Endocrine System

Module 9: Human Anatomy &

Physiology
Principles of Chemical Communication
4 classes of chemical messengers
• Autocrine
• stimulates the cell that originally secreted it, and sometimes nearby cells of
the same type
• Paracrine
• secreted by one cell type but affect neighboring cells of a different type
• Neurotransmitters
• secreted by neurons that activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another
neuron, a muscle cell, or a glandular cell.
• Endocrine
• secreted into the bloodstream by certain glands and cells; affect cells that are
distant from their source HORMONES
Functions of the Endocrine System
1. Metabolism - regulates the rate of metabolism, the sum of the
chemical changes that occur in tissues.
2. Control of food intake and digestion - regulates the level of satiety
(fullness) and the breakdown of food into individual nutrients.
3. Tissue development - influences the development of tissues, such as
those of the nervous system.
4. Ion regulation - regulates the solute concentration of the blood.
5. Water balance - regulates water balance by controlling solutes in the
blood.
Functions of the Endocrine System
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation - helps regulate the heart rate
and blood pressure and helps prepare the body for physical activity.
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients - regulates the levels of
blood glucose and other nutrients in the blood.
8. Control of reproductive functions - controls the development and
functions of the reproductive systems in males and females.
9. Uterine contractions and milk release - regulates uterine contractions
during delivery and stimulates milk release from the breasts in lactating
females.
10. Immune system regulation - helps control the production and functions
of immune cells.
Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous
System
• The hypothalamus receives information from the nervous
system and initiates responses through the endocrine system
• Attached to the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland
(hypophysis) composed of anterior and posterior pituitary
• Posterior pituitary stores and secretes hormones made in the
hypothalamus
• Anterior pituitary makes and releases hormones under regulation
of hypothalamus
Characteristics of the Endocrine System
• Includes glands and specialized endocrine cells that secrete hormones
into the bloodstream
• A hormone is a chemical messenger secreted into the blood, travels
to a distant target tissue, and binds to specific receptors to produce
coordinated set of events in that target tissue
Hormones – Long distance regulators
• Hormones are chemical signals released into the circulatory system
and communicate regulatory messages within the body
• Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target cells are
equipped to respond
• Two systems coordinate communication throughout the body:
• Endocrine systems secrete hormones that coordinate slower but longer-
acting responses (e.g. reproduction, development, energy metabolism,
growth, behavior)
• Nervous system conveys high speed electrical signals along neurons; the
signals regulate other cells
Hormones
• Secreted to extracellular fluids and travel via the bloodstream
• Endocrine glands that produce hormones are ductless and secretion
is released directly into surrounding fluid
• Hormones mediate responses to environmental stimuli and regulate
growth, development and reproduction
Chemical Nature of HORMONES
• Lipid-soluble • Water soluble
• E.g. steroids, thyroid hormones and • E.g. Proteins, Peptides, Amino acid
some fatty acid derivatives derivatives
• Insoluble in water-based fluids • Do not pass through cell
• diffuse easily across cell membranes membranessecreted by excocytosis
• Binds with carrier proteins during • Travel freely in bloodstream
transport in the bloodstream • Bind to cell surface receptors
• Diffuse through plasma membrane of • Degraded by proteases in the
target cells circulation; and excreted in the urine
• Life span is a few days to several • Addition of carbohydrate groups
weeks prolongs the life span of these
hormones
Control of Hormone Secretion: Stimulation
Types of stimuli that trigger hormone secretion:
• Humoral stimulation
• Exhibited by hormones sensitive to circulating blood levels of certain molecules, e.g.
glucose or calcium
• Neural stimulation
• Secretion is a direct response to action potentials in neurons, e.g. during stress or
exercise
• Hormones from hypothalamus cause the release of other hormones releasing
hormones
• Hormonal stimulation
• Hormones stimulate the release of other hormones
• E.g. tropic hormones – hormones from anterior pituitary (hypophysis) stimulate
hormones from other endocrine glands
Humoral stimulation
Neural stimulation Hormone stimulation
Control of Hormone Secretion: Inhibition
Types of stimuli that trigger hormone secretion:
• Humoral inhibition
• Hormones produced by humoral stimulus are usually accompanied by another
hormone which is INHIBITED by the same stimulus
• Companion hormone has an opposite effect: e.g. aldosterone and ANH (atrial
natriuretic hormone) increases and decreases blood pressure, respectively
maintain homeostasis of blood pressure
• Neural inhibition
• If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target endocrine gland does NOT secrete the
hormone
• Inhibiting hormones
• Some hormones prevent the secretion of other hormonescommon type of
hormonal regulation
• E.g. thyroid hormones can control their own levels by inhibiting the anterior pituitary
tropic hormone
Regulation of Hormone levels in the Blood
• Negative feedback
• Prevents further hormone secretion once a set point is achieved
• Positive feedback
• Self-promoting system where stimulation of hormone secretion increases
over time
Hormone Receptors
Classes of Receptors
• Nuclear receptors
• Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors inside the nucleus of the
target cell
• Hormones that have rapid reactions are mediated by membrane-bound
receptor
• Membrane-bound receptors
• Water-soluble hormones bind to integral membrane proteins
Target tissue specificity of hormones
• Hormones exert their action by
binding to receptors
• Hormones can only stimulate
cells that have specific receptors
for them
• Specificity of hormones
Mechanisms of Action of Nuclear Receptors
• Lipid-soluble hormones bind to cytoplasmic or nuclear receptor
stimulate protein synthesis
• Nuclear receptors have portions that allow them to bind to the DNA
in the nucleus once the hormone is bound
• Hormone receptor complex activates genes, which activate the DNA
to produce mRNA
• The mRNA increases the synthesis of certain proteins that produce
the target cell’s response
Mechanisms of Action of Membrane-bound
Receptors
• Membrane-bound receptors activate a cascade of events one the
hormone binds
• Some receptors are associated with membrane proteins (G proteins)
• Activation of G proteins occur when a hormone binds to a
membrane-bound receptor
• One of the sub-units of G protein (alpha) bind to ion channels and
cause these channels to open or change the rate of synthesis of
intercellular mediators, such as cAMP
• cAMP can act as a second messenger
Lipid-soluble Hormone binding to Water-soluble Hormone binding to
receptors receptors
Hormone Cascade Pathway
• A hormone can stimulate the
release of a series of other
hormones, the last of which
activates a non-endocrine
target cell
• Hormone cascade pathways
typically involve negative
feedback
Tropic Hormones
• Tropic hormones- regulates function of endocrine cells or
glands
• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Adrenocorticotripic hormone (ACTH)
Nontropic Hormones
• Produced by anterior pituitary and targets/regulates
nonendocrine tissues
• Prolactin (PRL) – stimulates lactation
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) – influences skin
pigmentation and fat metabolism
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Pituitary
(Hypophysis) and Hypothalamus
• Pituitary connected to hypothalamus via infundibulum
• Pituitary has two parts: anterior and posterior portions
• Anterior pituitary secretions: controlled by hormones that pass
through the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system from the
hypothalamus
• Growth hormone (GH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin, melanocyte stimulating (MSH)
• Posterior pituitary hormones: controlled by action potentials carried
by axons that pass from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
Posterior pituitary: Anterior pituitary:
secretion of secretion of
hormones by hormones regulated
neural stimulation by releasing and
from hypothalamus inhibiting hormones
of the hypothalamus
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Thyroid Gland

• Secretes thyroid hormones that control metabolic rate

• Iodine-containing hormones- Triiodothyronine (T3) & tetraiodothyronine (T4)
• Stimulates development and maturation
• Calcitonin which helps regulate blood calcium levels
• inhibit osteoclast activity; decrease calcium absorption in intestine; increase calcium
excretion in urine
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Parathyroid Gland
• Secretes the peptide parathyroid hormone (PTH) that helps regulate
blood calcium levels
• PTH release calcium from bones by stimulating osteoclast and inhibiting
osteoblast
• Increase reabsorption of calcium (and magnesium) in the kidney tubules
• Initiate induction of the steroid hormone calcitriol in the kidney
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal medulla
• Secrete primarily epinephrine and some norepinephrine (catecholamines)
• Hormones that prepare the body for physical activity
• Secreted in response to stress
• Flight or fight
• Adrenal cortex
• Glucocorticoids (cortisol) – reduce inflammation and breakdown proteins and
lipids, to make them available as energy sources to other tissues
• Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) – help regulate blood Na+ and K+ levels and
water volume
• Adrenal androgens – increase female sexual drive but normally have very
little effect on males
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Adrenal Glands
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Release is triggered by nerve signals from hypothalamus
• Trigger release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood
• Increase oxygen delivery to body cells
• Direct blood toward heart, brain and skeletal muscles; away from skin,
digestive system and kidneys
https://slidetodoc.com/chapter-45-hormones-and-the-endocrine-system-power-2/
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Pancreas

• Pancreas have both endocrine and digestive function

• Secrete insulin (beta cells) in response to elevated levels of blood glucose
and amino acids
• Insulin increase rate of uptake of glucose by tissues (e.g. adipose, liver,
skeletal muscles)
• Pancreas produce glucagon (alpha cells) when blood glucose level is low;
increases rate of glucose release into the blood
• Somatostatin (delta cells) is a hormone produced in response to food
intake has inhibitory effect on insulin and glucagon secretion and gastric
tract activity
• Pancreatic polypeptide hormone (PP cells) play a role in appetite and
regulate pancreatic exocrine and endocrine secretions (hypothesis)
Endocrine portion of pancreas is made up of scattered pancreatic islets.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Learning_Objects/Worksheets/Book%3A_The_Biology_Corner_(Worksheets)/Anatomy_Worksheets/Feedback_Loops%3A_Glucose_and_Glucagon
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Testes & Ovaries

• Testes and ovaries both have endocrine and other functions for
reproduction
• Testosterone – secreted by testes to control reproductive processes
• Estrogen and progesterone – secreted by the ovary to control
reproduction processes
• LH and FSH from pituitary gland control hormone secretion from
these organs
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Thymus

• Thymosin enhances function of immune system

• Aide the development of white blood cells called T-cells
• T cells help protect the body against infection by foreign organisms
Endocrine glands and their Hormones: Pineal Gland

• Pineal gland is a small cone-shaped structure located near the

thalamus
• Produces melatonin which helps regulate the onset of puberty by
acting on hypothalamus
• Inhibit reproductive hypothalamic-releasing hormone known as gonadotropin
releasing hormone resulting in inhibition of secretion of LH and FSH from
anterior pituitary
• Inhibits reproductive system
• Play an important role in the onset of puberty
Other Hormones
• Prostaglandins
• Widely distributed in tissues of the body
• Function as intercellular signals
• Usually not transported long distances in the blood
• Function mainly as autocrine or paracrine chemical signals – effects on tissues
where they are produced and effects vary bases on location
• E.g. relaxation of smooth muscle like dilation of blood vessels; cause contraction of
smooth muscles like in the uterus during birth; those produced by platelets appear to be
necessary for blood clotting
Other Hormones
• ANH or Atrial Natriuretic Hormone
• Produced by the right atrium of the heart as a response to high blood pressure
• Inhibits Na+ reabsorption in the kidneys  more urine production  lowers blood
volume  lowers blood pressure
• Erythropoietin
• Produced in the kidney in response to low oxygen levels in this organ
• Acts on bone marrow to increase production of red blood cells
• HCG or human chorionic gonadotropin
• Similar in structure and function of LH
• Produced by the placenta of pregnant women
• Placenta also produces estrogen and progesterone
Organs with secondary endocrine secretions
Organs with secondary endocrine secretions
Effect of aging
• GH secretion decreases as people age  gradual decrease in bone and
muscle mass; increase in adipose tissue; can be helped with exercise
• Decrease in melatonin alters sleep patterns
• Less renin in the kidney with accompanying decrease in ability to respond
to decreases in blood pressure
• Reduced secretion of thymosin which results in fewer functional
lymphocytes and immune system becomes less effective in fighting
infections
• Increase in PTH secretion and decrease in vitamin D levels  degrease in
bone matrix
• Age-related tendency to develop Type 2 diabetes mellitus
Disorders of Endocrine System
• Acromegaly- abnormal growth of bones in the face, hands and feet due to
abnormally high levels of GH
• Diabetes mellitus – caused be destruction or dysfunction of the beta cells
of the pancreas or cellular resistance to insulin resulting in abnormally high
blood glucose levels
• Gigantism – disorder in children caused when abnormally high levels of GH
which prompts excessive growth
• Hyperparathyroidism – disorder caused by overproduction of PTH resulting
in abnormally elevated blood calcium
• Hypoparathyroidism – disorder caused by underproduction of PTH
resulting abnormally low blood calcium
Disorders of Endocrine System
• Hyperthyroidism - abnormal elevated level of thyroid hormone in the
blood; characterized by an increased metabolic rate, excess body
heat, sweating, diarrhea, weight loss and increased heart rate
• Hypothyroidism- clinically abnormal, low level of thyroid hormone in
the blood, characterized by low metabolic rate, weight gain, cold
extremities, constipation, reduced mental activity