understanding the flow of fluids in high-velocity applications, such as pumps, turbines,

and pipelines.

8.11. Identify system onboard where Pressure energy, Potential energy and Kinetic energy is
applied
Pressure energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy are applied in various systems onboard
ships and vessels. Here are some examples:
• Hydraulic systems: Pressure energy is the primary driving force in hydraulic systems,
which utilize pressurized fluids to transmit power and operate machinery.
• Pneumatic systems: Kinetic energy plays a significant role in pneumatic systems, where
compressed air is used to power tools, actuators, and control mechanisms.
• Propulsion systems: Both pressure energy and kinetic energy are crucial in propulsion
systems, such as engines and propellers, which generate thrust through the movement
of fluids.
• Cargo handling systems: Cranes, winches, and other cargo handling equipment often
utilize a combination of pressure energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy to lift,
move, and secure cargo.
• Firefighting systems: Pumps and sprinklers in firefighting systems rely on pressure
energy and potential energy to deliver water and suppress fires.

8.12. Solve problems by applying Bernoulli's equation:

A water tank is open to the atmosphere and has a height of 2 meters. Water flows out of a hole
in the bottom of the tank at a velocity of 5 m/s. Calculate the pressure at the hole in the bottom
of the tank.
Solution:
Bernoulli's equation can be written as:
P1 + 0.5ρV1² + ρgh1 = P2 + 0.5ρV2² + ρgh2
where:
• P1 is the pressure at the surface of the tank (Pa)
• V1 is the velocity of the water at the surface of the tank (m/s)
• ρ is the density of the water (kg/m³)
• h1 is the height of the water in the tank (m)
• g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
• P2 is the pressure at the hole in the bottom of the tank (Pa)
• V2 is the velocity of the water at the hole in the bottom of the tank (m/s)
• h2 is the height of the hole in the bottom of the tank (m)
In this problem, we can assume that the velocity of the water at the surface of the tank is
negligible, and that the height of the hole in the bottom of the tank is negligible. Therefore, we
can simplify Bernoulli's equation to:
P1 = P2 + 0.5ρV2²
Plugging in the values, we get:
101 kPa = P2 + 0.5 * 1000 kg/m³ * (5 m/s)²
Solving for P2, we get:
P2 = 65,500 Pa
Therefore, the pressure at the hole in the bottom of the tank is 65,500 Pa.

8.13. Explain the interchange of pressure loss and gain of kinetic energy
In fluid flow systems, there is an interplay between pressure loss and the gain of kinetic energy.
As fluid flows through pipes, valves, and other obstructions, it encounters friction and
turbulence, which dissipate energy and cause a decrease in pressure. This loss of pressure
energy is often accompanied by an increase in kinetic energy as the fluid accelerates.
The interchange between pressure loss and kinetic energy is governed by the principle of
conservation of energy. The total mechanical energy of a fluid particle remains constant, unless
there is external work done on the system. Therefore, as pressure energy is lost due to friction,
it is transformed into kinetic energy, increasing the velocity of the fluid.
This principle is applied in various fluid mechanics applications, such as pump design, pipe
sizing, and flow control. Understanding the relationship between pressure loss and kinetic
energy allows engineers to optimize system efficiency and prevent unwanted energy
dissipation.
8.14. Differentiate between pressure loss and gain of kinetic energy

Pressure loss is like the friction that slows down a car. It happens as a fluid flows through a
system and loses pressure due to rubbing against the walls or changing its speed. This loss of
pressure can reduce the efficiency of the system and even damage its components.

Page 17 of 24
Gain of kinetic energy is like a car speeding up. It happens when a fluid's pressure decreases,
causing it to flow faster and gain kinetic energy. This increase in kinetic energy can make the
system more powerful and effective.

In simpler terms, pressure loss is like losing energy, while gain of kinetic energy is like gaining
energy.

8.14. Solve illustrative problem involving changes in pressure

A pump is used to increase the pressure of water in a pipe from 10 mWC to 20 mWC. Calculate
the change in pressure energy per unit mass of water.
Solution:
The change in pressure energy per unit mass of water is given by:

ΔPE = ρgh
Where:
• ΔPE is the change in pressure energy per unit mass (J/kg)
• ρ is the density of the water (kg/m³)
• g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)
• h is the change in pressure head (m)

In this problem, the density of water is 1000 kg/m³, the change in pressure head is 10 m Water
Column, and the acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s², so the change in pressure energy per
unit mass is:

ΔPE = 1000 kg/m³ * 9.81 m/s² * 10 m = 98,100 J/kg

9. Jet’s Orifice Coefficients

9.1. Define the coefficient of velocity
The coefficient of velocity, also known as the discharge coefficient, is a dimensionless factor
that accounts for the energy losses in an orifice or nozzle. It is defined as the ratio of the actual
velocity of the fluid exiting the orifice or nozzle to the theoretical velocity, which is the velocity
that would be obtained if there were no energy losses.

9.2. Understand the coefficient of discharge for a small orifice

The coefficient of discharge for a small orifice typically ranges from 0.5 to 0.8. The value of the
coefficient of discharge depends on the shape of the orifice, the smoothness of the orifice
edges, and the viscosity of the fluid.

9.3. Solve problems such as discharge, velocity, impact of jets, and power of jets. (same as 9.6)

9.4. Explain the power of a jet in terms of velocity of the liquid and cross-sectional area of an
enclosed pipe
The power of a jet is directly proportional to the velocity of the liquid and the cross-sectional
area of the jet. This means that a jet with a higher velocity or a larger cross-sectional area will
have more power.

9.5. Identify system onboard where application of jet power is applied

Jet power is used in a variety of onboard systems, including:
• Firefighting systems: Jet power is used to propel water from fire hoses and nozzles. The
high velocity of the water jet can be used to extinguish fires.
• Cleaning systems: Jet power is used to clean surfaces with water or other fluids. The
high velocity of the jet can remove dirt, debris, and other contaminants.
• Propulsion systems: Jet power is used to propel ships and boats. The high velocity of
the jet can be used to create thrust.

9.6. Solve an illustrative problem to determine the power of a jet in terms of its applied velocity
and cross- sectional area of a pipe
A fire hose with a nozzle diameter of 5 cm is discharging water at a velocity of 10 m/s. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m³. Calculate the power of the jet.
Solution:
The cross-sectional area of the nozzle is given by:
A = πr²
Where:
• A is the cross-sectional area (m²)
• r is the radius of the nozzle (m)

Page 18 of 24
In this problem, the radius of the nozzle is 0.025 meters, so the cross-sectional area is:
A = π * (0.025 meters)² = 0.001963 m²
The power of the jet is given by:
P = ρAv³

Where:
• P is the power of the jet (W)
• ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m³)
• A is the cross-sectional

• A = 0.001963 m²
• v = 10 m/s
• ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Substituting these values into the equation for power, we get:

P = 1000 kg/m³ * 0.001963 m² * (10 m/s)³ = 196.3 W

Therefore, the power of the jet is 196.3 watts.

10. Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity,

10.1. Define viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It is a property of fluids that determines
how easily they deform or move when subjected to a force. Viscosity is typically measured in
units of pascals-seconds (Pa·s) or centipoise (cP).

10.2. Identify system onboard where the viscosity of a liquid is applied

The viscosity of a liquid is important in a variety of onboard systems, including:
• Hydraulic systems: Hydraulic systems use pressurized fluids to transmit power and
operate machinery. The viscosity of the fluid affects the efficiency and performance of
the hydraulic system.
• Lubrication systems: Lubrication systems use oils and greases to reduce friction and
wear between moving parts. The viscosity of the lubricant affects its ability to protect the
parts from damage.
• Fuel systems: Fuel systems use liquids to power engines. The viscosity of the fuel
affects its flow rate and combustion efficiency.
• Cargo handling systems: Cargo handling systems use liquids to pump, transport, and
secure cargo. The viscosity of the liquid affects its ability to flow through pipes and
valves.
10.3. Solve an illustrative problem to determine the viscosity of a liquid according to its type and
its applied temperature
The viscosity of a liquid varies depending on its type and temperature. For example, water has a
lower viscosity than honey, and the viscosity of most liquids decreases as the temperature
increases.
Example of a problem involving the viscosity of a liquid:
A sample of oil has a viscosity of 0.1 Pa·s at 20°C. What is the viscosity of the oil at 50°C?
Solution:
The viscosity of a liquid can be estimated using the following equation:
μ = μ₀e^(Ea/RT)
Where:
• μ is the viscosity at the desired temperature (Pa·s)

• μ₀ is the viscosity at a reference temperature (Pa·s)

• Eₐ is the activation energy for viscous flow (J/mol)
• R is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K)
• T is the desired temperature in Kelvin (K)
The activation energy for viscous flow of oil is approximately 50 kJ/mol. The viscosity of oil at
50°C is:
μ = 0.1 Pa·s * e^(50,000 J/mol / (8.314 J/mol·K) * (273 K + 50 K))
μ = 0.031 Pa·s
Therefore, the viscosity of the oil at 50°C is 0.031 Pa·s.

Page 19 of 24
 • Moment of inertia: The moment of inertia is a measure of the body's resistance to
rotational motion. It depends on the distribution of mass within the body.

By understanding and applying these concepts, engineers can design structures, machinery,
and operational procedures that maintain stability and prevent accidents in shipboard
operations.

2. Balancing
2.1 Center of gravity of two masses in a steady condition
The center of gravity is the point at which the weight of an object can be considered to act. In a
steady condition, the center of gravity is the point where the force of gravity acting on the object
is balanced by the force of support. For two masses in a steady condition, the center of gravity
is located on a line connecting the two masses, and is closer to the mass with the greater
weight.

2.2 Onboard operation where static balance of two masses in a plane is applied
One example of an onboard operation where static balance of two masses in a plane is applied
is in the design of a marine vessel. The center of gravity of a vessel is important for its stability.
If the center of gravity is too high, the vessel is more likely to tip over. If the center of gravity is
too low, the vessel is more likely to rock back and forth. By carefully considering the placement
of cargo and other items on a vessel, the crew can ensure that the center of gravity is in a safe
location.

2.3 Center of gravity of two masses in motion

The center of gravity of two masses in motion is the point where the entire weight of the two
masses can be considered to act. In motion, the center of gravity of two masses is not always
located on a line connecting the two masses. The center of gravity can also move around as the
two masses move.

2.4 Onboard operation where dynamic balance of two masses in a plane is applied
One example of an onboard operation where dynamic balance of two masses in a plane is
applied is in the design of a helicopter. The rotor blades of a helicopter are constantly spinning,
and if they are not balanced correctly, they can cause the helicopter to vibrate excessively. This
vibration can make it difficult to control the helicopter and can also damage the helicopter's
structure. By carefully balancing the rotor blades, the crew can ensure that the helicopter is
stable and safe to fly.

2.5 Methods of balancing rotors by means of maintaining at rest in any position

There are a number of methods for balancing rotors, but they all work by ensuring that the rotor
is at rest in any position. One common method is to use a balancing machine. This machine will
measure the vibration of the rotor and then add or remove weight to the rotor in order to cancel
out the vibration. Another common method is to use a dynamic balancer. This device will
measure the vibration of the rotor while it is rotating and then adjust the rotor's speed or weight
in order to cancel out the vibration.

2.6 Onboard operation where methods of balancing rotors is applied

One example of an onboard operation where methods of balancing rotors is applied is in the
maintenance of a marine vessel. The propellers of a marine vessel are constantly rotating, and
if they are not balanced correctly, they can cause the vessel to vibrate excessively. This
vibration can make it difficult to control the vessel and can also damage the vessel's structure.
By regularly balancing the propellers, the crew can ensure that the vessel is stable and safe to
operate.

2.7 Dynamic balance of several masses to a rotating shaft with angular velocity
The dynamic balance of several masses to a rotating shaft with angular velocity is important for
the smooth and efficient operation of machinery. When several masses are attached to a
rotating shaft, they can cause the shaft to vibrate. This vibration can cause noise, wear and tear,
and even damage to the machinery. By carefully balancing the masses on the shaft, the
engineer can ensure that the machinery operates smoothly and efficiently.

3. Stress and Strain

3.1 Define Stress and Strain
Stress is the internal force per unit area within a material that resists deformation. It is measured
in pascals (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi).
Strain is the amount of deformation that a material undergoes when subjected to a stress. It is
measured as a dimensionless ratio of change in length to original length.

3.2 Classify between Stress and Strain

Page 2 of 24
Stress and strain are both measures of the deformation of a material, but they are different
quantities. Stress is a measure of the internal force per unit area within a material, while strain is
a measure of the amount of deformation that the material undergoes.

3.3 Apply the principle of Young's modulus of elasticity

Young's modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a material. It is defined as the ratio
of stress to strain. The higher the Young's modulus of a material, the stiffer the material is.
Formula:
E = σ/ε
Where:
• E is Young's modulus of elasticity (Pa)
• σ is stress (Pa)
• ε is strain (dimensionless)

3.4 Identify onboard operation where principles of stress and strain is applied
There are numerous onboard operations where the principles of stress and strain are applied to
ensure the safe and efficient operation of marine machinery and structures. Here are a few
examples:
• Design of ship hulls and structures: The hulls and structures of ships must be designed
to withstand the stresses caused by waves, wind, and cargo loads. By understanding the
principles of stress and strain, engineers can design ships that are strong, lightweight,
and safe.
• Analysis of piping systems: Piping systems on ships must be able to withstand the
stresses caused by pressure, temperature, and vibration. By understanding the
principles of stress and strain, engineers can design piping systems that are reliable and
leak-proof.
• Maintenance of machinery: Machinery on ships must be regularly inspected and
maintained to ensure that they are not operating under excessive stress. By
understanding the principles of stress and strain, technicians can identify potential
problems and take corrective action before they cause a failure.

3.5 Solve problems involving stress and strain

Here is an example of a problem involving stress and strain:
A steel bar with a cross-sectional area of 100 mm2 is subjected to a force of 10,000 N. What is
the stress in the bar?
Solution:
σ = F/A = 10,000 N / 100 mm2 = 100 MPa

3.6 Explain the change of temperature of a material gives rise to thermal strain.
Thermal strain is the strain that is caused by a change in temperature. When a material is
heated, its atoms vibrate more rapidly, and this causes the material to expand. Conversely,
when a material is cooled, its atoms vibrate more slowly, and this causes the material to
contract.
Formula:
ε = αΔT
Where:
• ε is thermal strain (dimensionless)
• α is the coefficient of thermal expansion (1/°C)
• ΔT is the change in temperature (°C)

3.7 Identify onboard system thermal stress of a material is applied

Thermal stress is a type of stress that is caused by a change in temperature. It can occur in a
variety of onboard systems, including:
• Piping systems: When a pipe is heated or cooled, it expands or contracts. This can
cause stress in the pipe and its fittings.
• Engine components: Engine components are subjected to a wide range of temperatures.
This can cause thermal stress in the components, which can lead to cracking or failure.
• Ship hulls: Ship hulls are exposed to the sun and the sea. This can cause them to
expand and contract, which can lead to thermal stress in the hull plates.

3.8 Solve illustrative problem by applying thermal stress formula

Here is an example of a problem involving thermal stress:
A copper pipe with a length of 10 m is subjected to a temperature change of 100 °C. The
coefficient of thermal expansion of copper is 17 x 10^-6 1/°C. What is the thermal stress in the
pipe?
Solution:
ε = αΔT = 17 x 10^-6 1/°C * 100 °C = 0.017

σ = Eε = 100 GPa * 0.017 = 1.7 GPa

Page 3 of 24
3.9 Explain the stress of two or more members rigidly fixed together to share the same amount
of load extend or compress.
When two or more members are rigidly fixed together. In general, balancing is an important part
of engineering and maintenance. By understanding the principles of balancing, engineers and
technicians can design and maintain machinery that is safe and reliable.

3.10 Identify onboard system stress of two or more material is applied.

Here are some examples of onboard systems where the stress of two or more members rigidly
fixed together is applied:

Onboard
Description
System

Ship hulls The hulls of ships are made up of many different plates that are welded
together. The stress of the water on the hull is shared by all of the plates.

Frames and Frames and beams are used to support the decks and bulkheads of ships.
beams The stress of the cargo or passengers on the decks and bulkheads is shared
by all of the frames and beams.

Trusses are used to support bridges and other structures. The stress of the
Trusses
weight on the bridge or structure is shared by all of the members of the truss.

3.11 Solve illustrative problems by applying formula

Here is an example of a problem involving the stress of two or more members rigidly fixed
together:

A ship hull is made up of 10 plates that are each 1 m wide and 2 m long. The plates are welded
together so that they act as a single unit. The hull is subjected to a water pressure of 100 kPa.
What is the stress in each plate?
Solution:
The total force on the hull is 100 kPa * 1 m * 2 m = 2000 N.
The stress in each plate is 2000 N / 10 plates = 200 N/plate.

3.12 Explain bar is elastic when work stored as an energy of deformation and is recoverable on
removal of the load
An elastic bar is a bar that is able to return to its original shape after it has been deformed. This
is because the work that is done on the bar is stored as an energy of deformation. When the
load is removed, this energy is released and the bar returns to its original shape.

3.13 Identify onboard system subjected to elastic strain energy

There are many onboard systems that are subjected to elastic strain energy. These include:
• Springs: Springs are used to store energy and to absorb shock. The energy stored in a
spring is an example of elastic strain energy.
• Ropes and cables: Ropes and cables are used to transmit forces and to support loads.
The elastic strain energy in a rope or cable helps to prevent it from breaking.
• Bumper stops: Bumper stops are used to prevent damage to structures when they are
hit by other objects. The elastic strain energy in a bumper stop helps to absorb the shock
of the impact.

3.14 Solve illustrative problem by applying formula

Here is an example of a problem involving elastic strain energy:
A spring with a stiffness of 100 N/m is compressed by 0.1 m. What is the elastic strain energy in
the spring?
Solution:
The elastic strain energy in a spring is given by the formula:
U = 1/2 kΔx^2
Where:
• U is the elastic strain energy (J)
• k is the stiffness of the spring (N/m)
• Δx is the change in length of the spring (m)
In this problem, k = 100 N/m and Δx = 0.1 m. Therefore, the elastic strain energy in the spring
is:
U = 1/2 * 100 N/m * (0.1 m)^2 = 0.5 J

Page 4 of 24
4. Bending of Beam
4.1. Bending, shear, and deflection in terms of their forces
Bending, shear, and deflection are three fundamental concepts in structural engineering that
describe how beams and other structural members respond to external forces.
Bending is the deformation of a beam or other structural member due to an applied load that
causes the member to curve.
Shear is the type of stress that occurs when two parts of a structural member are forced to slide
past each other.
Deflection is the amount of displacement that a beam or other structural member experiences
under an applied load.

4.2. Differentiate between bending and shear forces

Bending forces are those that cause a beam or other structural member to bend. They are
typically applied perpendicular to the axis of the member.
Shear forces are those that cause two parts of a structural member to slide past each other.
They are typically applied parallel to the axis of the member.

4.3. Solve illustrative problem by applying formula

Here is an example of a problem involving bending and shear forces:
A simply supported beam with a span of 6 meters is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of
1000 kg/m. Calculate the maximum bending moment and shear force in the beam.
Solution:
The maximum bending moment occurs at the center of the beam and is given by:
M = wL^2/8
Where:
• M is the maximum bending moment (N·m)
• w is the uniformly distributed load (kg/m)
• L is the span of the beam (m)

In this problem, M = 1000 kg/m * (6 m)^2 / 8 = 45,000 N·m.

The maximum shear force occurs at the ends of the beam and is given by:
V = wL/2
Where:

• V is the maximum shear force (N)

In this problem, V = 1000 kg/m * 6 m / 2 = 3000 N.

4.4. Explain shear forces and bending moment of a body in terms of their diagrams
Shear force diagrams and bending moment diagrams are graphical representations of the shear
force and bending moment throughout a beam or other structural member. They are used to
identify the locations and magnitudes of the maximum shear force and bending moment.
Shear force diagrams:
• A shear force diagram shows the shear force at each point along the length of the beam.
• The sign convention for shear force diagrams is as follows:
Positive shear force causes the beam to rotate clockwise.
Negative shear force causes the beam to rotate counterclockwise.

Bending moment diagrams:

• A bending moment diagram shows the bending moment at each point along the length
of the beam.
• The sign convention for bending moment diagrams is as follows:
Positive bending moment causes the beam to bend convex upward.
Negative bending moment causes the beam to bend convex downward.
4.5. Identify system on board related to shear and bending moment
Shear and bending moments are important considerations in the design of many onboard
systems, including:
• Ship hulls: Ship hulls are subjected to a variety of forces, including waves, wind, and
cargo loads. These forces can cause shear and bending moments in the hull plates.
• Frames and beams: Frames and beams are used to support the decks and bulkheads of
ships. The forces acting on the decks and bulkheads are transmitted to the frames and
beams, which can cause shear and bending moments in these members.
• Piping systems: Piping systems are used to transport fluids throughout a ship. The fluids
in the pipes can exert forces on the pipes, which can cause shear and bending moments
in the pipe walls.

Page 5 of 24