Geometric

Dimensioning
&
Tolerancing
(GD & T)

 Feature Control Frames

 Datum’s
 Axis
 Plane
 Target

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 Geometric tolerances are defined within feature control frames. These
frames are specifically designed. Some are relative to a datum
reference, some are relative to themselves. The feature control frame
is like a basic sentence that can be read from left to right. Examples of
feature control frames are shown below;

Feature Control frames

Geometric
Symbol of Toleranc Primar
e Zone y
and Datum
Secondar
y Datum
Tertiar
y

No Datum One Datum

Reference Reference

Two Datum
References

Three Datums
References

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 The geometric symbol of control is specified on the left hand side.
This will vary depending on the requirement and functionality
required from the feature and component part

The shape and tolerance within the feature control frame determine
the limits of production variability.

Datum examples
The Primary Datum can be defined by a minimum of 3 point contact on
a surface or by the generation of a 3D Axis through a minimum of 2
features.

The Secondary Datum can be defined from a minimum of 2 points, of an

edge or through an axis relative to the Primary datum

The Tertiary Datum can be defined by a minimum of one point in

relation to the Primary and secondary datum’s

Technical Drawing showing the datum definitions (Measurement

terms: alignment or co•ordinate system)

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Technical Drawing showing the datum relationships

Feature Control Frames Definitions

No Datum Reference

0.03
Single Datum Reference
5

0.085 A
Multiple Datum Reference

0.145 A-B

4
 Two Datum Reference

0.200 A B
Three Datum Reference

0.145
Tolerance zones over a specified length

0.01/100

0.01 mm over any 100 mm length

Combined Tolerance Zone

0.2
0.05/190

Overall tolerance 0.2 mm,

0.05 mm over any 190 mm length

5
 Theoretically exact dimensions
Dimension defining the theoretical exact position are defined in a box.
Each of these dimensions should have a feature control frame
attached at some stage to define a tolerance otherwise these
dimensions should be produced perfectly to these sizes with no
variation.

38 156
°
Ø 6.2
Datum symbols

The datum symbols used are normally specified as below. The use of
a letter is the convention used of specified within the ASME and ISO
standards

A B

The datum symbols can be positioned in different places on a drawing

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 to define the requirements of the component part. Each time the
datum symbols are used this should tell the manufacturing and
measurement departments how to set up the part. It is critical that
the interpretation of this is correct to avoid any errors in the set up of
both the machine tool and the measurement equipment used.

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 Datum Axis

Datum Plane
or extension
Feature Feature
Outline Extension

A A

Drawing examples of both axis and plane

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 Axis and plane with the alternative option of specifying a datum

9
 Datum Targets

Datum’s can be defined for manufacturing purposes as targets. Often

used in the casting industry. They could be used to create the final
datum’s of the component part. These targets are normally categorised
as on of the following;

 Point

 Line

 Area

Point
Datum target point from the corner is defined as below. This could be
located on the component by the use of a predefined fixture

Line
Datum target line from the corner is defined as below. This could be
located on the component by the use of a predefined fixture

B1
B1

90

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 Area
Datum target areas from the corner are defined as below. These could
be either circular or boxed as shown. This could be located on the
component by the use of a predefined fixture

Ø9 2x2
A1 A2

7 12

7 12

Three datum target areas specifying the primary datum ‘A’

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 Two lines specifying the secondary datum ‘B’ and a point specifying the
Tertiary datum ‘C’

Two diameters defining the Datum through a common axis

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 Primary and secondary datum’s as checked by a gauge

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Form Tolerance
3

IN THIS CHAPTER

 Circularity (Roundness)
 Straightness
 Flatness
 Cylindricity

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 Circularity

Circularity also known as Roundness — in this example the shape of

the diameter to be produced and measured should be round within a
tolerance zone of 0.040

The tolerance is specified by a

zone bounded by two 0.04
concentric circles 0

The measurement of circularity can be

achieved by different methods normally by a
specific
roundness measuring machine or by
utilising Co-ordinate measuring
machine software

Diameter varying within tolerance of size and form

1
5
Circularity on a Taper

Circularity measurement example taken using a dial indicator, stand and vee
block

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Circularity measurements taken using a roundness measuring machine

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 Straightness

Straightness can be defined as the maximum allowable deviation

away from a straight line or axis within the tolerance zone

Definition of tolerance zones

One direction Two directions,

different values

One direction,
tapered diameter

One direction,
cylindrical zone

One direction, possible

shapes of part

1
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 Flatness

Flatness can be defined as the maximum allowable deviation on a

surface within the tolerance zone

Tolerance zone across three surfaces

1
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Flatness definition

Measurement on surface table using 3 location supports and a dial indicator

and stand

2
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 Cylindricity

Cylindricity can be defined as the maximum allowable deviation of all

points on a surface of revolution equi distant from a common axis
within the a tolerance zone defined by two cylinders

0.025

0.040

0.040

Measurements taken using a roundness measuring machine

2
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Location Tolerances
4

IN THIS CHAPTER

 Location
 Regardless of Feature size
 Maximum Material
Condition (Maximum
Material Requirement)
 Concentricity/Coaxially
 Symmetry

2
2
 True Position
Location tolerances are also known as true positional tolerances.
Either defined as a cylindrical zone or parallelepiped

(Boxed/rectangular)

Establishing dimensions

2
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 Regardless of Feature Size (RFS)
Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) The symbol S was used next to
the tolerance, within the feature control frame in a previous ANSI
standard

Cylindrical zone example

2
4
Positional tolerance on an edge at a specific angle

2
5
Bi directional positional tolerance of holes

Cylindrical tolerance zone on a pattern of holes

2
6
Positional tolerance on a surface at a specific angle

Drawing example relative to three Datums

2
7
Position of surface relative to Datums ‘A’ and ‘B’

RFS Calculation

2
8
 Actual centre position relative to the nominal centre position

Actual position calculation expressed as a diameter output

2
9
 Maximum Material Condition principle M
Maximum Material Condition (MMC); A product feature has the most
amount of material within the allowed tolerance zone
 Internal feature is the smallest size allowable within the allowed
tolerance zone
 External feature the largest size allowable within the allowed tolerance zone
.
The MMC symbol M can be positioned within the tolerance frame

either next to the tolerance or any datum symbol

Maximum Material Condition (MMC) is a basis used for the assembly

of different products – for example a pin fitting into a hole or a
manifold fitting onto studs.

MMC provides the combination of the smallest hole and the largest
pin, so as to fit together as an assembly.

Once this has been established it is known as the Virtual Condition –

the worst condition for the pin and hole to assemble.

At virtual condition the two features would just fit and change
from this could result in an easier fit between the two features.
Virtual Condition is a boundary that is generated by the effects of
combining the MMC and the Geometric Tolerance.

Internal: MMC Condition value minus the geometric

tolerance External: MMC condition value plus the
geometric tolerance
 Note; This is dependent on the features remaining within tolerance
of size.

Note; MMC can be applied to other symbols such as the following;

Straightness Circularity Angularity, Symmetry, Parallelism,

3
0
 Perpendicularity, Concentricity/ Co- axiality and Position

3
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 Least Material Condition principle

Least Material Condition (MMC); A product feature has the least amount
ofmaterial within the allowed tolerance zone
 Internal feature is the largest size allowable within the allowed tolerance zone
 External feature the smallest size allowable within the allowed tolerance zone
.
The LMC symbol L can be positioned within the tolerance frame

either next to the tolerance or any datum symbol

3
2
 Maximum Material Condition calculation on an actual feature

3
3
 Maximum Material Condition calculation on a datum Feature

3
4
 Maximum Material Condition calculation on both the actual and datum
Features

3
5
 Projected Tolerance Zone P where the positional tolerance is
projected out from the feature by a specified amount (40 and 60 in this
example)

3
6
Concentricity or Co•axiality

Concentricity or Coaxiality is defined by the same symbol. All sectional

features taken are defined as being common to the datum axis feature. As
a simple explanation of the difference consider the geometric elements
circle and cylinder, these can be defined as two dimensional and three
dimensional features. Both Concentricity and Coaxiality can be thought of
in the same terms.

Concentricity

Co•axiality of an axis to a multiple datum axis

3
7
 Co•axiality of axis D2 to axis D1 (cylindrical zone around axis)

Concentricity of outside diameter centre to datum A centre

3
8
 Deviation as calculated from and axis to axis

Measurement of concentricity on a roundness measuring machine

3
9
Measurement of co•axiality on a roundness measuring machine

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Symmetry

Symmetry also known the middle off or equal/equal about the centre. In
the example the tolerance is applied to the median plane created by the
two inside surfaces of the slot to datum ‘A’ created from the median plane
of the two out side surfaces

Tolerance zone in one direction applied to the centre (median plane)

4
1
The tolerance applied to the cross hole centre line is to the centre of datum axis ‘A’

Hole is on centre to multiple datum axes in two directions with different

tolerances

4
2
Hole is on centre to median plane created from two surfaces and slot is on
centre to datum axis ‘A’

Measurement of slot on centre using

Dial indicator, stand, vee blocks,
surface plate and gauge block inserted
into the slot

4
3
4
4
Orientati 5
on
Tolerance
s

IN THIS CHAPTER

 Parallelism
 Perpendicularity
 Angularity

4
5
 Parallelism

Parallelism can be defined in many ways as shown below, whether applied

to an axis or a surface

Tolerance zone defined by two parallel planes or lines relative to defined

datum face A

4
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 Tolerance zone defined by a cylindrical tolerance zone elative to the datum
axis as defined by datum diameter ‘A’

Combining Flatness and Parallelism

4
7
 Effects of flatness when dealing with parallelism

Parallelism of a surface on centre line to a multiple datum defined by ‘A’ and

‘B’ (single direction)

Datum

Parallelism of a diameter to an axis defined by ‘A’ (two tolerances in each

direction)

Datum

4
8
Parallelism of a diameter to an axis defined by ‘A’ (cylindrical tolerance zone)

Datum

Parallelism of an edge to a surface defined by ‘A’ (single direction)

Datum
Parallelism of a surface to a diameter defined by ‘A’ (single tolerance across
surface)

Datum

4
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Parallelism of a surface to a surface defined by ‘A’ (single tolerance across
surface)

Datum

Parallelism of an edge to a surface defined by ‘A’ (single tolerance across

surface and parallelism of and axis to an axis of two pins (cylindrical zone)

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Measurement of the parallelism of a diameter using a dial indicator, stand and
surface plate

Measurement of the parallelism of a surface using a dial indicator, stand and

surface plate supported of the axis of datum ‘A’

5
1
Perpendicularity

Perpendicularity can be defined in many ways as shown below, whether

applied to an axis or a surface

Perpendicularity tolerance applied to a surface or edge where the feature is

to be at 90 degrees to datum face ‘A’

0.20 A
0

Perpendicularity tolerance applied to the axis defined by both sides or a

diameter

5
2
 Perpendicularity of an axis to a surface with the tolerance in two directions

Datum axis

Datum surface

Perpendicularity of an axis to a surface with the tolerance in one directions and

surface to a surface

Datum axis

Datum surface

5
3
Perpendicularity tolerance applied to an axis to a surface with different
tolerances in two directions.

Datum surface

Perpendicularity of an axis to a surface (cylindrical tolerance zone)

Datum surface

5
4
Drawing example of deviation

Perpendicularity Measurement of the actual surface with a precision or

cylindrical square

5
5
Perpendicularity Measurement of the actual axis to the datum surface using a
dial indicator, stand and surface table

An alternative method of measuring Perpendicularity is by means of a laser or

auto collimator. Calibration of CMM’s is often done by the laser method

5
6
 Angularity

Angularity is a method of checking the deviation of a surface or an axis at a

specified angle

Angularity specified as a surface to a surface or a surface to an axis

5
7
 Measurement of angularity using a dial indicator, stand, surface plate and
an angle gauge. An alternative measurement method is to use a Sine Bar

Angularity of a centre line to an axis

5
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 Angularity of a surface to an axis

Angularity of a surface to a surface

Measurement of angularity using a protractor or clinometer

5
9
6
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Profile 6

IN THIS CHAPTER

 Profile of a line
 Profile of a surface

6
1
 Profile

Profile tolerances fall into two main categories

 Profile of a Line

 Profile of a surface

These tolerances are normally applied to irregular or normal edges,

surfaces or, arcs. The tolerance can be applied either side of the
nominal profile (Bi-lateral) or to one side (unilateral) only. The uniform
boundary can be applied relative to the profile only or alternatively can
be applied relative to the datum reference system as well as the
profile.

Nominal profile

Total
Nominal profile
Tolerance Uni-Lateral (Internal or

External)

Tolerance of form only

Tolerance of form and location

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2
 Profile of a line tolerance on the form only as indicated

Profile of a surface tolerance on the form of the spherical radius

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6
4
Runout Tolerances 7
IN THIS CHAPTER

 Runout
 Circular Runout
 Total Runout

6
5
 Runout
Runout is applied to control any circular feature surfaces rotated
through 360 degrees. This could apply to a diameter or a surface at
any position across that surface of revolution

Circular runout is applied the surface around the datum axis, included
within the tolerance are any effects of concentricity and circularity.
Axial runout is applied to the surface adjacent to the axis around the
datum axis, included within the tolerance are the effects of flatness and
Perpendicularity at the position where the results are obtained

6
6
 Circular Runout example

Axial Runout example

6
7
 Runout tolerance applied to both datum ‘A’ and ‘B’ unable to generate an
axis from datum ‘B’

Runout of surface rotated around the axis through datum diameter ‘A’

Runout of tapered surface rotated around the axis through datum diameter
‘A’

6
8
Runout of curved surface rotated around the axis through multiple datum
diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’

Runout of outside diameter rotated around the axis through multiple datum
diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’

6
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Runout of the surface rotated around the common axis datum diameters ‘A’ ,
where datum ‘A’ is defined by locating the component part between centres

Measuring Runout using centres or vee block and dial indicators

7
0
Measuring Runout of a tapered diameter a using centres or vee block and dial
indicators

Runout of a diameter to a multiple datum defined through the axis of datum

diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’ where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are at a set distance as defined by the
boxed dimension

7
1
 Total Runout
Total Runout controls the surfaces around the axis of 360 degrees
revolution. The difference from runout is that this tolerance is applied
across the complete surface as one tolerance. As a composite tolerance
total runout includes the effects of circularity, Cylindricity, concentricity
Coaxiality Perpendicularity, Parallelism, and Flatness

Total runout applied to a Plane surface around an axis of revolution

7
2
 Total runout applied to a cylinder around an axis of revolution

7
3
 Total circular Runout of outside diameter along its length to the axis created
through multiple datum diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’

Total Runout across the surface to the axis created through datum diameter
‘D’

7
4
Appendix 8
IN THIS CHAPTER

 Further MMC options

 Basic Symbols
 References

7
5
MMC applied to Straightness

MMC applied to Perpendicularity

7
6
Maximum Material Condition (MMC) and Least Material Condition (LMC)

7
7
Maximum Material Condition (MMC) applied to two diameters floating

If the two diameters are at their maximum size then the centre position can
vary as shown applying a 0.1 tolerance around each diameter

7
8
If the two diameters are at their minimum size then the centre position can
vary as shown applying a 0.1 tolerance around each diameter plus the 0.2
tolerance of size (0.1/side on each diameter)

7
9
Basic Symbols

Form Symbol
Circularity
Basic Dimension
Straightness
38 156
Flatness °
Cylindricity
Ø 6.2
Location
True Position

Maximum Material
Condition M Datum Reference
Least Material Condition
L

Projected tolerance
P
Orientation A
Parallelism

Perpendicularity
Feature Control Frame
Angularity

Concentricity/Co-axiality

Symmetry

Profile and Runout References;

Profile of a line More detailed information is
available from various
standards throughout the
Profile of a surface world.
As an example
Runout  ASME Y14.5
 BS8888:2004 Technical
Product Specifications (TPS)
Total Runout
Examples of ISO standards used
 ISO:1101
 ISO 2692

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8
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