Module 2.

The Biological Perspective in Human Development

A. The Development of the Unborn Child

• Even before a child is born, the environment will influence them

indirectly through their mother.

o Hence, it is necessary to investigate and alleviate the following

factors that might affect the development of the unborn child, such
as:

1. The social and material inequalities that impact on the mother’s

capacity to parent a child.

Example: Poverty results in poor diet and lack of nutritional

care for the pregnant mother, which in turn affects the growth
and development of the unborn child.

2. Psychological factors that raise concern for the baby.

Example: The mother’s own mental health, her feelings and

attitudes towards the unborn child.

3. The mother’s general health and lifestyle.

Example: Drinking substantial amounts of alcohol while

pregnant, taking prohibited drugs, insufficient sleep and rest,
can lead to impairment of development.

o Efforts must be undertaken to maximize the opportunities and

chances for the parent to care for their child.

o The concerns for the ability of the mother to meet the child’s needs
must be balanced with an assessment of her strengths, e.g., family
support and networks.

B. Physical Developments in the Stages of Life

1. Early Childhood (0 to 5 years)

• Whilst babies are born with a small number of innate reflexes, all
other physical movements and skills are learned and improved
through practice and interaction with their environment.

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• All the senses operate at birth, with hearing as the most developed
and sight as the least developed, although developing quickly, with
binocular vision developing at about 14 weeks.

o Babies use all their senses to strengthen their early interactions

with others, especially their main carers.

• Brain growth is influenced by the physical, emotional, sensual and

linguistic stimulation that they obtain.

• As they develop, babies acquire a relatively predictable range of

sensory and motor skills.

o Motor skills at birth are largely limited to reflexes linked to

survival – sucking and breathing.

o Gross motor skills, such as sitting up and walking, develop from

about 6 months onwards.

! Gross motor skills continue to develop so that the

uncoordinated 2-year old develops into the able 5-year old,
using their body in a way that will reflect the ways in which
their cultural values have influenced them.

o Fine motor skills, such as picking up small objects, take longer to

develop and acquire but gradually the ability to reach, grab and
hold is developed.

! Confidence and competence emerge as greater control is

gained over fine motor skills.

• Whilst babies and children may share many patterns in their growth
and skills development, there are still many individual differences.

o Variations in height, weight, as well as skills development could

be attributed to the child’s genes, the culture in which they grow
up, or may relate to development delay linked to disability.

o Hence, the child’s development is influenced by the following:

! the child’s own genes, temperament, emotional , social and

physical factors
! impact of the family
! context in which the family lives
! culture in which the child grows up.

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2. Middle Childhood (5-12 years)

a. Physical development

• Children in middle childhood grow slower compared to early

years.

o Growth varies depending on genes, gender and nutrition.

• Typically, the majority of school-age children become stronger

and healthier.

• Both gross and fine motor skills continue to develop, especially

in relation to expertise, e.g., sporting abilities, penmanship.

• Boys and girls are almost equal in their physical abilities.

b. Psychosocial Development

• The relative stability characterized by this period and the

transition to formal education provides the child greater
opportunities for autonomy and independence.

• There is evident shift in the child’s social world with increased

understanding of self and development of complex thinking.

• While the family is still important, children learn more about the
world and their role within it.

o Adults outside the family have a greater influence on the

child, e.g., teachers.

o Friendships become important, particularly same-sex

friendships.

o Children may become part of wider society, such as clubs

and groups.

o The child makes advances in cognitive skills and patterns.

o The child begins to see the world from others’ perspectives.

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 • Features of personality develop that will support and affect
development in adolescence and adulthood.

• Cultural influences have a significant impact on differences

between sexes.

o Boys tend to play with other boys in large groups in

organized games that involve ‘conflict’;

o Girls form smaller, more intimate groups where fine motor

skills are practiced.

• For some children their specific needs will only become

apparent when they begin school.

o Some children with specific needs will have benefited from

identification in early childhood.

o However, other children, e.g., those with behavioral or

specific learning issues may not be identified until they
begin school.

3. Adolescence (10 to 19, may extend to 24)

• Adolescence as a period of life is often seen as a whole period of

transition from childhood to adulthood.

• The period between childhood and young adulthood is a period of

rapid change – physical, emotional, cognitive and social; it is
probably the most challenging and difficult period of life in terms of
development.

a. Psychosocial characteristics of adolescence

(1) All adolescents confront the same development tasks –

adjusting to changes in their bodies and the challenge of
their developing sexuality and new ways of thinking – as
they strive for their own identity, emotional maturity and
independence.

(2) Relationship with the family will be subject to adaptation

and change; the timing of these changes vary between
individuals, influenced by such things as gender, genes and
culture.

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 (3) For some young people the challenges of adolescence result
in choices, which lead to a number of problems and some
problems peak at this time.

b. Biological development in adolescence

o During this time, children’s bodies change in different ways

at different times. No two teenage bodies are the same.

o Hormones affect every aspect of growth and development

and the level of certain hormones rises naturally, primarily
causing increased sexual interest and mood swings.

! For girls, early physical changes occur from about 10 or

11 years, but they might start as young as 8 years, or as
old as 13 years. Physical changes around puberty
include:

• breast development
• changes in body shape and height
• growth of pubic and body hair
• the start of menstruation

! For boys, physical changes usually start around 11 or 12

years, but they might start as young as 9 years, or as old
as 14 years. Physical changes include:

• men's genitals are fully developed by 16 to 17

years old.
• changes in body shape and height
• erections with ejaculation
• growth of body and facial hair
• changes to voice.

(1) Brain development

! Changes in the teenage brain affect the person’s

behavior and social skills.

! The person begins to develop improved self-control and

skills in planning, problem solving and decision-making.

! This process will continue into the person’s early 20s.

(2) Bones, organs and body systems

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 ! Many of the adolescent’s organs will change in size and
capacity.

! Lung performance improves

! Limbs grow, and bones increase in thickness and

volume

• The chest and shoulders get broader in boys

• In girls, the hips and pelvis get wider

(3) Clumsiness and coordination

! Because adolescents grow so fast during this period,

their center of gravity changes and their brains might
take a while to adjust.

• This might affect the person’s balance.

! There might be a bit more clumsiness or poor

coordination for a while, and the adolescent’s chances of
injury might also increase during this time.

(4) Physical strength and sports skills

! Muscle strength and size increase.

! Adolescents’ hand–eye coordination will continue to

improve over time, along with motor skills such as ball
catching and throwing.

! Boys and girls who develop very early or very late might
feel more self-conscious, get teased and have body
image concerns.

• Girls often reduce physical activity, despite

improved strength, because of body image and
gender-based self-image concerns.

• Boys who have early physical development will

have an earlier growth spurt. They might be bigger
and stronger than their peers for a while.

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 • Boys who develop later might be more at risk of
being teased or bullied, and might be less interested
in physical activity.

(5) Nutrition and weight

! Adolescents will gain weight and develop new

nutritional needs.

! Teenagers’ stomachs and intestines increase in size, and

they need an increase in energy, proteins and minerals.

! Foods with plenty of calcium and iron are particularly

important at this age to support bone growth and blood
circulation.

(6) Sleep and rest

! Sleep patterns change, with many teeners starting to

stay awake later at night and then sleeping until later in
the day.

! The brain re-sets the body clock during puberty.

• Children going through puberty need more sleep

than they did just before puberty started.

• Parents find it’s hard to get their child to school on

time.

(7) Hygiene

! Sweat glands in the armpits and groin area are activated

for the first time during puberty, and this can lead to
increased body odor.

! Teeners should wash daily and wash clothes regularly.

(8) Acne and skin problems

! Glands in the skin on the face, shoulders and back start

to become more active during puberty, producing more
oil.

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 ! This can lead to skin conditions such as pimples and
acne.

! Teenagers might find their hair gets oilier, and they

need to wash it more. This is normal.

(9) Dental care

! Children will gain their second molars at around 13

years.

! Third molars – ‘wisdom teeth’ – might appear between

14 and 25 years. These teeth can appear in singles, pairs,
as a full set of four wisdom teeth – or not at all.

• Not everyone has wisdom teeth.

4. Early and Middle Adulthood (18-65 years)

• Desired outcomes for the care of adults include the following:

o Improved health
o Improved quality of life
o Making a positive contribution
o Exercise of choice and control
o Freedom from discrimination or harassment
o Economic well being
o Personal dignity

• Adulthood: Definitions

o Adulthood is the time when physical growth is complete and the

individual has moved through puberty and is able to reproduce.

! However, the rate and point at which individuals reach

physical maturity will vary greatly and may be difficult to
determine.

o Adulthood could be defined in terms of psychological

development; yet, recognizing and measuring emotional,
personality and identity development in order to decide upon
whether a person has reached adulthood is difficult.

! The point at which we become adult is contested.

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 o In social work practice, we need to be mindful of the ways in
which individuals construct their own sense of self and the
points along the life course at which they would locate
themselves.

a. Biological Changes in Early Adulthood (20–40 years):

(1) Adults experience age-related changes based on many factors:

a) Biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes are

called primary aging.

b) Aging that occurs due to controllable factors, such as lack of

physical exercise and poor diet, is called secondary aging.

(2) By the time a person reaches early adulthood, physical

maturation is complete, although height and weight may
increase slightly.

(3) In early adulthood, physical abilities are at their peak, including

muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac
functioning.

! Most professional athletes are at the top of their game

during this stage, and many women have children in the
early-adulthood years.

(4) The aging process, although not overt, also begins during early
adulthood. Around the age of 30, many changes begin to occur in
different parts of the body.

! The lens of the eye starts to stiffen and thicken, resulting in

changes in vision (usually affecting the ability to focus on
close objects).

• Middle-aged adults are also at higher risk than younger

adults for certain eye problems, such as glaucoma.

! Sensitivity to sound decreases; this happens twice as quickly

for men as for women.

! Hair can start to thin and become gray around the age of 35,
although this may happen earlier for some individuals and
later for others.

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 ! The skin becomes drier and wrinkles start to appear by the
end of early adulthood.

! The immune system becomes less adept at fighting off

illness, and reproductive capacity starts to decline.

b. Biological Changes in Middle Adulthood (40-65 years)

! During middle adulthood, the aging process becomes more

apparent.

(1) Around the age of 60, the eyes lose their ability to adjust to
objects at varying distances, known as presbyopia.

! Most people between the ages of 40 and 60 will need some

form of corrective lenses for vision deficits.

! Middle-aged adults are also at higher risk than younger

adults for certain eye problems, such as glaucoma.

(2) Hearing also further declines: about 14 percent of middle-aged

persons have hearing problems.

(3) Skin continues to dry out and is prone to more wrinkling,

particularly on the sensitive face area.

! Age spots and blood vessels become more apparent as the

skin continues to dry and get thinner.

(4) Hair starts to turn gray.

(5) Basal metabolism slows down; even individuals who eat and
exercise the same amount as they did when they were younger
may begin to gain weight.

(6) The muscle-to-fat ratio for both men and women also changes
throughout middle adulthood, with an accumulation of fat in the
stomach area.

(7) Speed of reaction peaks in the twenties and then gradually

decreases. Similarly, muscle strength declines 30% to 40% from
age 30 to age 80.

(8) Substances such as alcohol stay in the body system longer; there
is also an increased risk for heart disease and high blood
pressure.

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 (9) The cardiovascular system becomes less efficient over time.
Blood pressure tends to rise as blood vessels become less elastic
and "harden" with age and as the arteries become occluded by
cholesterol and other substances.

(10) Lung capacity begins to decrease, dropping 40% between the

ages of 25 and 85, and we become more susceptible to
respiratory diseases.

(11) Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach

the onset of menopause—the end of the menstrual cycle—
around 50 years old.

! This process involves hormonal changes and may last

anywhere from six months to five years.

! Because of the shifting hormone levels, women going

through menopause often experience a range of other
symptoms, such as anxiety, poor memory, inability to
concentrate, depressive mood, irritability, mood swings, and
less interest in sexual activity.

(12) Although less noticed by society, men also experience hormonal

changes in middle adulthood, notably a decline in testosterone,
which significantly reduces the production of sperm cells, but
they still can produce children until the mid-70s.

5. Later Adulthood (65 and above)

a. Biological changes:

o The first signs are probably in our appearance – hair begins to

turn gray, male hairlines recede, and some wrinkles set in.

o The internal changes that often accompany aging are more

consequential, among them:

(1) Fat replaces lean body mass – many people gain weight

(2) Bone and muscle loss

(3) Lungs lose their ability to take in air, and respiratory

efficiency declines

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 (4) The functions of the cardiovascular and renal systems
decline;

(5) The number of brain cells declines, as does brain mass

overall;

(6) Vision and hearing decline.

b. Cognitive and psychological changes also occur.

(1) Learning and memory begin declining after people reach their
seventies;

(2) Depression and other mental and/or emotional disorders can set
in;

(3) Dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease, can occur.

References

• Lahey, Benjamin B. (2007). Psychology: An Introduction, 9th ed., USA: McGraw-

Hill International Edition.
• Walker, Janet and Karin Crawford (2014). Social Work and Human
Development, 4th ed., LA: SAGE Publications
• http://www.psychologynoteshq.com/development-tasks/

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