Frequency Distribution and

Graphs
Engineering Data Analysis

Jonrey V. Rañada, PECE

Topic Learning Outcomes
• Explains how to organize and display data
• Learn how to prepare frequency distribution for qualitative and
quantitative data.
• Learn how to construct graphical data. (graphs)
Frequency Distribution
• A collection of observations by sorting them into classes and showing the
frequency (numbers/count) of occurrences in each class.

Types:

1. Categorical – data can be placed in a specific category: nominal/ ordinal

2. Ungrouped - is data used to show information on an individual member
of a sample or population. Data that has not been placed in any group or
category after collection.
3. Grouped - the type of data which is classified into groups after
collection.
Example: The following data give the results of a sample survey. The letters
A, B and C represent three categories.

Construct a frequency distribution table for these data.

Solutions:
Example: 25 students were given a blood test to determine their blood
types. The data set is as follows:

Construct a frequency distribution table for these data.

Classes
• Lower class limit – smallest data value in a class.
• Upper-class limit – largest data value in a class.
• Class boundaries – used to separate the classes so that there are no gaps in
the frequency distribution.

• Class marks – midpoints of the classes.

𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 + 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑥𝑚 =
2

• Class width – the difference between two consecutive lower class limits.
Steps in constructing frequency table:
Example:
Cumulative Frequency
Example:
The data shown represent the number of hours 30 college students
said they sleep per night. Construct and analyze a frequency
distribution.
SOLUTION:
Step 1: Determine the number of classes. Since the range is small (10 − 5 = 5), classes consisting of
a single data value can be used. They are 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
Note: If the data are continuous, class boundaries can be used.
Step 2: Tally the data.
Step 3: From the tallies, find the numerical frequencies and cumulative frequencies.
The completed ungrouped frequency distribution is shown.

In this case, 11 students sleep 7 hours a night. Most of the students sleep between 5.5 and 8.5 hours.
HISTOGRAMS, FREQUENCY POLYGONS, AND OGIVES
➢ The purpose of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to the viewers in pictorial form.
➢ Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze it.

The three most commonly used graphs in research are: histogram, frequency polygon and the
cumulative frequency graph, or ogive.

Constructing a Histogram, Frequency Polygon, and Ogive:

Step 1 Draw and label the x and y axes.
Step 2 On the x axis, label the class boundaries of the frequency distribution for the histogram and
ogive. Label the midpoints for the frequency polygon.
Step 3 Plot the frequencies for each class and draw the vertical bars for the histogram and the lines
for the frequency polygon and ogive.

(Note: Remember that the lines for the frequency polygon begin and end on the x axis while the lines
for the ogive begin on the x axis.)
THE HISTOGRAM
➢ The histogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the
frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the frequencies of the classes.
➢ Karl Pearson introduced the histogram in 1891.

Construct a histogram to represent the data shown for the record high temperatures for each of the 50
states.
THE HISTOGRAM
SOLUTION:
Step 1 Draw and label the x and y axes. The x axis is always the horizontal axis, and the y axis is
always the vertical axis.
Step 2 Represent the frequency on the y axis and the class boundaries on the x axis.
Step 3 Using the frequencies as the heights, draw vertical bars for each class.

As the histogram shows, the class with

the greatest number of data values (18)
is 109.5–114.5, followed by 13 for
114.5–119.5. The graph also has one
peak with the data clustering around it.
THE FREQUENCY POLYGON
➢ The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points plotted
for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the heights
of the points.

Construct a frequency polygon to represent the data shown for the record high temperatures for each
of the 50 states.
SOLUTION:
Step 1 Find the midpoints of each class. Recall that midpoints are found by adding the upper and
lower boundaries and dividing by 2.
Step 2 Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the midpoint of each class, and then use a
suitable scale on the y axis for the frequencies.
Step 3 Using the midpoints for the x values and the frequencies as the y values, plot the points.
Step 4 Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to the x axis at the beginning
and end of the graph, at the same distance that the previous and next midpoints would be
located.
THE FREQUENCY POLYGON

NOTE:
The frequency polygon and the histogram are two different ways to represent the same data set. The
choice of which one to use is left to the discretion of the researcher.
THE OGIVE
➢ The ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency
distribution.
➢ The cumulative frequency is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper boundary of
a class in the distribution.

Construct an ogive for the frequency distribution described in the previous example.
SOLUTION:
Step 1 Find the cumulative frequency for each class.
THE OGIVE
SOLUTION:
Step 2 Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the class boundaries. Use an appropriate scale
for the y axis to represent the cumulative frequencies. (Depending on the numbers in the
cumulative frequency columns, scales such as 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , or 5, 10, 15, 20, . . . , or 1000,
2000, 3000, . . . can be used. Do not label the y axis with the numbers in the cumulative
frequency column.) In this example, a scale of 0, 5, 10, 15, . . . will be used.
Step 3 Plot the cumulative frequency at each upper class boundary. Upper boundaries are used
since the cumulative frequencies represent the number of data values accumulated up to the
upper boundary of each class.
Step 4 Starting with the first upper class boundary, 104.5, connect adjacent points with line
segments. Then extend the graph to the first lower class boundary, 99.5, on the x axis.
THE OGIVE

Cumulative frequency graphs are used to

visually represent how many values are
below a certain upper class boundary.

For example, to find out how many record

high temperatures are less than 114.5°F,
locate 114.5°F on the x axis, draw a vertical
line up until it intersects the graph, and then
draw a horizontal line at that point to the y
axis. The y axis value is 28
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
In addition to the histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive, several other types of graphs are
often used in statistics. They are the bar graph, Pareto chart, time series graph, pie graph, and the
dotplot.

BAR GRAPH
➢ When the data are qualitative or categorical, bar graphs can be used to represent the data.
➢ A bar graph can be drawn using either horizontal or vertical bars.
A bar graph represents the data by using vertical or horizontal bars whose heights or lengths
represent the frequencies of the data.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
EXAMPLE: BAR GRAPH
The table shows the average money spent by
first-year college students. Draw a horizontal
and vertical bar graph for the data.

SOLUTION:
Step 1 Draw and label the x and y axes. For the
horizontal bar graph place the frequency
scale on the x axis, and for the vertical bar
graph place the frequency scale on the y axis.
Step 2 Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
BAR GRAPH
Bar graphs can also be used to compare data for two or more groups. These types of bar graphs are
called compound bar graphs. Consider the following data for the number (in millions) of never
married adults in the United States.

This shows a bar graph that compares the number

of never married males with the number of never
married females for the years shown.

The comparison is made by placing the bars next

to each other for the specific years. The heights of
the bars can be compared. This graph shows that
there have consistently been more never married
males than never married females and that the
difference in the two groups has increased slightly
over the last 50 years.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
PARETO CHARTS
➢ When the variable displayed on the horizontal axis is qualitative or categorical, a Pareto chart can
also be used to represent the data.
A Pareto chart is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable, and the
frequencies are displayed by the heights of vertical bars, which are arranged in order from highest to
lowest.

Suggestions for Drawing Pareto Charts

1. Make the bars the same width.
2. Arrange the data from largest to smallest according to frequency.
3. Make the units that are used for the frequency equal in size.

NOTE: When you analyze a Pareto chart, make comparisons by looking at the heights of the bars.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
EXAMPLE: PARETO CHARTS
The data shown consist of the average number of
hours that a commuter spends in traffic congestion
per year in each city. Draw and analyze a Pareto
chart for the data.
SOLUTION:
Step 1 Arrange the data from the largest to the Step 3 Draw the vertical bars according to
smallest according to the number of hours. The number of hours (large to small).

Step 2 Draw and label the x and y axes.

OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
TIME SERIES GRAPH
➢ When data are collected over a period of time, they can be represented by a time series graph.
A time series graph represents data that occur over a specific period of time.

NOTE:
➢ When you analyze a time series graph, look for a trend or pattern that occurs over the time period.
For example, is the line ascending (indicating an increase over time) or descending (indicating a
decrease over time)?
➢ Another thing to look for is the slope, or steepness, of the line. A line that is steep over a specific
time period indicates a rapid increase or decrease over that period.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
EXAMPLE: TIME SERIES GRAPH
The data show the average cost (in millions of dollars)
of a 30-second television ad on the Academy Awards
show. Draw and analyze a time series graph for the data.

SOLUTION:
The data show that there has been an increase
Step 1 Draw and label the x and y axes. every year. The largest increase (shown by the
Step 2 Label the x axis for years and label the y axis for cost. steepest line segment) occurred for the year
2011 compared to 2010. The increases for the
Step 3 Plot each point for the values shown in the table. years 2011, 2012, and 2013 were relatively
Step 4 Draw line segments connecting adjacent points. Do not small compared to the increases from 2010 to
try to fit a smooth curve through the data points. 2014 and 2014 to 2015.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
EXAMPLE: COMPOUND TIME SERIES GRAPH
Two or more data sets can be compared on the same graph called a compound time series graph if
two or more lines are used.

CONCLUSION:
This graph shows the percentage of elderly males
and females in the U.S. labor force from 1960 to 2010.
It shows that the percentage of elderly men decreased
significantly from 1960 to 1990 and then increased
slightly after that. For the elderly females, the percentage
decreased slightly from 1960 to 1980 and then increased
from 1980 to 2010.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
PIE GRAPH
➢ Pie graphs are used extensively in statistics. The purpose of the pie graph is to show the
relationship of the parts to the whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections.
➢ Percentages or proportions can be used.
➢ The variable is nominal or categorical.
A pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the percentage of
frequencies in each category of the distribution.
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
EXAMPLE: PIE GRAPH
This frequency distribution shows the number of
pounds of each snack food eaten during the Super
Bowl. Construct a pie graph for the data.

SOLUTION:
Step 1 Since there are 360° in a circle, the frequency
for each class must be converted to a proportional
part of the circle. This conversion is done by using
the formula:
𝑓
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛 ∙ 360°
where f = frequency for each class and n = sum of
the frequencies. Hence, the following conversions
are obtained. The degrees should sum to 360°
OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS
SOLUTION:
Step 2 Each frequency must also be converted to a percentage.
This conversion is done by using the formula:
𝑓
% = ∙ 100
𝑛

Step 3 Next, using a protractor and a compass,

draw the graph, using the appropriate degree
measures found in Step 1 and label each section
with the name and percentages.
MISLEADING GRAPHS
✓ Graphs give a visual representation that enables readers to analyze and interpret data more easily
than they could simply by looking at numbers. However, inappropriately drawn graphs can
misrepresent the data and lead the reader to false conclusions.

EXAMPLE:
Car manufacturer’s ad stated that 98% of the vehicles it had sold in the past 10 years were still on the road.

Changing the units at the starting point on the y axis can convey a very different visual representation of the data.
MISLEADING GRAPHS
EXAMPLE:
The projected required fuel economy in milesper gallon for General Motors vehicles.

Again, by changing the units or starting point on the y axis, one can change the visual representation.
MISLEADING GRAPHS
EXAMPLE:
The average cost of a 30-second Super Bowl commercial has increased from $42,000 in 1967 to $4.5 million in
2015 (Source: USA TODAY).

Another misleading graphing technique sometimes used involves exaggerating a one-dimensional increase
by showing it in two dimensions.
 END ☺
Assessments will be provided