‘Scanned with CamScannerMAIN OFTHE EXPERIMENT Performing and observing the following reactions and classifying them into: (2) Combination reaction (6) Decomposition reaction (©) Displacement reaction {d) Double displacement reaction (@) Action of water on quick lime (if) Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals (iii) Tron nails kept in copper sulphate (@) Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride sol &_MATERIALS AND APPARATUS REQUIRED : ‘Test tubes, test tube stand, dropper, test tube holder, burner, water, copper sulphate solution, iron nail, barium chloride solution and ferrous sulphate crystals. ty THEORY ™ Chemical reaction is a process of converting one ar more substances into other new substances, ™@ A reaction in which two or more substances combine to form @ new single substance is called 4 combination reaction: Cadls) + HO) ——+ Ca(OH),laq) Quicktime Water ‘Slakod time in decomposition reaction a single substance decomposes to give two or more simpler substances. Decomposition reactions can be brought about by applying heat, light or electricity: 2FeSO,(s) —t > Fe,Oa(s) + SO, (e) + SO; () Ferrous sulphate Feri oxide ‘sulphur Sulphur (White colour) (Brawn colour) clove ‘tone caco,'s) —Y > Cals) + 6O,le) Limestone Quickime Carbon doxiae 2AgBrs) —SPih > 2Agls) + Brle) Silver bromide Saver Bromine 2H.) —SSteY > 2H,(g) + 0, @) Warer Hyde Onna ‘mn displacement reaction, ane atom or a group of atoms of a compound is replaced by anather atom or group of toms. seas) + cuSO,laq’ ——+ FeSO,aq) + Culs) js Copper sulphate Fowrous suiphats. Capper Scanned with CamScannerse im The reactions in which two compounds exchange their iot ir ions to for displacement reactions. em two new compounds are called double NaS0,(aq) + BaCl,lag) ——> BaSO,s) + 2NaClaq) ‘Sodium sulphate Barium chloride Barium suphate Sodium chloride m_ Reactions in which heat is given out along with the products are called exothermic reactions. Reactions in which heat is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions. 1m Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts. bk PROCEDURE A,B, Cand D, 1. Take four test tubes, and label them a 9, Intest tube A, take a spatula of quicklime and add | mL of water: ‘Touch the bottom of the test tube with your fingers What do you observe? Note down the observations in the observation table. Tea hb: 3, In test mbe B, take about 2 g of ferrous sulphate crystals"? and hold it in a test tube holder ater cusckione HK Fig. 21 Adding water toque in tet be A a ~ Ferrous sulphate cryetais | = Sa Hh 90> HOF 22 Hoang ferous slp casi tat ube Note the colour of the ferrous sulphate crystals Heat the test tube over a burner. What do you observe? Note the observations in the observati 4, Intest tube C, take about 10 mL of dil, copper sth py rubbing with « sand papet 1 sulphate solution: ve the colour of the deposit on phate solution Take an iron nail and clean its surface est tube containing coppe Dip the cleaned iron nail in the rom the test tube and obse! After halfan hour, take out the iron na the n; Write down the observations in the observ ation table. Scanned with CamScanner5. In test tube D, take a few drops of sodit solution (colourless) to it. Note down the change that occurs, Does any precipitate form in this chemical ch lube Test ube fen stand ron ral akon Cooper: - Ligh ore cuttrom copper sulphate ferrous Sulphate suion salt sulphate ‘ove soliton % Fig. 23 ron nai dippodin oper sulphate solution in test tube C sulphate solution ae (colourless) and transfer a few drops of barium chloride too oe 0 — Barium horde soliton Ifyes, then note down the colour in the observation table. oot gyg stand Seium siphate Testtbte——F>] J | solution >*Fig. 24 Adding barium ehloride selution to \_OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS (Lef} Side of Practical Laegsodtm sulphate sofution in test tube D. in colour. On heating, the green colour of ferrous sulphate crystals first changes to white and then a brown solid is formed (which is ferric oxide). Gas having the smell ‘of burning sulphur comes out of the test tube. This is due to the formation of sulphur dioxide gas, Test tube Observation Conclusion A When water is added to vest cube A | When quicklime (calcium oxide) reacts with water, then slaked containing quicklime, the b+ lime (calcium hydroxide) is formed and a lot of heat is produced of the test tube becomes warm, is makes the reaction mixture warm, C20) + HO), —+ Ca(OH), (ay) Clem oxide Wier Caan bydoonie B Ferrous sulphate crystals are green | When the green coloured ferrous sulphate crystals (FeSO, 71,0) are heated, they first lose 7 molecules of water of crystallisation to fortn anhydrous ferrous sulphate (FeSO) which is white in colour. And then FeSO, clecomposes to form ferric oxide and oxides of sulphur FeS0,.7H,0 "5 FeSO\6) + THO) erupt * ayaa (ieen Healy He gOx(s) + SO, (g) + SOs (g) leon Swe) Sa 2FeSO , (9) White colar Scanned with CamScannerh copper sulphate solution ulphate solution to form: deponit of copper iron metal), Cc Copper sulphate solution is blue colour, When an iron nail is placed in copper sulphate solution, the ion nail becomes brownish in colour and colour af solution changes to pale green. copper sodium sulphate cof barium sulphate is. produced tiem (ag) +NaySOx(ag)—+ fhaSO\) + 2NaChaq ih Sem uae Aephen paee Sa ene ‘ite pe = D When barium eloridte soh added to sodiun al solution, immediately a white precipitate és obtained. 1s react by the exchange of their so this is 4 double Me RESULTS In this experiment we have observed and studied various types of chemical reactions as given below 1. Quicklime reacts with water to form slaked lime, liberating a large amount of heat. So, this i am exothermic reaction. In this reaction, two compounds, quicklime and water, combine to forms a single compound, slaked lime. So, this is a combination reaction. 2 Onbearing one substance (ferrous sulphate crystal), it decomposes into ferric oxide. sulphur diene and sulphur trioxide (three substances), 50 thisisa decomposition reaction and also endothermic $. The chemical reaction between iron nail and copper sulphate solution is a displacement reaction In this reaction, iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution beciuse irom & mare reactive than copper. 4. The chemical reaction between sodium sulphate and bari displacement reaction. This is also a precipitate reaction. Me _Precaurions, © Test tubes must be clean and dry. ‘© Test tube must be held by a holder while heating. '* The mouth of the fest tube should be kept ewe from te 08 chloride solutions. is a doable ‘Scanned with CamScannerpetermination of the focal length of a concave mirror by obtaining image of a distant object, AND APPARATUS REQUIRED Aconcave mirror, a metre scale, a small screen fixed on a stand and a mirror holder. ‘a Aspherical surface which is silvered or brightly polished so.as to reflect light incident on its concave side is called concave mirror, ‘The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is @ partis called the centre af curvature. The central point P of the spherical surface of the mirrors called the pole of the mirror. The line joining the pole tothe centre of curvature C is called the principat axis. The radius of the sphere of which the surface of the mirror forms a part is called the radius of curvature of the mirror. Toe ¢ Principal Centre of axis curvature R The incident rays parallel te principal axis on @ coneave mirror, Radius of paint on the principal axi: jis point is ere after reflectian meet at a point Principal axis. This points is 49.4 eajsam mivora condor to be the por called the principal focus or simply focus. It is denoted by F, A Ea lation aphare cigiecs plane passing through the focus and normal to principal axis is called focal plane. The distance of focus from the pole of mirror is called focal length of the mirror, Itis denoted by f, © The focal length of a concave mirror is given by: 1 1 1 Focal length Image distance " Object distance Vol gy po fouw ue where, v= distance of image ftom mirror w= distance of object from mirror = focal length of the mirror "When the object is at infinity in front of a concave mirror, its image is formed at the focus of the mirror. Parallel rays TEE [eae ay Focal, Fe length length (4) Incident rays are parallel to the principal axis (b) Incident rays are not parallel to principal axis: Fig. 10.2 Image formation of a distant object by concave mirror Patt object fa tise or a aletant bulking ora” clectricty pole) can be considered as an object at infinity, and Mage will be formed at the focus of the mirror. The image formed is real, inverted and very small in size. OD Scanned with CamScanner' Since the image formed by the mirror is real, itcan be obtained on the ae ie + Wan eta length of @ concave mirror by obtaining a real image of a distant object at its focu PROCEDURE J. Hold the given concave mirror with the help of its stand without obstructing its apergy 2. Face the mirror towards the window of your laboratory from which a distant ject ke visible, 3. Place the screen in front of the concave mirror 4. Select the right position of the screen by moving it back and forth so that a sharp, inverted image of the distant tree is formed on it. We can get a clear and bright imageif they object is illuminated with sunlightand the screen is placed in the shade. We can Aals0 Retain the sun if sunlight is made to fall directly on the concave mirror rt 5. Now, mark the position of the centre of the stands holding the mirror and the screen 6. Measure the horizontal distance between the concave mirror and the screen USiNg a metre way 7. Note the observations in the observation table. 5. Repeat the experiment two more times by obtaining the image of wo differem distant obj, Measure the distances between the concave mirror and the screen in each case 9. Record the observations in table. 10 Calculate the mean value of the focal length. a] Image of the distant object Serven ioe Screen stand stand er ———— A Fa.103 arrangementtorte detention ot focaiengt taconcave vor Dhow on /ATIONS AND CALCULATIONS (lef? cide ) Distance between the concave mirror and the screen, Scanned with CamScannerONS {TIONS _ ‘Scanned with CamScannerA convex lens, a lens holder, a screen fitted (0 eon es ™ Adouble convex tens is a piece of optical medium bounded spherical surfaces and hence two centres of cu usually the image will be formed on the opposite and principal focus of the lens in any one side, the image will b The rays of light coming from distant object such as a tree (or a distant building or electricity pole) can be considered to be parallel to each other. When parallel rays of light incident on a convex lens, the rays, after refraction, converge at focus on the other side of the lens. ™ For 2 parallel beam of light coming from a distant object, a real, inverted and very small size image is formed at the focus of the lens. Since the image formed by the lens is real, it can be obtained on the screen. = The distance between the optical centre and focus of a lens is called the focal length of the Jens, Thus, we can estimate the focal length of convex lens by obtaining a real image of a distant object at the focus of the lens. Focal length (/) of a lens is given by the lens formula: es ey uo astand and metre ature and two foci. If the abje ‘side ofthe lens. But for an object placed between aptly - Experiment- 1 vs M_AIM OF THE ExpERIMENT Determination of the focal length of a convex lens by wg image of a distant object, obtai sca by two convex surfaces on either side, thay cts placed on one side ofp 1¢ formed on the same side of the fens, (@) Incident rays of light are parallel to the principal axis ae (0) Incident rays of light are not parailel to principal aM Fig. 104 mage formation ofa distant abject by 3 conven aa where w= object distance and y= image distance, eS 1, Hold the lens with its stand in such 4 manner that its aperture shoulel not be obstructed 2, Select a distant object visible through the window oF the laboratory $. Keep one of the faces of the lens towards the distant object, sig ted oa stand on the 4. Keep the sereen Sa opposite side af the face of the len: 5, Adjust the position of the screen to geta sharp and inyey ted in e of the lens. 6. Mark the position of the centre of the stands holding 7. Measure the distance (horizontal) between the convex tens has an outside tree, age of the distant tree onthe lens and the screen, and the sereen using a meu" Scanned with CamScannerDistant object Fig. 10.5 Arrangement forthe determination of focal length of a convex lens §. Write down the observations in observation table. 9. Repeat the exper the distance betw observation table. it Wo more times by obtaining the images of wo different objects. Measure the convex lens and the screen in each case and record the observations in 10. Calculate the mean value of the focal length, OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS (Le f+ Side) S.No. Distant object Distance between the convex lens ‘Mean focal length, and the screen _{ (cm) Ze Tree 2 | Building 3. | Electricity pole polithet ls * The principal axis ofthe lens shavid be horizon ens should be clean. _ Uislnt object should be clearly visible. «base of the stands of the lens and t! talishe position of ne convexlens Suen that the light lens without any obstruction. al and parallel to the length of the scale, ‘the metre scale. screen should be parallel to Me {rays coming from the distant object are incident an Scanned with CamScannerUf Eqerivent-1) (OF THE EXPERIMENT ‘gracing the path of a ray of light passin, incidence. Measure the angle of incidenc: result. TER D APPARATUS REQUIRED " g through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of ©, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the Arectangular glass slab, four alpins, plane sheet of white paper, drawing board, fix 01 ee a paper, drawing board, fixing pins, protractor, , THEORY ¢ im When a ray of light passes from one transparent medium to another mediurn it changes the direction of its path or itbends. This phenomenon of change in the direction or bending of the ray of light is known as refraction of light. _Itaccurs due to the change of speed of light in different media..A medium, in which the speed of light is more, is known as optically rarer medium. The medium, in which speed of light is less, is known as optically denser medium. When a ray of light travels froma rarer to denser medium, it bends towards the normal. When a ray of light travels from a denser to rarer mediurn, it bends away from the normal. © The angle between incident ray and ‘normal (at the point of incidence) is called angle of incidence ‘’. The @) © ox ‘angle between the refracted ray and Pm 4 Retraction ofightin denser as well as raret medium separately ¢ Left) the nomal (at the point of incidence) is called angle of refraction r. The angle which the emergent ray makes with the oo is called angle of emergence Laws of refraction of light (i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the tefracting surface at the point of incidence, all lie in the Same plane. The ratio of sine of angle of we incidence to the sine of angle se 41.2 Passage of tight through a ~Fig. 11. Incident and emergent YS f refraction is a constant for a ar glass stab given pair of media. — a i Scanned with CamScanner we in gase of refraction CaO,; iN 1 _ constant = 4 sree f . a sint where p is called refractive index of the second Snell's law. fm The refractive index w of glass with respect to airis defined as Speed of fight in vacuum oF air (C) He Speed of light in glass (e) | with respect to the first medium. This law ig medium cla The refractive index of the material of a glass slab is constant for @ given colour or wavelength and for the gig, media, » PROCEDURE isl ing pins, “Take a sheet of paper and fix it on a drawing board with the help of Place the rectangular glass slab symmetrically in the middle of the paper Draw its outline ABCD by means ofa fine pencil point. After drawing the outline remove the glass slab from this. position, fat O situated nearby the midelle of the line AB, pr 3. Onone ofthe longer sides AB, draw a normal 4. Qnoneside ofthe normal ON, draw an inclined line making angle 30°, with the nor mal. Usea protractor for this purpose. T ‘ake care to have the length of the inclined line nearly 15 em. This line will serve as the incident ray. 5. Now place the glass slab carefully in its original position mar ked by the outline ABCD. 6. Fix two pins ‘t' and ‘2! vertically, by gently pressing their head with thumb on the inclined line at about 6-8 cm distance. Look through the glass slab from the Noy opposite side GD. You will see the refracted image of the two pins. 8. While observing the images of the pins 1 A and ‘2’ through the face CD of the glass slab, fix two more pins at positions’! and 4’ such that fect of all the pins appear to be im a straight line keeping distance between them to be 6-8 cm. fT 9, Remove the pins and the glass slab and put a small circle around each pin-prick. Join the positions of the pin 3 and pin 4 and extend it tll it touches the outline CD of the glass-slab at P. Note that this line is the 4, "1" Pees esha ete 3 emergent ray corresponding to the incident ray on the other side of the glass slab. Join the point P to the point O on the opposite side AB. The patt of the ray inside the slab is the rel 10. Now draw normal (N’M’) at the point P to GD side of the glass h. “dt ray: slab. iesueline angie of iuedemme tthe corremponding: angle of refraction 7 and .yene eae emergence ¢ by using a protractor 12. Record the values of i, rand ¢ in the tabular form and also write values of: and sin with the help of trigonometrical table. fang oP 13, Plota graph, between j and r taking the values of i along axis and ron Y-axis (Fig: 15): Scanned with CamScannerfa Ferre tn ferkenn eo =e ie ts fs, rotae diese Fig, 11.5 Variation of angle of refraction ¢ Fig. 1.8 Variation of win with si | with angle of incidence & 14. Also plot a graph betwee! Y-axis (Fig. 11.6), Repeat the experiment for different an; niand sin r taking the values of sin fon the X-axis and sin ron the les of incidence in the range 30° to 60° 16. Caleulate the mean value of the refractive index of the glass material of rectangular slab OBSERVA’ AND \THONS side ) No. of Angle of ‘Angle of Angle of sing sin r Mean Observations | Incidence, i | Refraction, r |Emergence, ¢ M in degree) | (in degree) | (in degree) 1 30 20 30 0.50 O34 laa z 60 35, 60 0.86 0.57 150 &_ResuLts 1. “The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the sur atthe point of incidence, allie im the same plane. 2 The value of "isa constant, ie., p= siny ‘Thus, the two laws of refraction of light are found to be true within experimental errors Rmenence From the results we found that the value of refractive index, ie c= SE" is constant which implies sin of angle of retraction on the both sictes of the slab are ngle of emergence for a given ray of light, Further, itis fated that the emergent ray is parallel to incident ray. However, the emergent tay slaterally displaced tom the original path of the incident ray by a perpendicular distance known as lateral displacenment. sin f versus sin y graph is a straight line passing through the origins, while + versus * graph is Non-linear. = nA that the ratio of sine of angle of incidence and sin faiual. So the angle of incidence is equal 0 the ‘Scanned with CamScannerby PRECAUTIONS © Alpins should be fixed vertically. ‘© Outline of the slab should be drawn carefully with the help of fine pencil point. © Angle of incidence should be from 30° to 60°. © While fixing alpins, the eyes should be in line with the feet of the pins. © Separation between the pins 1 and 2 and that between 3 and 4 should be at least 6 one Scanned with CamScanner