be kept low

The available bandwidth must be utilized efficiently

The protocol should ensure fair allocation of bandwidth to nodes

Control overhead must be kept as low as possible

The protocol should minimize the effects of hidden and exposed terminal
problems.

The protocol must be scalable to large networks

It should have power control mechanisms in order to efficiently manage
energy consumption of the nodes

The protocol should have mechanisms for adaptive data rate control.

1c). Explain different Classification of Mac Protocols. (April/May 2017)

Ad hoc network MAC protocols can be classified into three basic types:
Contention-based protocols

Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms

Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

Contention-based protocols:
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Sender-initiated protocols:
Packet transmissions are initiated by the sender node.
Single-channel sender-initiated protocols:
A node that wins the contention to the channel can make use of the entire
bandwidth.
Multichannel sender-initiated protocols:
The available bandwidth is divided into multiple channels.
Receiver-initiated protocols:
The receiver node initiates the contention resolution protocol.

Figure 2.2 Classification of MAC protocols

Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms

Synchronous protocols: All nodes need to be synchronized. Global time

synchronization is difficult to achieve.

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Asynchronous protocols: These protocols use relative time information for

effecting reservations.
Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

Node scheduling is done in a manner so that all nodes are treated fairly and
no node is starved of bandwidth.
Scheduling-based schemes are also used for enforcing priorities among
flows whose packets are queued at nodes.Some scheduling schemes also consider
battery characteristics.
Other protocols are those MAC protocols that do not strictly fall under the above
categories.

3. Explain in Detail about Contention Based Protocols With

Reservation Mechanisms

a )Distributed Packet Reservation Multiple Access Protocol (D-PRMA)

It extends the centralized packet reservation multiple access (PRMA) scheme

into a distributed scheme that can be used in ad hoc wireless networks.

PRMA was designed in a wireless LAN with a base station.

D-PRMA extends PRMA protocol in a wireless LAN.D-PRMA is a TDMA-
based scheme. The channel is divided into fixed- and equal-sized frames
along the time axis.

Figure 2.3 Frame structure in D-PRMA

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Each frame is composed of s slots and each slot consists of m minislots.


Each minislot is further divided into two control fields, RTS/BI and CTS/BI

These control fields are used for slot reservation and for overcoming the hidden
terminal problem

All nodes having packets ready for transmission contend for the first minislot of
each slot

The remaining (m-1) minislots are granted to the node that wins the
contention.Also, the same slot in each subsequent frame can be reserved for this
winning terminal until it completes its packet transmission session

Within a reserved slot, communication between the source and receiver nodes
takes by means of either time division duplexing (TDD) or frequency division
duplexing (FDD)

Any node that wants to transmit packets has to first reserve slots.

A certain period at the beginning of each minislot is reserved for carrier sensing

In order to prioritize nodes transmitting voice traffic over nodes transmitting
normal data traffic, two rules are followed in D-PRMA
st
1 rule : voice nodes are allowed to start contending from minislot 1 with
nd
probability p=1. Others with p<1 2 rule :only if the node winning the minislot
contention is a voice node, it is permitted to reserve the same slot in each
subsequent frame until the end of the session.
In order to avoid the hidden terminal problem, all nodes hearing the CTS sent by
the receiver are not allowed to transmit during the remaining period of that same
slot

In order to avoid the exposed terminal problem, a node hearing the RTS but not
the CTS is still allowed to transmit
Requirement 1 when a node wins the contention in minislot 1, other terminals 
must be prevented from using any of the remaining (m-1) minislots in the same
slot for contention
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Requirement 2 when a slot is reserved in subsequentframes, other nodes should be

prevented from contending for those reserved slots
D-PRMA is more suited for voice traffic than for data traffic applications


Collision Avoidance Time Allocation Protocol (CATA)

It is based on dynamic topology-dependent transmission scheduling.Nodes

contend for and reserve time slots by means of a distributed reservation and
handshake mechanism.

It Support broadcast, unicast, and multicast transmissions.
The operation is based on two basic principles:
The receiver(s) of a flow must inform the potential source nodes about the
reserved slot on which it is currently receiving packets.
The source node must inform the potential destination node(s) about interferences
in the slot.
Usage of negative acknowledgements for reservation requests, and control packet
transmissions at the beginning of each slot, for distributing slot reservation
information to senders of broadcast or multicast sessions.
Time is divided into equal-sized frames, and each frame consists of S slots.

Each slot is further divided into five mini slots.

The first 4 mini slots are used for transmitting control packets and are called
control mini slots (CMS)

The last mini slot is called data mini slot (DMS).

While the last mini slot is used for data transmission and is called data mini
slot(DMS).

 CMS1: Slot Reservation (SR)
 CMS2: RTS
 CMS3: CTS
 CMS4: not to send (NTS)
DMS: Data transmission

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Figure 2.4 Frame format in CATA

The CMS1 and CMS2 are used to inform neighbors about the current reservation.

While CMS3 and CMS4 are used for channel reservation.

Each node that receives data during the DMS of current slot transmits an SR in
CMS1.This serves to inform other neighbouring potential sender nodes about the
currently active reservations.

Every node that transmits data during the DMS of current slot transmits an RTS
in CMS2, CMS3 and CMS4 are used as follows:

The sender of an intend reservation, if it senses the channel is idle in
CMS1, transmits an RTS in CMS2 Then the receiver transmits a CTS in
 CMS3.
 can be transmitted in current slot
If the reservation was successful, the data
 and the same slot in subsequent frames.

  slot both the sender an

Once the reservation was successfully, in the next
receiver do not transmit anything during CMS3. 
 During CMS4, the sender transmits a NTS( NTS serves as a negative ack)
A potential multicast source node that receives the NTS packet understands
that its reservation is failed.
Advantages:
It works well with simple single-channel half-duplex radios

It is simple and provides support for collision-free broadcast and multicast
traffic.

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Hop Reservation Multiple Access Protocol (HRMA)

It is a time slot-reservation protocol where each slot is assigned a separate

frequency channel.

A handshake mechanism is used for reservation to enable node pairs to reserve
a frequency hop, thus providing collision-free communication and avoiding the
hidden terminal problem.

Figure 2.5 Frame format in HRMA

One frequency channel is a dedicated synchronizing channel where nodes

exchange synchronization information.

The remaining frequency channels are paired, one channel in each pair is used
for hop-reservation packets(RTS & CTS) & data packets, the other one is used for
acknowledgement (ACK).

Time is slotted and each slot is assigned a separate frequency hop.

Each time slot is divided into four periods, namely, synchronizing period, HR
period, RTS period, and CTS period.

Each period meant for transmitting or receiving the synchronizing packet, FR
packet, RTS packet, and CTS packet respectively.

After the handshaking is over, the two nodes communicate by sending data and
ACKs on the very same frequency channels. All idle nodes hop to the
synchronizing frequency f0 and exchange synchronization information.

Synchronizing slot is used to identify the beginning of a frequency hop and the
frequency to be used in the immediately following hop

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A node ready to transmit data, it senses the HR period of the current slot .If the
channel is idle during HR period; it transmits an RTS during RTS period and waits
for CTS during CTS period.

On receiving the RTS, the destination node transmits the CTS packet during the
CTS period of the same slot and waits for the data packet.

If the source node receives the CTS packet correctly, it implies that the source
and receiver nodes have successfully reserved the current hop. If the channel is
busy during HR period, it backs off for a randomly multiple slots.

Suppose the sender needs to transmit data across multiple frames, it informs the
receiver through the header of the data packet. The receiver node transmits an HR
packet during the HR period of the same slot in next frame to inform its neighbors.

The sender receiving the HR packet, it sends an RTS during the RTS period and
jams other RTS packets. Both receivers remain silent during the CTS period.


Soft Reservation Multiple Access with Priority Assignment (SRMA/PA)

It is developed with the main objective of supporting integrated services of real-

 time and non-real-time application in ad hoc networks.
 Nodes use 
a collision-avoidance handshake mechanism and

a soft reservation mechanism

Figure 2.6 Frame structure in (SRMA/PA)

Time is divided into frames, with each frame consisting of a fixed number of
slots.Each slot is further divided into 6 different fields namely SYNC, soft

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reservation (SR), reservation request (RR), reservation confirm (RC), data sending
(DS) and acknowledgement (ACK). 
 The SYNC field is used for synchronization purposes
 The SR, RR, RC, & ACK fields  are used for transmitting & receiving the
corresponding control packets 
 The DS field is used for data transmission
The SR packet serves as a busy tone. It informs the nodes about the
 the access priority value assigned to the
reservation of the slot. It also carries
 node that has reserved the slot
A node determines whether or not a slot is free through the SR field of that slot.
When an idle node receives a data packet for transmission, the node waits for a
free slot and transmits the RR packet in the RR field of that slot.

In case of a voice terminal node, the node tries to take control of the slot already
reserved by a data terminal if it finds it priority level to be higher than that of the
data terminal. This process is called soft reservation.

Priority levels are initially assigned to nodes based on the service classes in a static
manner.

It is required that priority of voice terminal pv(R) > priority of data terminal
pd(R).

 A node can be in one of the two states: 
 A node is said to be in the active state if it is currently transmitting
 to be in the idle state if it does not have any packet to be
A node is said
 transmitted
In the active state itself, nodes can be in one of the two states: access state and
reserved state. Access state is one in which the node is backlogged and is trying to
reserve a slot for transmission.In order to avoid collisions,a binary exponential
back-off algorithm is used for non-real time connections and a modified binary
exponential back-off algorithm is used for real time connection

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E)Five-Phase Reservation Protocol (FPRP)

Figure 2.7 Frame structure in FPRP

It is a single-channel TDMA-based broadcast scheduling protocol.

The protocol is fully distributed, that is, multiple reservations can be
simultaneously made throughout the network.

The protocol assumes the availability of global time at all nodes.

No ordering among nodes is followed

Nodes need not wait for making time slot reservations.

Time is divided into frames:
Reservation frame (RF) and
Information frame (IF).
Each RF has N reservation slots (RS) and each IF has N information slots (IS). Each
RS is composed of M reservation cycles (RCs). Each RF is followed by a
sequence of IFs. In order to reserve an IS, a node needs to contend during the
corresponding RS.

Based on these contentions, a TDMA schedule is generated in the RF and is used in
the subsequent Ifs until the next RF.

During the corresponding IS, a node would be in one of the three states: transmit(T),
receive(R) or blocked(B)

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The reservation takes following five phases:

1. Reservation request phase:
Nodes that need to transmit packets send reservation request (RR) packets
to their destination nodes.
2. Collision report phase:
If a collision is detected by any node during the reservation request
phase,then that node broadcasts a collision report (CR) packet. The corresponding
source nodes, upon receiving the CR packet, take necessary action.
3. Reservation confirmation phase:
A source node is said to have won the contention for a slot if it does not
receive any CR messages in the previous phase. In order to confirm the reservation
request made in the reservation request phase, it sends a reservation confirmation
(RC) message to the destination node in this phase.
4. Reservation acknowledgment phase:
In this phase, the destination node acknowledges reception of the RC by
sending back a reservation acknowledgment (RA) message to the source. The
hidden nodes that receive this message defer their transmissions during the
reserved slot.
5. Packing and elimination (P/E) phase:
Two types of packets are transmitted during this phase: packing packet and
elimination packet.

MACA with Piggy-Backed Reservation (MACA/PR)

It is based on the MACAW protocol with non-persistent CSMA


The main components are:

A MAC protocol

A reservation protocol

A QoS routing protocol

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It differentiates real-time packets from the best-effort packets. It provides guaranteed

bandwidth support for real-time packets.Also, it provides reliable transmission of
best efforts packets.

Figure 2.8 Packet transmission in MACA/PR

Time is divided into slots. Each node records the transmit and receive
reservations of its neighbors in a reservation-table(RT). For real-time traffic
the source first sends an RTS packet, for which the receiver responds with a
CTS packet. Now the source sends the first DATA packet of the real-time
session.

Reservation information for the next DATA packet is piggy-backed on this
current DATA packet.

On receiving this DATA packet, the receiver updates its reservation table
with the piggy-backed reservation information

The receiver then sends ACK packet back to the source,Receiver piggy-
backs the reservation confirmation information on the ACK packet
Advantage: It does not require global synchronization among nodes
Drawback: A free slot can be reserved only if it can fit the entire RTS-CTS-DATA-
ACK exchange.
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G) Real-Time Medium Access Control Protocol (RTMAC)

It provides a bandwidth reservation mechanism for supporting real-time

traffic. It has two components:
1) QoS routing protocol is responsible for end-to-end reservation & release of
bandwidth resources
MAC protocol is responsible for medium access for best effort traffic &
reservation for real time traffic.

Figure 2.9 Packet transmission in RTMAC

For transmitting best effort packets: RTS, CTS, and ACK are used.For transmitting
real time packets: ResvRTS, ResvCTS, and ResvACK are used

Time is divided into super frames. Each superframe consists of a number of
reservation-slots (resv).A node that needs to transmit real-time packets, first
reserves a set of resv-slots.

The set of resv-slots reserved by a node for a connection on a superframe is called a
connection-slot.

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The duration of each resv-slot is twice the maximum propagation delay. Each node
maintains a reservation table (RT). RT contains information such as sender-id &
receiver-id.starting and ending times of active reservation.

NAV indicates the network allocation vector maintained at each node.

Advantages:
Bandwidth efficiency

Asynchronous mode of operation where nodes do not require any global time
synchronization

Flexibility of slot placement in the super frame.


4. Explain in detail about Contention Based Protocols. (Nov/Dec 2016)

MACAW (MACA for Wireless)

Back-off mechanism used in MACA starves flows


To prevent large variations in the back-off values, a multiplicative increase and
linear decrease (MILD) is used in MACAW.

 On Collision: back-off is increased by a multiplicative factor (1.5)

 On Successful transmission: back-off is decreased by one

The sender senses the carrier to see and transmits a RTS (Request To Send) frame
if no nearby station transmits a RTS.

The receiver replies with a CTS (Clear To Send) frame. Sender sends DATA, for
which receiver responds with ACK. RTS/CTS packets carry the expected duration
of the data transmission.

A node near the receiver on hearing the CTS packet, defers its transmission till the
receiver receives the data packet. This overcomes hidden node problem.

A node near the sender that only hears the RTS is free to transmit simultaneously
when the sender is transmitting data. This overcomes exposed node problem

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Figure 2.10 Packet exchange in MACAW

.
The receiver sends an ACK when receiving a frame.

→ Neighbors keep silent until see ACK.

Collision handling: If a packet is lost (collision), the node uses the binary exponential
back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off for a random time interval before retrying.

RTS/CTS mechanism does not solve the exposed terminal problem.

Solution: New control packet called data-sending (DS) can be used. DS contains
information such as the duration of the forthcoming data transmission.

The protocol uses one more control packet called the request-for-request-to-send
(RRTS)

Synchronization information needs to be propagated to the concerned nodes.

If a node had received an RTS previously for which it was not able to respond
because there exists on-going transmission, then it waits for the next contention
period and transmits RRTS.
B)Floor Acquisition Multiple Access Protocols (FAMA)
 It is based on a channel access discipline which consists of
o a carrier-sensing operation and

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a collision-avoidance dialog between the sender and the intended receiver

of a packet
Floor acquisition refers to the process of gaining control of the channel.

At any time, only one node is assigned to use the channel.

Carrier-sensing by the sender,

followed by the RTS-CTS control packet exchange,
enables the protocol to perform as efficiently as MACA
Data transmission to be collision free, the duration of an RTS must be at least twice
the maximum channel propagation delay

Two variations of FAMA

RTS-CTS exchange with no carrier-sensing uses the ALOHA protocol for
transmitting RTS packets (MACA).
RTS-CTS exchange with non-persistent carrier-sensing uses non-persistent
CSMA for the same purpose(FAMA-NTR).

FAMA-NTR
Before sending a packet, the sender senses the channel.

If channel is busy, the sender back-off a random time and retries later.

If the channel is free, the sender sends RTS and waits for a CTS packet.

If the sender cannot receive a CTS, it takes a random back-off and retries later.

If the sender receives a CTS, it can start transmission data packet.

In order to allow the sender to send a burst of packets, the receiver is made to wait a
time duration τ seconds after a packet is received.

C)Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocols (BTMA)

 The transmission channel is split into two:

o → a data channel for data packet transmissions
o → a control channel used to transmit the busy tone signal

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When a node is ready for transmission, it senses the channel to check whether the
busy tone is active. If not, it turns on the busy tone signal and starts data
transmissions.Otherwise, it reschedules the packet for transmission after some
random rescheduling delay.

When a node is transmitting, no other node in the two-hop neighborhood of the
transmitting node is permitted to simultaneously transmit.

Drawback: very poor bandwidth utilization

Figure 2.11Transmission in BTMA

Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol (DBTMAP)

The transmission channel is divided into:


The data channel is used for data packet transmission
The control channel is used for RTS, CTS, busy tones
Use two busy tones on the control channel, BTt and BTr.

BTt: indicate that it is transmitting on the data channel
BTr: indicate that it is receiving on the data channel
Two busy tone signals are two sine waves at different Frequencies

When a node is ready to transmit a data packet

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o First, it senses the channel to determine whether the BTr signal is active
o If there is no BTr signal, then it transmit RTS packet
On receiving the RTS packets, receiver checks whether the BTt tone is
active
If there is no BTt signal, Receiver Sends CTS packet and turns on the BTr
signal
Sender receives CTS, turns on BTt signal, starts data transmission and turns
off BTt signal
Receiver receives data and turn off BTr signal
DBTMA has better network utilization than RTS/CTS based protocol.

Figure 2.12 Packet transmission in DBTMA

Receiver-Initiated Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol (RI-BTMA)

The transmission channel is split into two:


a data channel for data packet transmissions

a control channel used for transmitting the busy tone signa

A node can transmit on the data channel only if it finds the busy tone to be absent on
the control channel.

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The data packet is divided into two portions: a preamble and the actual data
packet.The busy tone serves two purposes:

Acknowledges the sender the successful of receiving preamble

Inform the nearby hidden nodes the impending transmission

Figure 2.13 Packet transmission in RI-

BTMA The operation of the RI-BTMA protocol contains two types
→The basic protocol
No backlog buffers: packets that suffer collisions cannot be retransmitted
→The controlled protocol
Backlogged mode: backlog buffer is non-empty
Backlog buffers: transmitting a backlogged packet in next idle slot with a probability
q.Non-backlogged mode: transmitting a non-backlogged packet in the next idle slot with
a probability p.

MACA-By Invitation Protocol (MAC BI)

It is a receiver-initiated protocol.

It reduces the number of control packets used in the MACA protocol.

It eliminated the need for the RTS packet.

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The receiver node initiates data transmission by transmitting a ready-to-receive(RTR)

control packet to the sender.

If it is ready to transmit, the sender node responds by sending a DATA packet. Thus,
data transmission occurs through a two way handshake mechanism.

The efficiency of the MACA-BI scheme is mainly dependent on

→the ability of the receiver node to predict accurately the arrival rates of traffic
at the sender nodes.

Figure 2.14 Packet transmission in MACA-BI

Media Access with Reduced Handshake Protocol (MARCH)

It is a receiver-initiated protocol.

It doesn’t require any traffic prediction mechanism.

It exploits the broadcast nature of traffic from omni-directional antennas to reduce
the number of handshakes involved in the data transmission. A node obtains
information about the data packet arrivals at its neighbouring nodes by
overhearing the CTS packets transmitted by them.

It then sends a CTS packet to the concerned neighbour node for relaying data from
that node.

The throughput of MARCH is significantly high compared to MACA.

Control overhead is much less.

Less BW is consumed for control traffic.

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Figure 2.15 Handshake mechanism

5. Explain in detail about Contention Based Mac Protocols With

Scheduling Mechanisms.

A)Distributed Priority Scheduling (DPS)

It uses the basic RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK packet exchange mechanism .The

protocol works as follows:
When source transmits a RTS, priority-tag of current DATA is piggy-backed on
RTS.
On receiving RTS, the receiver responds with CTS.

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iii) The receiver copies priority-tag from the received-RTS and piggy-backs it along
Neighbors receive the RTS or CTS , retrieve the piggy-backed information and
make a corresponding entry in their scheduling-tables.
When source transmits a DATA, its head-of-line(HOL) packet information is
piggy-backed on DATA (HOL packet of a node refers to the packet to be
transmitted next by the node).
On receiving DATA, the receiver responds with ACK.
The receiver copies the HOL-information from the received-DATA and
piggy-backs it along Neighbors, receive the DATA or ACK retrieve the
piggy-backed information and make a corresponding entry in their STs.
When a node hears an ACK, it removes from its ST any entry made earlier for
corresponding DATA.

Figure 2.16 Piggy – backing and scheduling table update mechanism in DPS

Multi-Hop Coordination
The excess delay incurred by a packet at the upstream-nodes is compensated for at
the downstream-nodes. When a node receives a packet, it would have already received
the priority-index of the packet piggy-backed on the previous RTS packet. In case the
node is an intermediate-node (which has to further forward the packet), the node

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calculates the new priority-index of the DATA packet based on the received value of the
priority-index.If a packet suffers due to excess delay at the upstream-nodes, then the
downstream-node increase priority of packet so that packet is able to meet its end-to-end
delay target Similarly, if a packet arrives very early due to lack of contention at the
upstream- nodes, then the priority of that packet would be reduced at the downstream-
nodes.

B) Distributed Wireless Ordering Protocol (DWOP)

Packets access the medium according to order specified by an ideal reference

scheduler such as FIFO (or earliest deadline first).In FIFO, packet priority-indices are set
to the arrival-times of packets. Each node builds up a scheduling-table (ST) ordered
according to the overheard arrival- times. It may not suffer due to information asymmetry
(Since in most networks, all nodes are not within the radio range of each other, a
transmitting node might not be aware of the arrival times of packets queued at another
node which is not within its direct transmission range).Control packets (RTS/CTS) are
used to piggy-back priority-information regarding HOL-packets of nodes.

Receiver Participation Mechanism

When receiver finds that the source is transmitting out-of-order (i.e. the
reference FIFO schedule is being violated), an out-of-order notification(OON)
is piggy-backed by the receiver on the control packets (CTS/ACK) and it sends
to the source.

On receiving this OON, the source goes into a back-off state after completing
the transmission of its current packet.

The back-off period Tback-off is given by ,
Tback-off = R*(EIFS+DIFS+Tsuccess+CWmin)
where Tsuccess = longest possible time required to transmit a packet
successfully.

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Stale Entry Elimination

This makes sure that the STs are free of stale entries.
An entry is deleted from the ST only after an ACK packet for the corresponding
entry is heard by the node.
C)Distributed Laxity Based Priority Scheduling Scheme (DLPS)

It is a packet scheduling scheme, where scheduling decisions are made taking

into consideration

o the states of neighboring nodes &

o the feedback from destination nodes regarding packet losses

Each node maintains following 2 tables:

The scheduling table(ST) contains information about
 Packets to be transmitted by the node &

 Packets overheard by the node

The packet delivery ratio table(PDT) contains

The count of DATA packets transmitted &

The count of ACK packets received

Incoming packets to a node are queued in the node's input-queue according to
their arrival-times

The scheduler sorts packets according to their priority values and inserts them
into the transmission queue

The highest priority packet from this queue is selected for transmission.

The destination node (on receiving data packets) initiates a feedback by means
of which the count of DATA packets received by it is conveyed to the source
through ACK packets.

These two pieces of information (denoted by Si) are received by the
feedback information handler (FIH).

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The FIH sends the previous state information Si-1 to the priority function
module (PFM)

The ULB of each packet in ST is available at the node. This information is also
sent to

PFM, which uses the information fed to it to calculate the priority-indices of
packets in the ST.PDR(packet delivery ratio) of the flow at any given time is
computed by

• Priority index of a packet is defined as

Where ULB is the uniform laxity budget of the packet.

Figure 2.17 Feedback mechanism

6. Explain in detail about Multichannel Mac Protocol (MMAC)

Each node maintains a data structure called PCL (Preferable Channel List).

PCL contains the usage of the channels within the transmission-range of the
node. Based on their usage, channels can be classified into three types:

High preference channel (HIGH): The channel has been selected by the
current node and is being used by the node in the current beacon-interval.

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Medium preference channel (MID): The channel is free and is not being
currently used in the transmission-range of the node.
Low preference channel (LOW): The channel is already being used in
the transmission-range of the node by other neighboring nodes.
A counter is associated with each LOW state channel.Time is divided into beacon-
intervals & every node is synchronized by periodic beacon transmissions
At the start of every beacon-interval, there exists a time interval called the adhoc
traffic indication messages (ATIM) window.

ATIM window is used by the nodes to negotiate for channels for transmission
during the current beacon-interval. The protocol works as follows

A source sends an ATIM to the intended receiver. The ATIM carries the PCL
of the source.
On receiving this ATIM, the receiver uses the PCL carried on the ATIM and its
own PCL to select a channel. It includes this channel information in the ATIM-
ACK packet & sends to the source.
Then, source determines whether it can transmit on the channel indicated in the
ATIM-ACK message. If so, it responds by sending the receiver an ATIM-
RES(reservation) packet.
At the end of the ATIM window, the source and receiver switch to the agreed-upon
channel and start communicating by exchanging RTS/CTS.
If a receiver node R receives an ATIM packet from a source S, it selects a channel as
below.
If there exists a HIGH state channel in the node R's PCL, then that channel is
selected.
if there exists a HIGH state channel in the PCL of node S, then that channel is
selected.
if there exists a common MID state channel in the PCLs of both node S and node
R, then that channel is selected.
if there exists a channel which is in the MID state at only one of the two nodes,
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then that channel is chosen.

5) If all channels in both PCLs are in the LOW state, the counters of the
corresponding channels at nodes S and R are added, and the channel with the
least count is selected.

Figure 2.18 Operation of MMAC protocol

Multichannel CSMA Mac Protocol (M-CSMA)

It employs the notion of soft channel reservation, where preference is given to

the channel that was used for the previous successful transmission.

The available bandwidth is divided into several channels.

The channels may be created in the frequency domain (FDMA) or in the code
domain(CDMA).

An idle node continuously monitors all the channels. A channel whose
TRSS(total received signal strength) is below the ST(sensing threshold) of the
node is marked IDLE by the node. Such channels are put in the free-channels list
(FCL).

When an idle node receives a packet to be transmitted, it does the following.

If FCL is empty, it waits for any channel to become IDLE.

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In case FCL is non-empty, the node first checks whether the channel it used
for its most recent successful transmission is included in the list. If so, the
node uses this channel for its new transmission.
Otherwise, one among the IDLE channels available in the FCL is randomly
chosen.

Drawback:

If the number of channels is very large, then the protocol results in very high
packet transmission time.

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UNIT III

ROUTING PROTOCOLS AND TRANSPORT LAYER IN AD HOC WIRELESS

NETWORKS

Issues in designing a routing and Transport Layer protocol for Ad hoc networks-
proactive routing, reactive routing (on-demand), hybrid routing- Classification of
Transport Layer solutions-TCP over Ad hoc wireless Networks.

PART-A

1. Differentiate proactive and reactive routing protocols. Write examples for

each.

S.No. Proactive Reactive

1 Route is pre-established Route establishment is on-
demand
2 Continuously discover the Route discovery by some
routes global search
3 Updates topology information No information update is
done
4 No latency in route discovery longer delay due to latency
of route discovery
5 Large capacity is needed to Large capacity is not needed
update network information
6 A lot of routing information May not be appropriate for
may never be used real-time communication
7 Eg: DSDV, WRP Eg: AODV, ABR

2. How does energy aware routing work?

The energy aware routing works based on the routing metrics such as low energy,
cost and remaining battery charge. It aims mainly at increasing the lifetime of the
network.

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3.Define Message Retransmission List (MRL).

It contains entry for every updated message.

Maintain counter for each entry.

4. List the advantages and disadvantages of DSDV routing protocols.

The advantages and disadvantages of DSDV routing protocols are

Advantages:
Less Delay is involved in route setup process.

DSDV protocol guarantees loop free paths.

Incremental updates with sequence number tags make the existing wired
network protocols adaptable to ad-hoc wireless networks. Count to infinity
problem is reduced in DSDV.

Path Selection: DSDV maintains only the best path instead of maintaining
multiple paths to every destination. With this, the amount of space in
routing table is reduced.
Disadvantages:
Updates due to broken links lead to heavy control overhead during
mobility.

The control overhead is directly proportional to the number of nodes.

Small network with high mobility or large network with low mobility can
choke the available bandwidth.

Wastage of bandwidth due to unnecessary advertising of routing
information even if there is no change in the network topology.

Delay in obtaining information about a node could result in stale routing at
the nodes.

5. What is the approach used to find link stability in ABR?

Associativity-based routing (ABR) protocol selects route based on the stability of

the wireless link. A link is classified as stable or unstable based on its temporal

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stability. Temporal stability is determined based on number of beacon signal that

node receives from its neighbors.
Large number of beacon signals implies stable link

Lesser number of beacon signals implies unstable link .


6.Give the classifications of routing protocol in MANET.

The classifications of routing protocol in MANET are

Proactive protocols: This protocol attempt to evaluate continuously the
routes within the network, so that when a packet needs to be forwarded, the router
is already known and can be immediately used.
Reactive protocols: This protocol invokes a route determination
procedure only on demand.
The routing protocols may also be categorized as follows:
Table-driven protocols.
Source-initiated on-demand protocols

7. Is hop – length always the best metric for choosing paths in

MANETs? Defend your answer.
No, hop length is not always the best metric for choosing paths in
MANETs. It is the best metric only in the shortest path protocol. For secure
routing, all the nodes along the path must be secure nodes else security is
compromised. For energy aware routing, low power consumption and remaining
battery backup must also be considered for choosing path.

8. Why does TCP not work well in ad hoc network?

The TCP does not work well in ad hoc network because of the following reasons
Misinterpretation of packet loss
Frequent path breaks
Effect of path length

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Misinterpretation of congestion window

Asymmetric link behavior

Uni-directional path
Multipath routing
Network partitioning and remerging

Use of sliding-window-based transmission.

9.What are not supported by the traditional TCP for handling Ad hoc
network?
The features that are not supported by the traditional TCP for handling ad
hoc network are
Throughput
Power consumption
Path break handling mechanisms
Scheduling of packet loss and rate of transmission
Bandwidth consumption due to RTS-CTS-DATA-ACK

10.What are the advantages and disadvantages of

TCP-F? Advantages

TCP-F provides a simple FB based solution to minimize the problem

arising out of frequent path breaks in ad hoc wireless networks.

At the same time, it also permits the TCP congestion control mechanism to
respond to congestion in the n/w.
Disadvantages

If the route to the sender is not available at the FP then additional control
packets may need to be generated for routing the RFN packet.

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TCP-F has an additional state compared to the traditional TCP state m/c,
and hence its implementation requires modifications to the existing TCP
libraries.

Congestion window used after a new route is obtained may not reflect the
achievable transmission rate to the n/w and the TCP-F receiver.


11.What are the issues in designing a transport layer protocol for ad hoc
wireless Networks?

Induced traffic

Induced throughput unfairness

Separation of congestion control, reliability, and flow control

Power and bandwidth constraints

Misinterpretation of congestion

Completely decoupled transport layer

Dynamic topology.

PART-B

1. Discuss the issues in designing a routing protocol for ad hoc wireless networks
and describe the classification of routing protocols. (nov/Dec 2016)

The major challenges that a routing protocol designed for ad hoc wireless
networks faces are:
Mobility
Network topology is highly dynamic due to movement of nodes. Hence, an
ongoing session suffers frequent path breaks.

Disruption occurs due to the movement of either intermediate nodes in the
path or end nodes.

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Wired network routing protocols cannot be used in ad hoc wireless

networks because the nodes are here are not stationary and the convergence
is very slow in wired networks.

Mobility of nodes results in frequently changing network topologies

Routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks must be able to perform
efficient and effective mobility management.


Bandwidth Constraint

Abundant bandwidth is available in wired networks due to the advent of

fiber optics and due to the exploitation of wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM) technologies.

In a wireless network, the radio band is limited, and hence the data rates it
can offer are much less than what a wired network can offer.

This requires that the routing protocols use the bandwidth optimally by
keeping the overhead as low as possible.

The limited bandwidth availability also imposes a constraint on routing
protocols in maintaining the topological information.

Error-prone shared broadcast radio channel

The broadcast nature of the radio channel poses a unique challenge in ad

hoc wireless networks.

The wireless links have time-varying characteristics in terms of link
capacity and link-error probability.

This requires that the ad hoc wireless network routing protocol interact with
the MAC layer to find alternate routes through better-quality links.

Transmissions in ad hoc wireless networks result in collisions of data and
control packets.

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Therefore, it is required that ad hoc wireless network routing protocols find

paths with less congestion.

Hidden and exposed terminal problems
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a receiving
node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not
within the direct transmission range of the receiver, but are within the
transmission range of the receiver.

Collision occurs when both nodes transmit packets at the same time without
knowing about the transmission of each other.

Ex: consider figure (3.1). Here, if both node A and node C transmit to node
B at the same time, their packets collide at node B. This is due to the fact
that both node A and C are hidden from each other, as they are not within
the direct transmission range of each other and hence do not know about
the presence of each other.

Solution for this problem include medium access collision avoidance
(MACA):

o Transmitting node first explicitly notifies all potential hidden nodes
about the forthcoming transmission by means of a two way
handshake control protocol called RTS-CTS protocol exchange.
This may not solve the problem completely but it reduces the
probability of collisions.
Medium access collision avoidance for wireless (MACAW):

An improved version of MACA protocol.
o Introduced to increase the efficiency.
o Requires that a receiver acknowledges each successful reception of
data packet.
Other solutions include floor acquisition multiple access (FAMA) and Dual
busy tone multiple access (DBTMA). The exposed terminal problem refers to the

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inability of a node which is blocked due to transmission by a nearby transmitting

node to transmit to another node.

Figure 3.1: Hidden Terminal Problem

Successful transmission is a four-way exchange mechanism, RTS-CTS-Data-
ACK, as illustrated in figure ( 3.2)

Figure 3.2: Hidden terminal problem with RTS-CTS-Data-ACK scheme.

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Ex: consider the figure (3.3). Here, if a transmission from node B to another node A
is already in progress, node C cannot transmit to node D, as it concludes that its
neighbor node B, is in transmitting mode and hence should not interfere with the
on-going transmission. Thus, reusability of the radio spectrum is affected.

Figure 3.3: Exposed Terminal Problem

5. Resource Constraints

Two essential and limited resources are battery life and processing power. Devices
used in ad hoc wireless networks require portability, and hence they also have size
and weight constraints along with the restrictions on the power source. Increasing the
battery power and processing ability makes the nodes bulky and less portable.

Characteristics of an Ideal Routing Protocol for ad hoc wireless networks

A routing protocol for ad hoc wireless networks should have the following
characteristics:

It must be fully distributed as centralized routing involves high control overhead
and hence is not scalable.

It must be adaptive to frequent topology changes caused by the mobility of
nodes.
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Route computation and maintenance must involve a minimum number of nodes.

Each node in the network must have quick access to routes, that is, minimum
connection setup time is desired.

It must be localized, as global state maintenance involves a huge state
propagation control overhead.

It must be loop-free and free from state routes.

The number of packet collisions must be kept to a minimum by limiting the
number of broadcasts made by each node. The transmissions should be reliable
to reduce message loss and to prevent the occurrence of state routes.

It must converge to optimal routes once the network topology becomes stable.
The convergence must be quick.

It must optimally use scarce resources such as bandwidth, computing power,
memory, and battery power.

Every node in the network should try to store information regarding the stable
local topology only. Changes in remote parts of the network must not cause
updates in the topology information maintained by the node.

It should be able to provide a certain level of quality of service (QoS) as
demanded by the applications, and should also offer support for time-sensitive
traffic.
Classification of Routing Protocols:
The routing protocol for ad hoc wireless networks can be broadly classified into 4
categories based on
Routing information update mechanism.

Use of temporal information for routing

Routing topology

Utilization of specific resources.

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Based on the routing information update mechanism.Ad hoc wireless network

routing protocols can be classified into 3 major categories based on the routing
information update mechanism.
They are:
Proactive or table-driven routing protocols :

o Every node maintains the network topology information in the form of
routing tables by periodically exchanging routing information.

o Routing information is generally flooded in the whole network.

o Whenever a node requires a path to a destination, it runs an appropriate
path finding algorithm on the topology information it maintains.

Reactive or on-demand routing protocols:

o Do not maintain the network topology information.

o Obtain the necessary path when it is required, by using a connection
establishment process.

Hybrid routing protocols:
o Combine the best features of the above two categories.
o Nodes within a certain distance from the node concerned, or within a
particular geographical region, are said to be within the routing zone of
the given node.
o For routing within this zone, a table-driven approach is used.
o For nodes that are located beyond this zone, an on-demand approach is
used.
Based on the use of temporal information for routing:
The protocols that fall under this category can be further classified into two types
Routing protocols using past temporal information:

Use information about the past status of the links or the status of links at the
time of routing to make routing decisions.

Routing protocols that use future temporal information:

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Use information about the about the expected future status of the wireless
links to make approximate routing decisions.
Apart from the lifetime of wireless links, the future status information also
includes information regarding the lifetime of the node, prediction of
location, and prediction of link availability.
Based on the routing topology
Ad hoc wireless networks, due to their relatively smaller number of nodes, can
make use of either a flat topology or a hierarchical topology for routing.
 Flat topology routing protocols:
Make use of a flat addressing scheme similar to the one used in
IEEE 802.3 LANs.
It assumes the presence of a globally unique addressing mechanism
for nodes in an ad hoc wireless network.
Hierarchical topology routing protocols:
Make use of a logical hierarchy in the network and an associated
addressing scheme.

The hierarchy could be based on geographical information or it could be
based on hop distance.
Based on the utilization of specific resources
Power-aware routing:
o Aims at minimizing the consumption of a very important resource in
the ad hoc wireless networks: the battery power.
o The routing decisions are based on minimizing the power consumption
either logically or globally in the network.
 Geographical information assisted routing :
o Improves the performance of routing and reduces the control
overhead by effectively utilizing the geographical information
available.

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2. (a) Illustrate the process of route establishment and route maintenance in

Destination Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) by
taking an example.

Destination sequenced distance-vector routing protocol:

It is an enhanced version of the distributed Bellman -Ford algorithm where

each node maintains a table that contains the shortest distance and the first node
on the shortest path to every other node in the network.
It incorporates table updates with increasing sequence number tags to
prevent loops, to counter the count-to-infinity problem, and for faster
convergence.
As it is a table-driven routing protocol, routes to all destinations are readily
available at every node at all times.
The tables are exchanged between neighbors at regular intervals to keep an
up -to-date view of the network topology.
The table updates are of two types:
Incremental updates: Takes a single network data packet unit (NDPU). These
are used when a node does not observe significant changes in the local
topology.
Full dumps: Takes multiple NDPUs. It is done either when the local topology
changes significantly or when an incremental update requires more than a single
NDPU.
Table updates are initiated by a destination with a new sequence number which
is always greater than the previous one.

Consider the example as shown in figure 3.4 (a). Here node 1 is the source node
and node 15 is the destination. As all the nodes maintain global topology
information, the route is already available as shown in figure3.4
(b).Here the routing table node 1 indicates that the shortest route to the

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destination node is available through node 5 and the distance to it is 4 hops, as

depicted in figure 3.4 (b)
The reconfiguration of a path used by an on-going data transfer session is
handled by the protocol in the following way.The end node of the broken link initiates
a table update message with the broken link’s weight assigned to infinity (∞) and with
a sequence number greater than the stored sequence number for that destination.
Each node upon receiving an update with weight ∞, quickly disseminates it
to its neighbors in order to propagate the broken-link information to the whole
network.

A node always assign an odd number to the link break update to
differentiate it from the even sequence number generated by the destination.
The below figure 3.4(a) shows the case when node 11 moves from its
current position.
Route Establishment in DSDV:

Figure 3.4(a) Topology graph of the network Figure 3.4(b) Routing for Node 1

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Advantages:

Less delay involved in the route setup process.


Mechanism of incremental update with sequence number tags makes the
existing wired network protocols adaptable to ad hoc wireless networks.

The updates are propagated throughout the network.
Disadvantages
The updates due to broken links lead to a heavy control overhead during high
mobility.

Even a small network with high mobility or a large network with low mobility
can completely choke the available bandwidth.

Suffers from excessive control overhead.

In order to obtain information about a particular destination node, a node has to
wait for a table update message initiated by the same destination node.This
delay could result in state routing information at nodes.

Route maintenance in DSDV.

Figure 3.5 Route Maintenance in DSDV

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2. b) Explain in detail about CGSR.

Uses a hierarchical network topology.

CGSR organizes nodes into clusters, with coordination among the members of
each cluster entrusted to a special node named cluster-head.

This cluster-head is elected dynamically by employing a least cluster change
(LCC) algorithm.According to this algorithm, a node ceases to be a cluster-head only if it
comes under the range of another cluster-head, where the tie is broken either using the
lowest ID or highest connectivity algorithm.

Clustering provides a mechanism to allocate bandwidth, which is a limited
resource, among different clusters, thereby improving reuse.
A token-based scheduling is used within a cluster for sharing the bandwidth
among the members of the cluster.
CGRS assumes that all communication passes through the cluster-head.
Communication between 2 clusters takes place through the common member nodes that
are members of both the cluster are called gateways.

A gateway is expected to be able to listen to multiple spreading codes that are
currently in operation in the clusters in which the node exist as a member.

A gateway conflict is said to occur when a cluster-head issues a token to a
gateway over spreading code while the gateway is tuned to another code.

Gateways that are capable of simultaneously communicating over two
interfaces can avoid gateway conflicts.

The performance of routing is influenced by token scheduling and code
scheduling that is handled at cluster-heads and gateways, respectively.

Every member node maintains a routing table containing the destination
cluster-head for every node in the network.

In addition to the cluster member table, each node maintains a routing table
which keeps the list of next-hop nodes for reaching every destination cluster.

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

Figure 3.6 shows the cluster head, cluster gateways, and normal cluster
member nodes in an ad hoc wireless network.

Route Establishment in CGSR:

Advantages:
CGSR is a hierarchical routing scheme which enables partial coordination
between nodes by electing cluster-heads.

Better bandwidth utilization is possible.

Easy to implement priority scheduling schemes with token scheduling and
gateway code scheduling.

Figure 3.6 Route Establishment in CGSR

Disadvantages:
Increase in path length and instability in the system at high mobility when the rate of
change of cluster-head is high.

In order to avoid gateway conflicts, more resources are required.

The power consumption at the cluster-head node is also a matter of concern.

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Lead to Frequent changes in the cluster-head, which may result in multiple path
breaks.


3. Explain in detail about WRP and STAR. DSDV (nov/Dec 2016)

Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP):

WRP is similar to DSDV, it inherits the properties of the distributed bellman-ford
algorithm.

To counter the count-to-infinity problem and to enable faster convergence, it
employs a unique method of maintaining information regarding the shortest
distance to every destination node in the network and penultimate hop node on
the path to every destination node.

Maintains an up-to-date view of the network, every node has a readily available
route to every destination node in the network.

It differs from DSDV in table maintenance and in the update procedures.

While DSDV maintains only one topology table, WRP uses a set of tables to
maintain more accurate information.

The table that are maintained by a node are :
Distance table (DT): contains the network view of the neighbors of a node. It
contains a matrix where each element contains the distance and the penultimate
node reported by the neighbor for a particular destination.
Routing table (RT): contains the up-to-date view of the network for all
known destinations. It keeps the shortest distance, the predecessor/penultimate
node, the successor node, and a flag indicating the status of the path. The path
status may be a simplest (correct) path or a loop (error), or destination node not
marked (null).
Link cost table (LCT): contains the cost of relaying messages through
each link. The cost of broken link is ∞.it also contains the number of update
periods passed since the last successful update was received from that link.

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iv) Message retransmission list (MRL): contains an entry for every update
message that is to be retransmitted and maintains a counter for each entry.
After receiving the update message, a node not only updates the distance for
transmitted neighbors but also checks the other neighbors’ distance, hence
convergence is much faster than DSDV.

Consider the example shown in figure 3.7(a) , where the source of the route is
node 1 and destination is node 15. As WRP proactively maintains the route to all
destinations, the route to any destination node is readily available at the source
node.

From the routing table shown, the route from node 1 to node 15 has the next node
as node 2. The predecessor node of 15 corresponding to this route is route 12.
The predecessor information helps 

WRP to converge quickly during link breaks.

When a node detects a link break, it sends an update message to its neighbors
with the link cost of the broken link set to ∞. After receiving the update message;
all affected nodes update their minimum distances to the corresponding nodes.
The node that initiated the update message then finds an alternative route, if
available from its DT. Below figure3.7(b) shows route maintenance in WRP.
Advantages:
WRP has the same advantages as that of DSDV.

It has faster convergence and involves fewer table updates.

Disadvantages:
The complexity of maintenance of multiple tables demands a larger memory and
greater processing power from nodes in the adhoc wireless network.

It is not suitable for highly dynamic and also for very large ad hoc wireless networks.

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 Route establishment in WRP:

Figure 3.7(a) Route establishment in WR

Route maintenance in WRP:

Figure 3.7(b) Route maintenance in WRP

Source-Tree Adaptive Routing Protocol (STAR):

Key concept least overhead routing approach (LORA)

This protocol attempts to provide feasible paths that are not guaranteed to be optimal

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Involves much less control overhead.


In STAR protocol, every node broadcasts its source tree information

The source tree of a node consists of the wireless links used by the node

Every node builds a partial graph of the topology

During initialization, a node sends an update message to its neighbors

Each node will have a path to every destination node

The path would be sub-optimal

The data packet contains information about the path to be traversed in order to
prevent the possibility of routing loop formation

In the presence of a reliable broadcast mechanism, STAR assumes implicit route
maintenance. In addition to path breaks, the intermediate nodes are responsible
for handling the routing loops. The Route Repair packet contains the complete
source tree of node k and the traversed path of the packet

When an intermediate node receives a Route Repair update message, it removes
itself from the top of the route repair path and reliably sends it to the head of the
route repair path.
Advantages:
Very low communication overhead

Reduces the average control overhead.


4. Explain On Demand routing protocol in detail.

They execute the path-finding process and exchange routing information only
When a path is required by a node to communicate with a destination.
Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)

Designed to restrict the bandwidth consumed by control packets in adhoc

wireless networks by eliminating the periodic table update messages.

It is beacon-less and does not require periodic hello packet transmissions

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6. What is UNPF?
It is a set of protocols for complete implementation of a layered architecture for
sensor networks. UNPF integrates three operations in its protocol structure: network
initialization and maintenance, MAC, and routing protocols.

7. Why using LEACH protocol in sensor networks?

Sensor networks should be self-organizing, hence the cluster formation and

election of cluster-heads must be an autonomous, distributed process. This is
achieved through network layer protocols such as the low-energy adaptive clustering
hierarchy (LEACH) .

8.What are the challenges posed by MAC protocol in sensor network?

No single controlling authority, so global synchronization is difficult

Power efficiency issue ,Frequent topology changes due to mobility and
failure.

9.List the different kinds of MAC protocols used in sensor network?
There are three kinds of MAC protocols used in sensor network:
Fixed-allocation

Demand-based

Contention-based.


10. Write the use of SMACS and EAR protocol.
Self-organizing MAC for sensor (SMACS) networks and eavesdrop and
register (EAR) are two protocols which handle network initialization and mobility
support, respectively.

11.What are the application areas of IEEE 802.15.4?

Application areas include industrial control, agricultural, vehicular and
medical sensors and actuators that have relaxed data rate requirements.

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Inside the home, there are several areas where such technology can be
applied effectively:

PC-peripherals including keyboards, wireless mice, low end PDAs,
joysticks; consumer electronics including radios, TVs, DVD players,
remote controls;

Home automation including heating, ventilation, air conditioning, security,
lighting, control of windows, curtains, doors, locks; health monitors and
diagnostics.


12. What is GTS ?
Channel access is usually contention based though the PAN may assign time slots
to a single device. This is known as a guaranteed time slot (GTS)

PART-B

1.a. Compare Adhoc-wireless and Wireless sensor networks.

The number of nodes in sensor network can be several orders of magnitude

large than the number of nodes in an ad hoc network.

Sensor nodes are more easy to failure and energy drain, and their battery
sources are usually not replaceable or rechargeable.

Sensor nodes may not have unique global identifiers (ID), so unique
addressing is not always feasible in sensor networks.

Sensor networks are data-centric, the queries in sensor networks are
addressed to nodes which have data satisfying some conditions. Ad Hoc
networks are address-centric, with queries addressed to particular nodes
specified by their unique address.

Data fusion/aggregation: the sensor nodes aggregate the local information
before relaying. The goals are reduce bandwidth consumption, media
access delay, and power consumption for communication.
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1. b. What are the applications of Sensor Networks?

1.Using in military
– Battlefield surveillance and monitoring, guidance systems of intelligent
missiles, detection of attack by weapons of mass destruction such as
chemical, biological, or nuclear
2.Using in nature
– Forest fire, flood detection, habitat exploration of animals
3.Using in health
– Monitor the patient’s heart rate or blood pressure, and sent regularly to alert
the concerned doctor, provide patients a greater freedom of movement.
4.Using in home (smart home)
– Sensor node can built into appliances at home, such as ovens, refrigerators,
and vacuum cleaners, which enable them to interact with each other and be
remote-controlled
5.Using in office building
– Airflow and temperature of different parts of the building can be
automatically controlled
6.Using in warehouse
– Improve their inventory control system by installing sensors on the products
to track their movement
2. Draw and explain the architecture of Sensor Networks. (April/May 2017)
(nov/Dec 2016)
The design of sensor networks is influenced by factors such as scalability, fault
tolerance, and power consumption .
The two basic kinds of sensor network architecture are
Layered architecture
Clustered. architecture

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Figure 4.1.Clustered. architecture

Layered architecture has a single powerful base station (BS), and the layers of
sensor nodes around it correspond to the nodes that have the same hop-count to the BS.
Layered architectures have been used with in-building wireless backbones, and in
military sensor-based infrastructure, such as the multi-hop infrastructure network
architecture (MINA) . In the in-building scenario, the BS acts an access point to a wired
network, and small nodes form a wireless backbone to provide wireless connectivity. The
users of the network have hand-held devices such as PDAs which communicate via the
small nodes to the BS.

Similarly, in a military operation, the BS is a data-gathering and processing entity

with a communication link to a larger network. A set of wireless sensor nodes is accessed
by the hand-held devices of the soldiers.
The advantage of a layered architecture is
1.Each node is involved only in short-distance,
2.Low-power transmissions to nodes of the neighboring layers.

Unified Network Protocol Framework (UNPF) is a set of protocols for complete

implementation of a layered architecture for sensor networks. UNPF integrates three
operations in its protocol structure:

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Network initialization and maintenance,

MAC, and
3.Routing protocols.
• Network Initialization and Maintenance Protocol: The network initialization
protocol organizes the sensor nodes into different layers, using the broadcast capability of
the BS. The BS can reach all nodes in a one-hop communication over a common control
channel. The BS broadcasts its identifier (ID) using a known CDMA code on the
common control channel. All nodes which hear this broadcast then record the BS ID.
They send a beacon signal with their own IDs at their low default power levels. Those
nodes which the BS can hear form layer one since they are at a single-hop distance from
the BS. The BS now broadcasts a control packet with all layer one node IDs. All nodes
send a beacon signal again. The layer one nodes record the IDs which they hear, and
these form layer two, since they are one hop away from layer one nodes. In the next
round of beacons, the layer one nodes inform the BS of the layer two nodes, which is
then broadcast to the entire network. In this way, the layered structure is built by
successive rounds of beacons and BS broadcasts. Periodic beaconing updates neighbor
information and alters the layer structure if nodes die out or move out of range.
• MAC Protocol Network initialization is carried out on a common control
channel. During the data transmission phase, the distributed TDMA receiver oriented
channel (DTROC) assignment MAC protocol is used. Each node is assigned a reception
channel by the BS, and channel reuse is such that collisions are avoided. The node
schedules transmission slots for all its neighbors and broadcasts the schedule. This
enables collision-free transmission and saves energy, as nodes can turn off when they are
not involved in a send/receive operation. The two steps of DTROC are channel allocation
(the assignment of reception channels to the nodes) and channel scheduling (the sharing
of the reception channel among the neighbors). DTROC avoids hidden terminal and
exposed terminal problems by suitable channel allocation algorithms.
• Routing Protocol Downlink from the BS is by direct broadcast on the control
channel. The layered architecture enables multi-hop data forwarding from the sensor

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nodes to the BS. The node to which a packet is to be forwarded is selected considering
the remaining energy of the nodes. This achieves a higher network lifetime. Existing ad
hoc routing protocols can be simplified for the layered architecture, since only nodes of
the next layer need to be maintained in the routing table. A modification to the UNPF
protocol set termed the UNPF-R has been proposed. It makes the sensor nodes adaptively
vary their transmission range so that network performance can be optimized. While a
very small transmission range could cause network partitioning, a very large transmission
range will reduce the spatial reuse of frequencies. The optimal range is determined
through an algorithm similar to simulated annealing. This is a centralized control
algorithm in which the BS evaluates an objective function periodically.

For a transmission range R, the objective function is, where N is the total number
of sensors in the system; n is the number of nodes in layer one; is the energy consumption
per packet; and d is the average packet delay. The BS selects a new transmission range R'
as follows. If no packet is received by the BS from any sensor node for some interval of
time, the transmission range is increased by Δr, a predefined increment. Otherwise, the
transmission range is either decreased by Δr with probability 0.5 × (n/N), or increased by
Δr with probability [1 - 0.5 × (n/N)].

The objective function is reevaluated with the new transmission range. If , then the
transmission range R' is adopted. Otherwise, R is modified to R' with probability, where
T is the temperature parameter, as in simulated annealing. The advantage of the UNPF-R
is that it minimizes the energy × delay metric, and maximizes the number of nodes which
can connect to the BS. The minimization of the energy × delay metric ensures that
transmission should occur with minimum delay and with minimum energy consumption.
The two conflicting objectives are together optimized by minimizing their product.

Simulated annealing algorithm is an optimization heuristic in which an objective

function is evaluated for different values of the independent variable. A value which

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provides an inferior objective value is also accepted with a probability, which is reduced
as the algorithm progresses. This is to escape local minima of the objective function. The
progress of the heuristic is indicated by the decreasing temperature parameter.

Clustered Architecture: A clustered architecture organizes the sensor nodes into

clusters, each governed by a cluster-head. The nodes in each cluster are involved in
message exchanges with their respective cluster-heads, and these heads send messages to
a BS, which is usually an access point connected to a wired network.

Figure represents a clustered architecture where any message can reach the BS
in at most two hops. Clustering can be extended to greater depths hierarchically.

Clustered architecture is especially useful for sensor networks because of its
inherent suitability for data fusion. The data gathered by all members of the
cluster can be fused at the cluster-head, and only the resulting information
needs to be communicated to the BS.

Sensor networks should be self-organizing, hence the cluster formation and
election of cluster-heads must be an autonomous, distributed process. This is
achieved through network layer protocols such as the low-energy adaptive
clustering hierarchy (LEACH) .

Figure 4.2. Clustered architecture

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Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) LEACH is a

clustering-based protocol that minimizes energy dissipation in sensor
networks.

LEACH randomly selects nodes as cluster-heads and performs periodic
reelection, so that the high-energy dissipation experienced by the cluster-
heads in communicating with the BS is spread across all nodes of the network.

If this is lower than the threshold for node n, T(n), the sensor node becomes a
cluster-head. The threshold T(n) is calculated as where P is the desired
percentage of nodes which are cluster-heads, r is the current round, and G is
the set of nodes that has not been cluster-heads in the past 1/P rounds.

This ensures that all sensor nodes eventually spend equal energy. After
selection, the cluster-heads advertise their selection to all nodes.

All nodes choose their nearest cluster-head when they receive advertisements
based on the received signal strength.

The cluster-heads then assign a TDMA schedule for their cluster members.

The steady phase is of longer duration in order to minimize the overhead of
cluster formation. During the steady phase, data transmission takes place
based on the TDMA schedule, and the cluster-heads perform data
aggregation/fusion through local computation.

The BS receives only aggregated data from cluster heads, leading to energy
conservation. After a certain period of time in the steady phase, cluster-heads
are selected again through the set-up phase.

3.What are the issues and challenges in designing a Sensor Network?

A sensor network has some design challenges due to the following reasons:
 Sensor nodes are randomly deployed and hence do not fit into any regular
topology. Once deployed, they usually do not require any human intervention.
Hence, the setup and maintenance of the network should be entirely autonomous.

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Sensor networks are infrastructure-less. Therefore, all routing and maintenance

algorithms need to be distributed.

The operation of sensor nodes is the available energy. Sensors usually rely only
on their battery for power, which in many cases cannot be recharged or replaced.
Energy problem

Hardware and software should be designed to conserve power.

Sensor nodes should be able to synchronize with each other in a completely
distributed manner, so that TDMA schedules can be imposed

A sensor network should also be capable of adapting to changing connectivity due
to the failure of nodes, or new nodes powering up. The routing protocols should be
able to dynamically include or avoid sensor nodes in their paths.

Real-time communication over sensor networks must be supported through
provision of guarantees on maximum delay, minimum bandwidth, or other QoS
parameters.

Provisions must be made for secure communication over sensor networks,
especially for military applications which carry sensitive data.

4. Explain Mac Layer protocols in sensor Networks. (April/May 2017)

The challenges posed by sensor network MAC protocol has no single controlling
authority, so global synchronization is difficult

 Efficiency issue

Frequent topology changes due to mobility and failure

 used in sensor network:

There are three kinds of MAC protocols
 Fixed-allocation

 Demand-based

Contention-based

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Fixed allocation MAC protocols share the common medium through a

predetermined assignment. It is suitable for sensor network that continuously monitor
and generate deterministic data traffic.
It provides a bounded delay for each node.However, in the case of bursty traffic,
where the channel requirements of each node may vary over time; it may lead to
inefficient usage of the channel.
Demand based MAC protocols are used in such cases, where the channel is
allocated according to the demand of the node. Though they require the additional
overhead of a reservation process, variable rate traffic can be efficiently transmitted
using demand-based MAC protocols.
Contention based MAC protocols involve random-access-based contention for
the channel when packets need to be transmitted. They are again suitable for bursty
traffic, but there is a possibility of collisions and no delay guarantees can be provided.
Hence, they are not suitable for delay-sensitive or real-time traffic.

Self-Organizing MAC for Sensor Networks (SMACS) and Eavesdrop and Register
(EAR)
SMACS and EAR protocols which handle network initialization and
mobility support, respectively. SMACS is a distributed protocol for
network initialization and link-layer organization.

In this protocol, neighbor discovery and channel assignment take place
simultaneously in a completely distributed manner.

A communication link between two nodes consists of a pair of time slots, at
a fixed frequency, which is randomly chosen at the time of establishing the
link. Such an assignment is possible in sensor networks without
interference from neighboring nodes because the available bandwidth is
much larger than the data rate required for a message transmission between
two nodes.

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This scheme requires synchronization only between communicating

neighbors, in order to precisely define the slots to be used for their
communication.

Power is conserved by turning off the transceiver during idle slots, and
using a random wake-up schedule during the network start-up phase.

EAR protocol:
The EAR protocol enables seamless connection of nodes under mobile and
stationary conditions. This protocol makes use of certain mobile nodes, besides the
existing stationary sensor nodes, to offer service to maintain connections. Mobile nodes
eavesdrop on the control signals and maintain neighbor information.

Hybrid TDMA/FDMA

This is a centrally controlled scheme which assumes that nodes communicate

directly to a nearby BS.

A pure TDMA scheme minimizes the time for which a node has to be kept on,
but the associated time synchronization costs are very high. A pure FDMA
scheme allots the minimum required bandwidth for each connection.

The hybrid TDMA/FDMA scheme, proposed in , uses an optimum number of
channels, which gives minimum overall power consumption. This is found to
depend on the ratio of power consumption of transmitter to receiver.

If the transmitter consumes more power, a TDMA scheme is favored, since it
can be switched off in idle slots to save power.

On the other hand, the scheme favors FDMA when the receiver consumes
greater power. This is because, in FDMA, the receiver need not expend power
for time synchronization by receiving during the guard band between slots,
which becomes essential in a TDMA scheme.

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CSMA-Based MAC Protocols

CSMA-based schemes are suitable for point-to-point randomly distributed traffic
flows. The sensing periods of CSMA are constant for energy efficiency, while the back-
off is random to avoid repeated collisions.

Binary exponential back-off is used to maintain fairness in the network. Use an

adaptive transmission rate control (ARC) to balance originating traffic and route-through
traffic in nodes. This ensures that nodes closer to the BS are not favored over farther
nodes.CSMA-based MAC protocol are contention-based and are designed mainly to
increase energy efficiency and maintain fairness.

5. Draw the protocol stack of IEEE 802.15.4 and explain its functions.

IEEE standard 802.15.4 intends to offer the fundamental lower network layers
of a type of wireless personal area network (WPAN) which focuses on low-
cost, low rate, low-speed ubiquitous communication between devices. It can be
contrasted with other approaches, such as Wi-Fi, which offer more bandwidth
and require more power.

It is used in home networking applications where the key motivations are
reduced installation cost and low power consumption.


The basic framework conceives a 10-meter communications range with a
transfer rate of 250 kbit/s.


Lower transfer rates of 20 and 40 kbit/s were initially defined, with the 100
kbit/s rate being added in the current revision.

Even lower rates can be considered with the resulting effect on power
consumption.

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Features:
Reservation of guaranteed time slots, Collision avoidance through CSMA/CA

Integrated support for secure communications.

Devices also include power management functions such as link quality and
energy detection.

IEEE 802.15.4 protocol stack:

Physical layer has 2 parts
IEEE 802.15.4 868/915 MHz
IEEE 802.15.4 2400 MHz
The network layers is based on the OSI model, although only the lower layers are
defined in the standard, interaction with upper layers is intended, possibly using an
IEEE 802.2 logical link control sub layer accessing the MAC through a convergence
sub layer.

Upper layer

IEEE 802.2 logical link coontrol

Convergence sublayers

IEEE 802.15.4
Medium Access

Physical layers

Figure 4.4 IEEE 802.15.4 protocol stack:

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The physical layer

The physical layer is the initial layer in the OSI reference model.

It operates on one of 2 possible unlicensed frequency bands.

2.4 GHz ISM band (250 kbps) and

868/915 MHz (20-40 kbps).

They also differ with respect to the data rates supported.
The ISM band PHY layer offers a transmission rate of 250 kbps while the
868/915 MHz offers 20 and 40 kbps.

The lower rate can be translated into better sensitivity and larger coverage
area, while the higher rate of the 2.4 GHz band can be used to attain lower
duty cycle, higher throughput and lower latencies.
Each device should be able to transmit at least 1 mW.

It uses a simple DSSS in which each bit is represented by a 15-chip maximal
length sequence (m-sequence).

Encoding is done by multiplying the msequence with +1 or -1 , and the
resulting sequence is modulated by the carrier signal using BPSK.

The 2.4 GHz PHY supports 16 channels between 2.4 GHz and 2.4835
GHz with 5 MHz channel spacing for easy transmit and receive filter
requirements. It employs a 16-ary quasi-orthogonal modulation technique
based on DSSS.

The two PHY layers though different, maintain a common interface to the
MAC layer, i.e., they share a single packet structure as shown in Figure 4.5.
Frame Format :

Figure 4.5 frame format

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Preamble 32 bits - synchronization

Start of packet delimiter (8 bits) – signify end of preamble

PHY header (8 bits) – specify PSDU

PSDU (<=127 bits) – PHY layer payload

PHY protocol data unit(PPDU) Preamble Start of packet delimiter PHY header
PHY service data unit (PSDU) 6 bytes i 127 bytes PHY packet fields.

The packet or PHY protocol data unit (PPDU) consists of the synchronization
header, a PHY header for the packet length, and the payload itself which is also
referred to as the PHY service data unit (PSDU).

preamble – used for synchronization 8-bit start of packet delimiter, signifying the
end of the preamble. Out of the 8 bits in the PHY header, seven are used to specify
the length of the PSD which can range from 0-127 bytes.


Beyond these three bands, the IEEE 802.15.4c study group considered the newly
opened 314–316 MHz, 430–434 MHz, and 779–787 MHz bands in China.

In August 2007, IEEE 802.15.4a was released expanding the four PHYs available
in the earlier 2006 version to six, including one PHY using Direct Sequence ultra-
wide band(UWB) and another using chirp spread spectrum (CSS).

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The MAC layer

The Medium Access Control (MAC) enables the transmission of MAC frames
through the use of the physical channel. Besides the data service, it offers a
management interface and itself manages access to the physical channel and
network beaconing.

It also controls frame validation, guarantees time slots and handles node
associations. Finally, it offers hook points for secure services.

The MAC protocol data unit (MPDU), or the MAC frame, consists of

1.The MAC header (MHR),

MAC service data unit (MSDU) and

MAC footer (MFR).

The MHR consists of a 2 byte frame control field that specifies the frame type, the
address format and controls the acknowledgement, 1 byte sequence number which
matches the acknowledgement frame with the previous transmission, and a
variable sized address field (0-20 bytes).

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The payload field is variable in length but the maximum possible size of an
MPDU is 127 bytes. 

The MFR completes the MPDU and consists of a frame check sequence (FCS)
field which is basically a 16-bit CRC code.

IEEE 802.15.4 under certain conditions provides dedicated bandwidth and low
latencies to certain types of applications, by operating in a super frame mode.

Channel access is usually contention based though the PAN may assign time slots
to a single device. This is known as a guaranteed time slot (GTS) .

An important function of MAC is to confirm successful reception of frames. Valid

data and command frames are acknowledged; otherwise it is simply ignored.

The frame control field indicates whether a particular frame has to be

acknowledged or not.

IEEE 802.15.4 provides three levels of security:

No security,
Access control lists and
Symmetric key security using AES-128.

IEEE 802.15.4 PHYs only support frames of up to 127 bytes .

Higher layers
Other higher-level layers and interoperability sub layers are not defined in the
standard. Specifications, such as6l0WPNand ZigBee build on this standard. The
standard defines two types of network node.

The first one is the full-function device (FFD). It can serve as the coordinator of a
personal area network just as it may function as a common node.
On the other hand, there are reduced-function devices (RFD). These are meant
to be extremely simple devices with very modest resource and communication
requirements; due to this, they can only communicate with FFDs and can never act
as coordinators.

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
3. Explain the main components of the wireless sensor node.

Main components of a WSN node

Controller
Communication device(s)
Sensors/actuators
Memory
Power supply

Microcontrollers:
The processor for general purposes

It is used in Optimized for embedded applications

Low energy consumption.
The communication module of a sensor node is called “Radio Transceiver”
The essentially tasks of transceiver is to “transmit” and “receive” data between a pair of
nodes.
The following characteristics of the transceiver should be consider for sensor nodes
Capabilities

Energy characteristics

Radio performance

Transceivers typically has several different states/modes
Transmit mode
Transmitting data
Receive mode

Receiving data
Idle mode

Ready to receive, but not doing so some functions in hardware can be
switched off.
Reducing energy consumption a little

Sleep mode


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Memory

Communi Controller Sensor/

cation Actuators

Power
Supply

Figure 4.6.Sensor node architecture

o Significant parts of the transceiver are switched off

o Not able to immediately receive something
o Recovery time and startup energy in sleep state can be significant
Sensor main category
Passive and active

Directional Vs omni directional
Power supply module
provides as much energy as possible includes following requirements

Longevity

Low self

discharge

Voltage stability

Smallest cost

High capacity/volume

Efficient recharging at low current

Shorter recharge time

Options of power supply module

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Primary batteries -not rechargeable


Secondary batteries -rechargeable

In WSN, recharging may or may not be an option.
The memory module of a sensor node has two major tasks
To store intermediate sensor readings, packets from other nodes, and so on.

To store program code.

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UNIT V

WSN ROUTING, LOCALIZATION & Qos

Issues in WSN routing – OLSR- Localization – Indoor and Sensor Network Localization-
absolute and relative localization, triangulation-QOS in WSN-Energy Efficient Design-
Synchronization-Transport Layer issues.

PART – A

1.What are the design challenges in sensor networks?(april/May 2017)

Sensor networks pose certain design challenges due to the following reasons:
Sensor nodes are randomly deployed and hence do not fit into any
regular topology. Once deployed, they usually do not require any human intervention.
Hence, the setup and maintenance of the network should be entirely autonomous.

Sensor networks are infrastructure-less. Therefore, all routing and
maintenance algorithms need to be distributed.

Sensor nodes should be able to synchronize with each other in a
completely distributed manner, so that TDMA schedules can be imposed and temporal
ordering of detected events can be performed without ambiguity.

2.Define Localization.

Localization algorithms require techniques for location estimation depending on

the beacon nodes' location. These are called multi-lateration (ML) techniques. Some
simple ML techniques are
Atomic multi-lateration.

Iterative multi-lateration.
Collaborative multi-lateration.

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

3.Define worst-case and best-case coverage.

The worst-case coverage defines areas of breach, that is, where

coverage is the poorest. This can be used to determine if additional
sensors need to be deployed to improve the network.

The best-case coverage, on the other hand, defines the areas of best
coverage. A path along the areas of best coverage is called a
maximum support path or maximum exposure path.

4.What is meant by Resynchronization?

Resynchronization is the process of synchronizing different network partitions that

are independently synchronized to different clocks to a common clock. In dynamic
networks such as sensor networks, frequent changes in topology make
resynchronization an important issue.

5. What is Localized encryption and authentication protocol?

Localized encryption and authentication protocol (LEAP) is a key management

protocol (a protocol to distribute cryptographic keys) for sensor networks based on
symmetric key algorithms, that is, the same key is used by sender and receiver.
In a network, requiring every pair of nodes to have a shared key to be used for
communication between them is ideal for security, because an attack on any one node
does not compromise the security of other nodes.

6. Define OLSR protocol.

The optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol is a proactive routing

protocol that employs an efficient link state packet forwarding mechanism called
multipoint relaying.

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This protocol optimizes the pure link state routing protocol. Optimizations are
done in two ways: by reducing the size of the control packets and by reducing the
number of links that are used for forwarding the link state packets.

7. Difference between WSN and Ad-hoc sensor network.

Difference between WSN and Ad hoc

Sensor nodes are densely deployed

Sensor nodes are prone to failures

The topology of a sensor network changes very frequently

WSN broadcast but ad hoc point-to point

Sensor node are limited in power computation capacities and memory

Sensor nodes may not have global identification



8. What is meant by WSN?

Consist of large amount of sensor nodes


Multi-hop, self-organize

Wireless communication

Cooperative sensing, collection, process

Send to observe.


9. Define hierarchical state routing protocol.

The hierarchical state routing (HSR) protocol is a distributed multi-level

hierarchical routing protocol that employs clustering at different levels with efficient
membership management at every level of clustering. The use of clustering enhances
resource allocation and management.

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10. Which two protocols support real-time communication in sensor networks?

SPEED
A stateless protocol, SPEED, which supports real-time communication in
sensor networks. SPEED is a localized algorithm which provides real-time
unicast, real-time area-multicast (multicast to all nodes in a particular region), and
real-time anycast support for packet transmission. SPEED has minimal overheads,
as it does not require routing tables.
RAP
It provides APIs for applications to address their queries. An application
layer program in the BS can specify the kind of event information required, the
area to which the query is addressed, and the deadline within which information is
required.

PART – B

1. Explain in detail about OLSR protocol with neat diagram?

 The optimized link state routing (OLSR) protocol is a proactive routing protocol
that employs an efficient link state packet forwarding mechanism called multipoint
relaying. This protocol optimizes the pure link state routing protocol.
Optimizations are done in two ways:

by reducing the size of the control packets and

by reducing the number of links that are used for forwarding
the link state packets.

The reduction in the size of link state packets is made by declaring only a subset of
the links in the link state updates.

This subset of links or neighbors that are designated for link state updates and are
assigned the responsibility of packet forwarding are called multipoint relays.

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The optimization by the use of multipoint relaying facilitates periodic link state
updates.

The link state update mechanism does not generate any other control packet when
a link breaks or when a link is newly added.

The link state update optimization achieves higher efficiency when operating in
highly dense networks.

Figure 5.1(a) shows the number of message transmissions required when the
typical flooding-based approach is employed. In this case, the number of message
transmissions is approximately equal to the number of nodes that constitute the
network.
The set consisting of nodes that are multipoint relays is referred to as MPRset.
Each node (say, P) in the network selects an MPRset that processes and forwards
every link state packet that node P originates.

The neighbor nodes that do not belong to the MPRset process the link state
packets originated by node P but do not forward them.

Similarly, each node maintains a subset of neighbors called MPR selectors, which
is nothing but the set of neighbors that have selected the node as a multipoint
relay.

A node forwards packets that are received from nodes belonging to its
MPRSelector set. The members of both MPRset and MPRSelectors keep
changing over time.
The members of the MPRset of a node are selected in such a manner that every
node in the node's two-hop neighborhood has a bidirectional link with the node.

The selection of nodes that constitute the MPRsetsignificantly affects the
performance of OLSR because a node calculates routes to all destinations only
through the members of its MPRset.

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Figure 5.1.Example selection of MPR set in OLSR

Every node periodically broadcasts its MPR Selector set to nodes in its immediate
neighborhood. In order to decide on the membership of the nodes in the MPRset, a
node periodically sends Hello messages that contain the list of neighbors with
which the node has bidirectional links and the list of neighbors whose
transmissions were received in the recent past but with whom bidirectional links
have not yet been confirmed.

The nodes that receive this Hello packet update their own two-hop topology
tables. The selection of multipoint relays is also indicated in theHello packet. A
data structure called neighbor table is used to store the list of neighbors, the two-
hop neighbors, and the status of neighbor nodes.

The neighbor nodes can be in one of the three possible link status states, that is,
uni- directional, bidirectional, and multipoint relay. In order to remove the stale
entries from the neighbor table, every entry has an associated timeout value,

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