1

Running head: ACADEMIC WRITING

Academic Writing Theory and Practice

Study Guide Prepared for Africa Leadership and Management

Academy (ALMA)

By Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu (Ph.D.)

February 2021

Email: [email protected]

+263776607029

Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 2

Table of Contents
Concept of Academic Writing ................................................................................................... 3
What is Academic Writing? ................................................................................................................ 3
Why Academic Writing ...................................................................................................................... 3
The Uniqueness of Academic Writing................................................................................................ 4
Types of Academic Writing ................................................................................................................ 4
Plagiarism ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Note Taking ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Leveraging Library Resources ............................................................................................................ 6
Term and Research Paper Structure ........................................................................................... 6
Formatting Academic Papers .............................................................................................................. 6
Term Paper Structure .......................................................................................................................... 6
What is Research? ............................................................................................................................... 6
Research Topic, Question, Problem, and Purpose .............................................................................. 6
Research Paper Structure .................................................................................................................... 7
Writing with Clarity, Conciseness, Cohesion, and Coherence .................................................. 8
Style .................................................................................................................................................... 8
Clarity ................................................................................................................................................. 9
Cohesion ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Coherence ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Grammar and Usage ......................................................................................................................... 10
Crediting Sources ..................................................................................................................... 11
In-text Citation .................................................................................................................................. 11
Quoting ............................................................................................................................................. 11
Paraphrasing...................................................................................................................................... 11
APA Style Citation ........................................................................................................................... 11
Mechanics of Scholarly Paper ................................................................................................. 13
Punctuation ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Spelling ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Capitalization .................................................................................................................................... 16
Italics ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................... 16
Contractions ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Use of Negative Words ..................................................................................................................... 17
Numbers ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Tables ................................................................................................................................................ 17
Figures............................................................................................................................................... 18
Reference ................................................................................................................................. 19

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 3

Concept of Academic Writing

Academic writing is different from non-academic types of writing. Academic writing

follows strict rules, procedures, guidelines, and formatting set by scholars and governing
bodies in academia. Therefore, the success of academic writers is determined by the abilities
of writers to follow and adhere to specific guidelines of the required academic writing styles.
The drive for academic writing effectiveness calls for writers to familiarize themselves with
the basics of academic writing theories and fundamentals.

What is Academic Writing?

Ö Academic writing is neither same as being right in a formal grammar nor being a native
speaker of English.
“A point worth noting is that good academic style is not the same as formal grammar
– there are plenty of cases of students who write in a good academic style, even though they
are not native speakers of English and their formal grammar is wobbly in places. Conversely,
there are many native speakers of English whose understanding of academic writing is
woeful” (Rugg & Petre, 2020, p. 91).
Ö Academic writing is based on fact, not opinion (Bailey, 2018, p. 22).
Turabian (2018) written, “Research-based writing differs from other kinds of
persuasive writing: it must rest on shared facts that readers accept as truths independent of
your feelings and beliefs” (p.6).
Ö Is about writing clearly, being concise, cohesive, and coherent.
“If you can write clear and concise sentences, you have achieved a good deal and
much more if you can assemble them into flowing coherent passages” (Williams, 2014, p.
143”. Petre “Academic writing is about completeness and honesty of content, as well as
about making sense” (Rugg & Petre, 2020, p. 91).
Ö Academic writing is evidence-based, maintain objectivity and add to the knowledge base
(Bailey, 2018; EssayShark, 2017).
According to Leeds University Library, “Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed,
structured and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding. It has
a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long sentences
and complicated vocabulary.”
Rugg and Petre (2020) indicated that all academic writing requires:
• Context/situation
• Justification of the content
• Substantiation of claims (evidence of rigour)
• A ‘coherent and explicit chain of reasoning’: appropriate structure, clear argument, a
coherent overall vision
• Discussion of implications. (p.91)

Why Academic Writing

According to EasyShark (2017), academic writing skills help:
• Understand and analyze scientific data.
• Develop an ability to create a debatable thesis statement based on studied information.
• Construct valid arguments grounded in learned facts to support a thesis statement.
• Understand proper methods of reasoning.
• Learn how to make consistent writing.

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 4

• Apply knowledge and creative skills in a chosen field for the personal comprehension
of a problem.
• Expand attainments through scientific research.
• Receive high grades in study.
• Enter a scientific society. (p.10)

The purpose of academic writing

Academic writing primary purpose is “to explain complex issues to a wide audience
so that the information conveyed will be as clear as possible to representatives of all
professions” (EssayShark, 2017, p.7).
Bailey (2018) posited, “Students should be clear why they are writing. The most
common reasons include: (a) to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted; ((b) to
answer a question, the writer has been given or chosen; (c) to discuss a subject of common
interest and give the writer’s view; (d) to synthesize research done by others on a topic”
(p.4).

The Uniqueness of Academic Writing

Bailey (2018) asserted, “Although there is no fixed standard of academic writing, and
style may vary from subject to subject, academic writing is clearly different from the written
style of newspapers or novels” (pp. 3-4).
EasyShark (2017) elaborated on the uniqueness as follows:
• Third-person exposition - In academic writing, narratives are described mostly
through the third-person perspective rather than through the first-person perspective.
• Particular structural elements - The goal of academic writing is to show a fresh
approach to a problem of interest. Each sample has to contain a thesis statement
which defines an opinion that will be proved in the paper.
• Formal language. There are certain words, word forms, and phrases that are not
acceptable in academic writing due to their colloquial nature (first-person pronouns: I,
we, me, us; contractions: can’t, aren’t, wouldn’t; abbreviations and short forms of
words: TV, photo).
• Terse style. Facts that are stated in academic papers should not be overloaded with too
many words while being described.
• Objectiveness. Alongside formal language, observations should be objective.
Reference arguments help to achieve impartiality.
• Arguments based on evidence. Each argument of the writing has to be based on facts
from credible scholarly sources.
• Complex understanding of the problem.
• Accurate grammar skills. Academic writing requires sufficient knowledge of the
language used, including rules of grammar and word spelling. (p.8)

Types of Academic Writing

EasyShark (2017) posited, “There are four major types of academic writing:
Analytical, Critical, Persuasive, and Descriptive. In most academic papers they are all
combined” (p.11). The main types of written work produced by students are “notes, reports,
project, essays, Dissertation/Thesis, and term papers,” according to Bailey (2018, p.4).
The sources for writing academically (a) Textbook, (b) Website, (c) Journal article,
(d) Official report, (e) Newspaper or magazine article, (f) E-book, (g) Edited book
(Bailey,2018, p.14).

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 5

Plagiarism
It is better to be safe with plagiarism than sorry: if it is not yours, cite it! The
American Psychology Association (2010) underscores, “ The key element of this principle is
that authors do not present the work of another as if it were their own work” (p.16). The
rules of plagiarism extend to “ideas as well as written words” (p.16).
According to the APA (2010),
Plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source (e.g., a book or journal article)
without giving credit (acknowledgment) to the author. It is seen as a kind of theft and
is considered to be an academic crime. In academic work, ideas and words are seen as
private property belonging to the person who first thought or wrote them. p.28
To avoid plagiarism, APA (2010) stated,
Researchers do not claim the words and ideas as their own; they give credit where
credit is due (APA Ethics Code Standard 8.11, Plagiarism). Quotation marks should
be used to indicate the exact words of another. Each time you paraphrase another
author (i.e., summarize a passage or rearrange the order of a sentence and change
some of the words), you need to credit the source in the text. The following paragraph
is an example of how one might appropriately paraphrase some of the foregoing
material in this section. (p.15)
Self-Plagiarism
APA (2010) stipulated, “Just as researchers do not present the work of others as their
own (plagiarism), they do not present their own previously published work as new
scholarship (self-plagiarism)” (p.16). APA explains the difference, “Whereas plagiarism
refers to the practice of claiming credit for the words, ideas, and concepts of others, self-
plagiarism refers to the practice of presenting one’s own previously published work as though
it were new” (p.170).
APA offers some tips that enables avoiding plagiarism, “The general view is that the
core of the new document must constitute an original contribution to knowledge, and only the
amount of previously published material necessary to understand that contribution should be
included, primarily in the discussion of theory and methodology” (p.16). Additionally, APA
advises, “Avoid charges of self-plagiarism by familiarizing yourself with the ethical
standards regarding duplicate publication and the legal standards of fair use” ( p.170).

Note Taking
Turabian (2018) offers helpful tips on how to take the right notes, “Once you find
and record a source you think you can use, you must read it purposefully and carefully. Then
take notes in a way that will help you not only to remember and use what you have read but
also to further your own thinking” (p. 42).
To avoid the risk of plagiarism, Turabian (2018) shares what a note-taker should do,
“Record complete bibliographic information for each source so that you can cite it properly
and find it again easily” (p.43).
Additionally, Turabian provides a practical suggestion that may help someone avoid
plagiarism because of the note-taking:
Clearly distinguish (1) what you quote from a source, (2) what you paraphrase or
summarize from a source, and (3) your own thoughts. If you are writing on paper, use
headings or brackets or distinct colors to differentiate these three different kinds of
notes. p.43
The golden rule of note-taking that Gemechu (2020) found in this - Never copy and
paste anything into your notes! This is because you can easily forget the source and fall
into the trap of plagiarism.

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 6

Leveraging Library Resources

According to Bailey (2018), “University and college libraries usually have online
catalogs. These allow students to search for the materials they want in various ways. If you
know the title and author’s name it is easy to check if the book is available, but if you are
making a search for material on a specific topic you may have to vary the search terms”
(p.15).
Bailey shares on how to locate journal articles and other academic wrting sources,
Journals are specialised academic publications produced on a regular basis containing
recent research. You need to be familiar with the main journals in your subject area.
They are usually available in paper or electronic formats (e-journals), although
nowadays some journals are only available online. E-journals and other electronic
resources such as subject databases are becoming increasingly important. Their
advantage is that they can be accessed by the internet, saving the need to visit the
library to find a book. p.18

Term and Research Paper Structure

Formatting Academic Papers
APA (2010) suggests, “Before beginning to write, consider the best length and
structure for the findings you wish to share. Ordering your thoughts logically, both at the
paragraph and at the sentence levels, will strengthen the impact of your writing” (p.61).
Formatting
• Use one-inch margins on all sides.
• The preferred font/size is Times New Roman, 12 pt.
• Indent all paragraphs to right by ½ inch except in the abstract section.
• Double-space the entire paper,
• Turabian format requires for block quotes, footnotes, bibliography entries, reference
lists, table titles, and figure captions to be single-spaced with one extra blank line
before/after to separate them from other elements.

Term Paper Structure

Bailey (2018) explains that term papers are different from the research paper. Term
papers may be used for writing short or long academic essays:
• Short essays (including exam answers) generally have this pattern: (a) Introduction,
(b) Main body, and (c) Conclusion.
• Longer essays and reports may include: (a) Introduction, (b) Main body, (c) Literature
review, (d) Case study, (e) Discussion, (f) Conclusion, (g) References/Bibliography,
(h) Appendices (pp. 4-5)

What is Research?
Research is “a process of systematic inquiry to answer a question that not only the
researcher but also others want to solve” (Turabian, 2018, p.5). Elaborating on this
definition,Turabian comments, “Research thus includes the steps involved in presenting or
reporting it. To be a true researcher, as we are using the term, you must share your findings
and conclusions with others” (p.5). According to Turabian, the goal of research “is not to
have the last word but to keep the conversation going” (p.5).

Research Topic, Question, Problem, and Purpose

Research topic

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 7

Creswell (2018) suggests that aspiring researchers “ first identify a topic to study and
reflect on whether it is practical and useful to undertake the study. The topic is the subject or
subject matter of a proposed study” (p.30).

Research question
Creswell (2018) wrote, “In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not
objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve
variables and statistical tests). These research questions assume two forms: (a) a central
question and (b) associated subquestions” (p.139).
Whereas, “In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions
and hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the study's
purpose. Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that
the investigator seeks to know” (Creswell, 2018, p.143).

Research problem
Creswell (2018) shared, “A research problem is an issue or concern that needs to be
addressed” (p.26).

Research purpose
Creswell (2018) stated, “A purpose statement establishes the intent of the entire
research study. It is the most important statement in the entire study, and it needs to be clear,
specific, and informative” (p.124).

Research Paper Structure

Excluding the front and hind matters, generally, research a paper contains five
essential sections/Chapters: (a) Introduction, (b) Literature Review, (c) Method, (d) Findings,
and (e) Discussion. The discussion section usually includes the recommedation, conclusion
and reference section.
Accoridng to Bailey (2018, p.6), dissertations and journal articles may have: (a)
Abstract (b) Table of contents (c) List of Tables and Figures (d) Introduction (e) Literature
Review, (f) Methodology, (g) Findings, (h) Discussion (i) Conclusion, (j) References, and
(k) Appendices.

Abstract
Bailey (2018) stated, “Abstracts normally have a standard structure: (a) Background
position (b) Aim and thesis of the paper (c) Method of research (d) Results of research”
(p.22).

Introduction
Bailey asserted, “Note that the key points are often (but not always) found in the first
part of a paragraph” (p.44). An introduction structure often contains: (a) Definition of key
terms, if needed, (b) Relevant background information, (c) Review of work by other writers
on the topic, (d) Purpose or aim of the paper, (f) Any limitations you imposed (g) An outline
of your paper (p. 84).

Conclusion
According to Bailey, Conclusion is: (a) Summary of main findings or results, (b)
Link back to the original question to show it has been answered, (c) Reference of the

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 8

limitations of your work, (d) Suggestions for future possible related research (e) Comments
on the implications of your research (pp. 87-88).

Writing with Clarity, Conciseness, Cohesion, and Coherence

Style
• The paper should be written in the 3rd person (he, she, it) with an active voice, rather
than passive voice.
• Unless a professor specifically asks for a paper in 1st person (I, me, we, us, our) or
2nd person (you, your) language, avoid these in a paper.
• Be specific and concise.
• Headline - all significant words must be capitalized.
• Sentence case = only the first letter of the first word, proper nouns, and the word
following a colon, if any, should begin with capital letters. Use sentence case for
fourth- and fifth-level headings.
Pagination
• In APA, a title page should contain page number 1.
• APA simply uses page numbers 1,2,3,…starting from the title page to the appendices.
Main Body

• APA puts the topic of the paper instead of the word "introduction."
Headings and subheadings
¡ APA (2010, p. 62) outlines five heading levels:
¡ First level (H1): Centered, Boldface, Uppercase Heading
¡ Second level (H2): Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase Heading
¡ Third level (H3): Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading
ending with a period.
¡ Fourth level (H4): Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.
¡ Fifth level (H5): Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.
Seriation
APA (2010) indicates, “items in the series should be identified by bullets. Symbols
such as small squares, circles, and so forth, may be used in creating a bulleted list” (p.64).
When there is seriation in a paragraph or sentence, APA requires, “Within a
paragraph or sentence, identify elements in a series by lowercase letters in parentheses. The
participant’s three choices were (a) working with another participant, (b) working with a
team, and (c) working alone” (p.64).
APA further explained, “Within a sentence, use commas to separate three or more
elements that do not have internal commas; use semicolons to separate three or more
elements that have internal commas. We tested three groups: (a) low scorers, who scored
fewer than 20 points; (b) moderate scorers, who scored between 20 and 50 points; and (c)
high scorers, who scored more than 50 points” (p.64).

Economy of Expression
APA encourages to “say only what needs to be said. The author who is frugal with
words not only writes a more readable manuscript but also increases the chances that the
manuscript will be accepted for publication” (p. 67).

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 9

Tone
APA emphasizes, “Scientific writing often contrasts the positions of different
researchers. Differences should be presented in a professional, noncombative manner” (p.66).
APA suggests, “One effective way to achieve the right tone is to imagine a specific reader
you are intending to reach and to write in a way that will educate and persuade that
individual” ( p.66).

Transitions
APA assures that the leverage of transitions ensures continuity in the presentation of
ideas,
Readers will better understand your ideas if you aim for continuity in words,
concepts, and thematic development from the opening statement to the
conclusion. Another way to achieve continuity is through the use of transitional
words. These words help maintain the flow of thought, especially when the material is
complex or abstract. …Other transition devices are time links (then, next, after, while,
since), cause–effect links (therefore, consequently, as a result), addition links (in
addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly), and contrast links (but, conversely,
nevertheless, however, although). (p.65)

Clarity
Word choice
APA cautions, “Make certain that every word means exactly what you intend it to
mean. In informal style, for example, feel broadly substitutes for think or believe, but in
scientific style such latitude is not acceptable” (p.68).

Colloquial expressions
APA requires, “Avoid colloquial expressions (e.g., write up for report), which diffuse
meaning. Approximations of quantity (e.g., quite a large part, practically all, or very few) are
interpreted differently by different readers or in different contexts. Approximations weaken
statements, especially those describing empirical observations” (p. 68).

Jargon
APA stipulates to avoid the use of jargon, “Jargon is the continuous use of a technical
vocabulary, even in places where that vocabulary is not relevant. Jargon is also the
substitution of a euphemistic phrase for a familiar term” (p. 68).

Pronouns
APA states, “Pronouns such as this, that, these, and those can be troublesome when
they refer to something or someone in a previous sentence. Eliminate ambiguity by writing,
for example, this test, that trial, these participants, and those reports” (p. 68).

Comparisons
APA stipulates to avoid, “Ambiguous or illogical comparisons result from omission
of key verbs or from nonparallel structure” (p. 68).

Attribution
APA cautions,

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 10

Inappropriately or illogically attributing action in an effort to be objective can be

misleading. Examples of undesirable attribution include use of the third person,
anthropomorphism, and use of the editorial we.
• Third person. To avoid ambiguity, use a personal pronoun rather than the third
person when describing steps taken in your experiment. Correct: We reviewed
the literature. Incorrect: The authors reviewed the literature.
• Anthropomorphism. Do not attribute human characteristics to animals or to
inanimate sources. p. 69
Cohesion
This is about the flow of paper. Williams (2014) posited, “We judge sequences of
sentences to be cohesive depending on how each sentence ends and the next begins” (p.67).
Willams suggested, “The way you organize old and new information determines how
cohesive readers will find your writing. And for readers, a passage’s overall cohesion trumps
the clarity of individual sentences” (p.70).
Willaims offers some tips towards achieving cohesion in writing,

Writers often refer to something in a pre vious sentence with words such as this,
these, that, those, another, such, second, or more. When you use any of those signals,
try to put them at or close to the beginning of a sentence. p.70

Coherence

This is about getting a sense of the whole in the paper. Williams (2014) argued, “We
judge a whole passage to be coherent depending on how all the sentences in a passage
cumulatively begin” (p. 67).
Williams explained that “When you create cohesive flow, you take the first step
toward helping readers feel that your prose hangs together. But they will judge you to be a
competent writer only when they also feel that your writing is coherent” (p.71).
Williams shared:
Consistent ideas toward the beginnings of sentences, especially in their subjects, help
readers understand what a passage is generally about. A sense of coherence arises
when a sequence of topics comprises a narrow set of related ideas. But the context of
each sentence is lost by seemingly random shifts of topics. Unfocused, even disorga
nized paragraphs result when that happens. p.74

Grammar and Usage

APA (2010) posited, “Incorrect grammar and careless construction of sentences
distract the reader, introduce ambiguity, and generally obstruct communication” (p.77).

Verbs
APA advises, “Prefer the active voice” (p.77). However, “The passive voice is
acceptable in expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the
action rather than on the actor” (p.77).

Agreement of Subject and Verb

APA highlights, “A verb must agree in number (i.e., singular or plural) with its
subject, regardless of intervening phrases that begin with such words as together with,
including, plus, and as well as” (p.78).

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 11

Crediting Sources
Bailey (2018) asserted, “Academic work depends on the research and ideas of others,
so it is vital to show which sources you have used in your work, in an acceptable manner”
(pp. 58-59). APA (2010) stipulates, “Cite the work of those individuals whose ideas,
theories, or research have directly influenced your work” (p.169).

In-text Citation
Bailey (2018) posited five types of in-text citation systems:
Ö Harvard , generally used in the UK for Social Sciences and Business.
Ö MLA (Modern Language Association) is similar to Harvard but more common in
the US for the Arts and Humanities. In this, the year of publication is at the end of
the reference.
Ö APA is widely used in the US in the Social Sciences.
Ö Vancouver /Vancouver system/ author – number system is commonly employed
in Medicine and Science. Numbers in brackets are inserted after the citation and
these link to a numbered list of references.
Ö Chicago/ Turabian/ Footnote/endnote systems , commonly used in the
Humanities, in which sources are listed either at the bottom of the page or at the
end of the paper. The numbers in superscript run consecutively throughout the
paper. (p. 61).
Quoting
Direct Quotation of Sources
“If the quotation comprises fewer than 40 words, incorporate it into text and enclose
the quotation with double quotation marks (APA, p.170).
However, “If the quotation comprises 40 or more words, display it in a freestanding
block of text and omit the quotation marks. Start such a block quotation on a new line and
indent the block about a half inch from the left margin (in the same position as a new
paragraph). If there are additional paragraphs within the quotation, indent the first line of
each an additional half inch. Double-space the entire quotation. At the end of a block
quotation, cite the quoted source and the page or paragraph number in parentheses after the
final punctuation mark” (APA, p.171).

Paraphrasing
Bailey (2018) suggested,
Quotations should not be overused, so you must learn to paraphrase and summarise in
order to include other writers’ ideas in your work. This will demonstrate your
understanding of a text to your teachers. Paraphrasing involves rewriting a text so that
the language is significantly different while the content stays the same. Summarising
means reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points. pp. 31-32

Bailey encourages to summarize or paraphrase whenever possible, “while

summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to restate
the relevant information” (p. 54).
APA stipulates, “When paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another
work, you are encouraged to provide a page or paragraph number, especially when it would
help an interested reader locate the relevant passage in a long or complex text” ( p.171).

APA Style Citation

I. General Rule with ONE Authour

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 12

Ö In-text quoation for sources from Books, Journal Articles, Dissertation/Thesis, and
Online Sources:
Example 19: Collins (2009) defines coaching as “the art and practice of enabling individuals
and groups to move from where they are to where they want to be” (p.14).
Or,
Coaching is “the art and practice of enabling individuals and groups to move from where
they are to where they want to be” (Collins, 2009, p.14).
Ö Reference
Book
Example 20: Collins, G. R (2009). Christian Coaching. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress.
Northouse, P. G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks,
California: SAGE.

II. Two or more Authors

A. Book
Ivancevich, J. M., Konopaske, R., & Matteson, M. T. (2014). Organizational behavior and
management (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Parenthetical citation of Two or more authors of a book
• Two authors
Example 21:
Patterson and Winston (2006) asserted, “Xxxxxxxxxxyyyyyy” (p. 100).
An integrative defintion of leadership entails, “Xxxxxxxxxxyyyyyy” (Patterson & Winston,
2006, p. 100).

• Three or more authors name - First time it appears in a text

Example 22:
Heifetz, Grashow, and Linsky (2009) coined the concept and defined, “Adaptive
leadership is the practice of mobilizing people to tackle tough challenges and thrive” (p.14).
Adaptive leadership helps leaders “to survive and thrive through challenging times”
(Heifetz, Grashow, & Linsky, 2009, p.14).

Second times it appears, you use et al.

Example 23:
Heifetz et al. (2009) stated that ……,
The concept of adative leadership is “ less embraced until crises time arises”
(Heifetz et al., 2009, p. 53).

A. Journal Article
Gemechu, T. F. (2018). The Making of Organizational Leaders: Case Study of
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, Mother Teresa, and William Carey. School of
Business & Leadership, Regent University. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in
Leadership, 8 (1) 37-50. ISSN 1941-4692.

Two or more authors of a journal article

Gemechu, T. F., West, G. R. B., Winner, W. D., & Winston, B. (2020). Creating an
instrument to measure holistic ethical leadership. International Leadership
Journal, 12(1), 26–42.

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 13

Parenthetical citation of Two or more authors of a journal article

• Three or more authors name - First time it appears in a text

Example 24:
Gemechu, West, Winner, and Winston (2020) defined Holistic ethical leadership as
“an ethical influence process that brings about physical, spiritual, mental, emotional, social,
psychological, and financial sense of wholeness to oneself and others” (p. 26).
Or,
Holistic ethical leadership as “an ethical influence process that brings about physical,
spiritual, mental, emotional, social, psychological, and financial sense of wholeness to
oneself and others” (Gemechu, West, Winner, & Winston, 2020, p. 26).

Second times it appears, you use et al.

Gemechu et al. (2020) stated, “The outcome of holistic ethical leadership includes
holistic service” (p. 27).

B. Dissertation/Thesis
Gemechu, T. F. (2019). Creating an instrument to measure holistic ethical
leadership (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses database. (UMI No. 13805441)

C. Website/Online Sources
World Health Organization. (2014). Mental health. Retrieved August 4, 2018, from
http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/mental_health/en/
Bible Hub. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2015, from
http://biblehub.com/greek/1484.htm
D. Unpublished manuscript/Work
Gemechu, T. F. (2017). Learning Followership in Non-Profit Organization:
Phenomenological Study at Life Ministry Zimbabwe. Unpublished
manuscript. School of Business and Leadership, Regent University. Virginia
Beach, VA.
E. Sacred Books
“Since books and numbering differ among versions of the scriptures, identify the
version you are using in brackets in your first citation with either the spelled-out name or an
accepted abbreviation” (Turabian, 2018, p. 271)
Example 18: Parenthetical citation: (1 Thess. 4:11, 5:2–5, 5:14); (2 Sm 11:1–17, 11:26–27; 1
Chr 10:13–14); (2 Kings 11:8 [New Revised Standard Version]).

Mechanics of Scholarly Paper

The mechanics of a paper is about elements of academic writing. This is about style.
APA (2010) makes it clear, “ When editors refer to style, they mean the rules or guidelines a
publisher observes to ensure clear, consistent presentation in scholarly articles” (p.87). This
section describes “the most basic tools for conveying meaning—punctuation, spelling,
capitalization, italics, abbreviations, numbers, metrication, and statistics” (p.87).

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 14

Punctuation
“Punctuation establishes the cadence of a sentence, telling the reader where to pause
(comma, semicolon, and colon), stop (period and question mark), or take a detour (dash,
parentheses, and brackets)” (APA, p.87).
“Punctuation of a sentence usually denotes a pause in thought; different kinds of
punctuation indicate different kinds and lengths of pauses” (APA, p.87).

Spacing after punctuation

“Insert one space after commas, colons, and semicolons; periods that separate parts of
a reference citation; and periods following the initials in personal names (e.g., J. R. Zhang)”
(APA, p.87).

Period
“Use a period to end a complete sentence. Periods are used with abbreviations as
follows: Use periods with initials of names (J. R. Smith). abbreviation for United States
when it is used as an adjective (U.S. Navy). identity-concealing labels for study participants
(F.I.M.). Latin abbreviations (a.m., cf., i.e., vs.). reference abbreviations (Vol. 1, 2nd ed., p.
6, F. Supp.)” (APA, p.88).

Comma
“Use a comma between elements (including before and and or) in a series of three or
more items. Correct: the height, width, or depth in a study by Stacy, Newcomb, and Bentler
(1991) Incorrect: in a study by Stacy, Newcomb and Bentler (1991)” (APA, 2010, p.88).

Turabian (2018) stated, “In a sentence containing two or more independent clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet), put a comma before the
conjunction” (307).
Semicolon
“Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a
conjunction” (APA, p. 90).
Colon
“Use a colon between a grammatically complete introductory clause (one that could
stand as a sentence) and a final phrase or clause that illustrates, extends, or amplifies the
preceding thought. If the clause following the colon is a complete sentence, it begins with a
capital letter. For example, Freud (1930/1961) wrote of two urges: an urge toward union with
others and an egoistic urge toward happiness” (APA, 2010, p. 90).
Dash
“Use a dash to indicate only a sudden interruption in the continuity of a sentence.
Overuse weakens the flow of material. These two participants—one from the first group and
one from the second— were tested separately” (APA, 2010, p.90).

Quotation Marks
“ Use double quotation marks to introduce a word or phrase used as an ironic
comment, as slang, or as an invented or coined expression. Use quotation marks the first time
the word or phrase is used; thereafter, do not use quotation marks. Correct: considered
“normal” behavior the “good-outcome” variable . . . the good-outcome variable [no quotation
marks after the initial usage]” (APA, 2010, p.91).

Double or Single Quotation Marks

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 15

“In text, use double quotation marks to enclose quotations in text. Use single
quotation marks within double quotation marks to set off material that in the original source
was enclosed in double quotation marks. Correct: Miele (1993) found that “the ‘placebo
effect,’ which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when [only the first group’s]
behaviors were studied in this manner” (APA, 2010, p.92).

Parentheses
“Use parentheses to set off structurally independent elements. (When a complete
sentence is enclosed in parentheses, place punctuation in the sentence inside the parentheses,
like this.) If only part of a sentence is enclosed in parentheses (like this), place punctuation
outside the parentheses (like this). to set off reference citations in text, Dumas and Dore
(1991) reported is fully described elsewhere (Hong & O’Neil, 1992)” (APA, 2010, p. 93).

Brackets
“Use brackets to enclose the values that are the limits of a confidence interval. 95%
CIs [−7.2, 4.3], [9.2, 12.4], and [−1.2, −0.5] to enclose material inserted in a quotation by
some person other than the original writer. “when [his own and others’] behaviors were
studied” (Hanisch, 1992, p. 24) to enclose parenthetical material that is already within
parentheses. (The results for the control group [n = 8] are also presented in Figure 2.)” (APA,
p.94).

Slash
“Use a slash (also called a virgule, solidus, or shill) to clarify a relationship in which
a hyphenated compound is used. the classification/similarity-judgment condition hits/false-
alarms comparison to separate numerator from denominator. X/Y to indicate per to separate
units of measurement accompanied by a numerical value 0.5 deg/s 7.4 mg/kg and to cite a
republished work in text. Freud (1923/1961)” (APA, 2010, p. 95).

Spelling
Prefered spelling
“Spelling should conform to standard American English as exemplified in
MerriamWebster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2005), the standard spelling reference for APA
journals and books” (APA, 2010, p. 96).

Hyphenation
“Compound words take many forms; that is, two words may be written as (a) two
separate words; (b) a hyphenated word; or (c) one unbroken, “solid” word. Choosing the
proper form is sometimes frustrating. For example, is follow up, follow-up, or followup the
form to be used? The dictionary is an excellent guide for such decisions, especially for
nonscientific words (the term is follow-up when functioning as a noun or adjective but follow
up when functioning as a verb) (APA, 2010, p.97).
“APA follows Webster’s Collegiate in most cases. Compound terms are often
introduced into the language as separate or hyphenated words, and as they become more
commonplace, they tend to fuse into a solid word. For example, the hyphen was dropped
from life-style in the 11th edition of Webster’s Collegiate, and data base is now database”
(APA, 2010, p.97).
“Hyphens, dashes, and minus signs are each typed differently. hyphen: Use no space
before or after (e.g., trial-by-trial analysis). An em dash: An em dash is longer than a hyphen
or an en dash and is used to set off an element added to amplify or to digress from the main

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 16

clause (e.g., Studies—published and unpublished—are included). Use no space before or

after an em dash. minus sign: If a minus sign is not available in your wordprocessing
program, use a hyphen with a space on both sides (e.g., a - b). For a negative value, use a
hyphen rather than a minus sign, with a space before but no space after (e.g., -5.25).” (APA,
2010, p.97).

Capitalization
Words Beginning a sentence
“Capitalize the first word in a complete sentence. Note: If a name that begins with a
lowercase letter begins a sentence, then it should be capitalized. Do not begin a sentence with
a statistical term (e.g., t test or p value; s)” (APA, 2010, p.101).

Major Words in Titles and Headings

“Capitalize major words in titles of books and articles within the body of the paper”
(APA, 2010, p.101).

Italics
Use of Italics
“Use italics for titles of books, periodicals, films, videos, TV shows, and microfilm
publications” (APA, p.104). APA instructs to use italics for “introduction of a new, technical,
or key term or label (after a term has been used once, do not italicize it)” (APA, p.104). You
use italics for “periodical volume numbers in reference lists. American Psychologist, 26, 46–
67” (APA, 2010, p.105).

Abbreviations
Abbrviations Accepted in APA Journals
APA style “permits the use of abbreviations that appear as word entries (i.e., that are
not labeled abbr), such abbreviations do not need explanation in text. For example, IQ,
REM, ESP, AIDS, HIV, NADP, ACTH” (APA, 2010, p.107).

Latin Abbreviations
According to Bailey (2018), in-text citations use the following abbreviations derived
from Latin and printed in italics:
et al. used when three or more authors are given. The full list of names is given in the
reference list. Example - Many Americans fail to vote (Hobolt et al ., 2006:137).
op cit. taken from the same source as previously, but a different page (pp. 65-66).

APA (2010) adds some more Latin Abbreviations:

“cf. compare i.e., that is, e.g., for example, viz., namely, etc. , and so forth, vs. versus,
against” (p.108).

Contractions

Do not use contractions in academic writing (Bailey, 2018). In stead, use words to
write full phrases, verbs, and sentences. Example: I’d rather–I would rather; It didn’t–It did
not; They’ll–They will; you’re–You are; Don’t–Do not; I’m–I am; etc.

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 17

Use of Negative Words

Academic writing enncourages the use of postive words that generate the postive
attitudes. For example, instead of writing–we do not have instrument that measure the
Holistic Ethical Leadership until 2019; you can write–An instrument that measure the
Holsitic Ethical Leadership fail to exist until 2019.
Numbers
“The general rule governing APA Style on the use of numbers is to use numerals to
express numbers 10 and above, and words to express numbers below 10” (APA, 2010,
p.111). Example – She is eight; her brother is 18.

Numbers Expressed in Numerals

“Use numerals to express numbers 10 and above; exceptions: 12 cm wide the 15th
trial, the remaining 10%, 13 lists, 25 years old 105 stimulus words 10th-grade students”
(APA, 2010, p.111).

Numbers Expressed in Words

“Use words to express any number that begins a sentence, title, or text heading.
(Whenever possible, reword the sentence to avoid beginning with a number.) Forty-eight
percent of the sample showed an increase; 2% showed no change. Twelve students improved,
and 12 students did not improve. Common fractions-one fifth of the class, two-thirds
majority. Universally accepted usage. the Twelve Apostles, Five Pillars of Islam” (APA,
2010, p.112).

Letters and Numerals

Turabian (2018) stiupulates, “In most cases, form the plurals of capital letters and
numerals by adding s alone (not ’s)” (p. 295). Example- three As, one B, and two Cs ; the
1950s; 767s

Tables

Table Layout and Numbers

“Number all tables and figures with Arabic numerals in the order in which they are
first mentioned in text, regardless of whether a more detailed discussion of the table or figure
occurs later in the paper. Do not use suffix letters to number tables and figures; that is, label
them as Table 5, Table 6, and Table 7 or Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7 instead of 5, 5a, and
5b” (APA, 2010, p. 127).
“If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables or figures, identify those elements
of the appendix with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g., Table A1 is the first table of
Appendix A or of a sole appendix that is not labeled with a letter; Figure C2 is the second
figure of Appendix C)” (APA, 2010, p.127).

APA Table guidelines

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 18

Example of APA Table

Figures

APA (2010) gives some detialed descriptions:

Many types of figures can be used to present data to the reader. Graphs typically
display the relationship between two quantitative indices or between a continuous
quantitative variable (usually displayed as the y-axis) and groups of subjects
displayed along the x-axis. Charts generally display nonquantitative information such
as the flow of subjects through a process, for example, flow charts. Maps generally
display spatial information. Drawings show information pictorially. Photographs
contain direct visual representations of information. p.151

APA Figures

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 19

Reference
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington DC: Author.
American Psychological Association. (2019). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (7th ed.). Washington DC: Author.
Bailey, S. (2018). Academic writing: A handbook for international students (5th ed.). New
York, NY: Routledge.
Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
EssayShark (2017). Move the rock of academic writing: A complete manual on the academic
writing process for beginners and intermediate students. Retrieved August 27, 2020
from Amazon https://www.amazon.com/Ultimate-Academic-academic-scholarly-
vocabulary-ebook-dp-
Gemechu, T. F. (2019). Creating an instrument to measure holistic ethical leadership
(Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(UMI No. 13805441)
Gemechu, T. F., West, G. R. B., Winner, W. D., & Winston, B. (2020). Creating an
instrument to measure holistic ethical leadership. International Leadership Journal,
12(1), 26–42.
Leeds University. What is academic writing. Retrieved August 25, 2020 from
https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/14011/writing/106/academic_writing

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe
ACADEMIC WRITING 20

Rugg, G., & Petre, M. (2020). The unwritten rules of PhD research (3rd ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education, Open University Press.
Turabian, K. L. (2018). A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations
(9th ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Williams, J.M. (2014). Style: Lessons in clarity and grace (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.

Academic Writing Study Guide - ALMA - Dr. Tariku Fufa Gemechu, Feb 2021, Harare, Zimbabwe