Chapter 9

Electrons in Atoms
9.1 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the
Atom
• On May 6, 1937, while landing
in New Jersey on its first
transatlantic crossing, the
Hindenburg burst into
flames, destroying the airship
and killing 36 of the 97
passengers
The Hindenburg was filled with
hydrogen, a reactive and flammable
gas. Question: What makes
hydrogen reactive?
•Modern blimps are filled
with helium, an inert gas
• Recall: Periodic Law
• When elements are arranged
by increasing atomic number,
certain sets of properties
recur periodically
• Elements in group one are
very reactive. Why?
• Elements in group 18 are not
reactive. Why not?
9.2 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation
• The interaction of light with atoms helped to shape scientists’
models of the atom.
• Electromagnetic radiation (light): a type of energy that
exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space.
• Speed of light (c): 3.0 × 108 m/s
• Light has properties of both waves and particles
•When a water surface is
disturbed, waves are
created that radiate
outward from the site. The
wave carries energy as it
moves through the water
• Wavelength (λ): The distance between adjacent wave crests
• SI Unit = meter
• For visible light, wavelength determines color.
• Red = longest wavelength
• Violet = shortest wavelength
• White light, as produced by the sun or by a lightbulb, contains a
spectrum of wavelengths and therefore a spectrum of color.
• The presence of color in white light is responsible for the colors
we see in our everyday vision.
• A red shirt appears red because it reflects red light; the shirt
absorbs all of the other colors of light except the red light. Our
eyes see only the reflected light, making the shirt appear red
• Frequency (ν): The number
of cycles or crests that pass
through a stationary point in
one second.
• SI unit = hertz (Hz) (1/s)
• How are wavelength and
frequency related?
•Which wavelength of light has the highest frequency?
a. 350 nm
b. 500 nm
c. 750 nm
• Speed, wavelength and frequency can all be related with the
equation: c = λν
• What wavelength of light has a of frequency of 4.61 x 1014 Hz?

• You Try: What is the frequency of light with a wavelength of 5.6

x 10-9 m?
• Light can also be viewed as a stream of particles
• Photon: massless packet of light energy
• The amount of energy carried in the packet depends on the wavelength of the
light—the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy.
• How are frequency and energy of a photon related?
•Yellow light has a longer wavelength than violet light. Therefore:

a. Yellow light has more energy per photon than violet light.
b. Yellow light has less energy per photon than violet light.
c. Both yellow light and violet light have the same energy per photon.
• Energy of a photon can be calculated with the following:
• Energy of a photon = Planck’s constant x frequency
• Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J*s

• Ephoton = hν
• Try: What is the energy of a photon from violet light if it has a
frequency of 7.230 x 1014 Hz?
• It takes 7.21 x 10-19 J of energy to remove an electron from iron.
What is the wavelength of light required to do this?
9.4 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits

•When an atom absorbs

energy in the form of heat,
light, or electricity, it often
reemits that energy as
light
•Absorption/emission of
light by atoms is due to
the interaction of light
with the electrons in the
atom.
• Atoms of each unique
element emit light of a
different color. Mercury Hydrogen
•When this light is viewed through a prism, we can see
that each element has a unique emission spectrum
• Set of frequencies of the electromagnetic waves emitted by
atoms of the element
• A white-light spectrum is
continuous, with some
radiation emitted at every
wavelength.
• The emission spectrum of an
individual element includes
only certain specific
wavelengths.
•Niels Bohr developed a
model of the atom to
explain why atom’s
emission spectra are not
continuous
•Bohr model:
• Electrons travel around the
nucleus in circular orbits
• Electrons can only orbit at
specific, fixed distances
from the nucleus.
•Energy of each orbit is specified by a
quantum number (n = 1, 2, 3) and is fixed, or
quantized.
•Bohr orbits are like steps of a ladder, each at
a specific distance from the nucleus and each
at a specific energy.
•It is impossible for an electron to exist
between orbits in the Bohr model.
• Atoms exist in two possible states
• Ground state: lowest energy state
• Excited state: an atom with excess energy
•When an atom absorbs
energy, an electron is
excited to a higher-energy
orbit. (excited state)
•The electron then relaxes
back to a lower-energy
orbit, emitting a photon of
light. (ground state)
• The energy of the photon emitted when the atom returns to the
ground state contains the precises amount of energy that
corresponds to the energy difference between the two orbitals.
(quantum)
• Each photon released has a specific wavelength
• Light emitted by excited atoms
consists of specific lines at
specific wavelengths, each
corresponding to a specific
transition between two orbits.
• Transitions between orbits that
are closer together release low
energy light
• Transitions between orbits
farther apart release high
energy light
•In one transition, an electron in a hydrogen atom falls from the n =
3 level to the n = 2 level. In a second transition, an electron in a
hydrogen atom falls from the n = 3 level to the n = 1 level.
Compared to the radiation emitted by the first of these transitions,
the radiation emitted by the second has:

a. a lower frequency
b. a smaller energy per photon
c. a shorter wavelength
d. a longer wavelength
• The Bohr model explained the hydrogen emission spectrum but
failed to predict the emission spectra of elements that contained
more than one electron.
• For this and other reasons, the Bohr model was replaced with a
more sophisticated model called the quantum-mechanical or
wave-mechanical model
9.5 & 9.6 Quantum Mechanical Model
• Electrons exhibit wave-particle
duality
• It is impossible to trace an electron’s
path
• Bohr orbits are replaced with orbitals
• Orbital: probability map that shows
where an electron is likely to be found
• Contains 90% of an electron’s
probability
• Quantum Mechanical Orbitals
• Principal quantum number (n): specifies the shell (energy level)
an electron occupies
• n = 1, 2, 3…
• Energy and distance from the nucleus increases as n increases
• Subshell: specifies the shape of the orbital
• s, p, d, f
• Orbitals are designated by their principal quantum number and shape
• 1s = lowest energy and closest to nucleus
• The number of subshells in each principal shell is equal to n
• 2s orbital is the same shape as 1s
but slightly larger
• p subshells have dumbbell-like shape and 3 orbitals
• d subshells have 5 orbitals and a clover-like shape
• f subshells have 7 orbitals and very complicated shapes
• Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
• Orbitals can be full (2 e-), half full (1 e-), or empty (0 e-)
• Catholic central as an atom
• Floor (1st vs. 2nd)
• Classroom
• Desk
•Which subshells are in the n = 3 principal shell?
a. s subshell (only)
b. s and p subshells (only)
c. s, p, and d subshells (only)
• Electron Configurations: How electrons occupy orbitals
• Aufbau principle: The lowest energy levels are filled with electrons first
• 1s filled before 2s, 2s filled before 2p…
• Follow diagonal diagram
• Pauli exclusion principle: orbitals may hold no more than two electrons
with opposing spins
• Electrons represented with arrows
• Show as two arrows pointing in opposite directions
• Hund’s rule: when filling orbitals of equal energy, electrons fill them
singly first with parallel spins
• Orbital diagrams: orbital is a box grouped by sublevel
containing arrow(s) to represent electrons
• Draw the orbital diagram for the following atoms
• Li

•O

• Try: Cl
Important questions using a Cl atom

• Highest full energy level?

• Highest full sublevel?
• Highest occupied energy level?
• Number of unpaired electrons?
• Number of empty orbitals?
• Electron configurations without orbital diagrams
• Na

•P

• Try: Ar
• Electron configurations of ions:
• Al3+

• Cl–

• Try: O2–
• Isoelectronic – having the same number of electrons (same
electron configuration)
• Ions of all representative elements are isoelectronic with a noble gas.
• On the previous slide, say which noble gas each ion is isoelectronic
with.
• Longer electron configurations:
• Fe

• Br

• Try: Ba
• Periodic pattern to electron configurations

• Check if this pattern works for the last three electron configurations
we did
9.7 Electron Configurations and the
Periodic Table
• Valence electrons: electrons in the outermost principal shell (the
principal shell with the highest principal quantum number, n).
• These electrons are important because they are involved in chemical bonding.
• Electrons that are not in the outermost principal shell are called core
electrons
• Write an electron configuration for Se and identify the valence
electrons and core electrons

• Try: write an electron configuration for Fe and identify the

valence electrons and core electrons
• Main group elements have a pattern to their number of valence
electrons
•Which element has the fewest valence electrons?
a. B
b. Ca
c. O
d. K
e. Ga
• Abbreviated electron configurations
• Ex: Ca
• Ar:

• Ca:

• Ca abbreviated:
• Noble gas configuration = base
• Elements in column 18 are noble gasses
• All very stable and unreactive
• All except He have 8 valence electrons
• Ne: 1s22s22p6
• Kr: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
 • How to write abbreviated electron configurations
1. Find the noble gas in the row above the given element

2. Write its symbol in brackets

3. Add electrons into proper orbitals until total number of

electrons is reached
◎ Make sure you start after brackets with correct orbital!
• Fr

• Pt

• Try: As
9.8 The Explanatory Power of the
Quantum Mechanical Model
• The chemical properties of elements are largely determined by
the number of valence electrons they contain.
• Their properties vary in a periodic fashion because the number
of valence electrons is periodic.
• Calculations show that atoms with 8 valence
electrons (or 2 for helium) are predicted to be
particularly low in energy and therefore stable.
• Elements with electron configurations close to the
noble gases are the most reactive because they can
attain noble gas electron configurations by losing
or gaining a small number of electrons
• Alkali metals (Group 1) are among the most reactive
metals since their outer electron configuration (ns1)
is 1 electron beyond a noble gas configuration.
• If they can react to lose the electron, they attain a
noble gas configuration.
• This explains why the Group 1 metals tend to form
1+ cations.
• The alkaline earth metals (Group 2) all have electron
configurations ns2 and are therefore 2 electrons
beyond a noble gas configuration.
• In their reactions, they tend to lose 2 electrons,
forming 2+ ions and attaining a noble gas
configuration.
• The halogens (Group 7) all have ns2np5 electron
configurations and are therefore 1 electron short of a
noble gas configuration.
• In their reactions, halogens tend to gain 1 electron,
forming 1− ions and attaining a noble gas
configuration.
9.9 Periodic Trends
• The quantum-mechanical model also explains other periodic
trends such as atomic size, ionization energy, and metallic
character
• To understand trends, you must understand shielding and
effective nuclear charge.
• Nuclear charge
• Proton number
• Increases as atomic number increases
• Shielding electrons
• Electrons between the nucleus and valence electrons
• Shield the valence electrons from the force of the nucleus
• Total electrons – valence electrons
• Na
•S
• Shielding effect
• The further an energy level is from the nucleus, the more it is shielded
from the attraction to the nucleus
• The outer energy level is shielded by the inner energy levels
• Effective nuclear charge (ENC)
• The nuclear charge (“pull”) that the valence electrons actually feel
• ENC = total electrons – shielding electrons
• Potassium • Try: Arsenic
• Total • Total

• Valence • Valence

• Shielding • Shielding

• ENC • ENC
ENC and Group
• Group 1 • Group 15
• Na •P
• Group 2 • Group 16
• Mg •S
• Group 13 • Group 17
• Al • Cl
• Group 14 • Group 18
• Si • Ar
• You must take both shielding and ENC into account when
determining trends
• Atomic size: distance between an atom’s outermost electrons
and its nucleus
• Across a period
• Why?
• Down a group
• Why?
• Choose the larger atom in each pair.
• C or O

• Li or K

• C or Al

• Se or I
• Ionic Radius
• Cation
• ALWAYS SMALLER THAN NEUTRAL ATOM
• When Cations form the outer most energy level is lost

• Anion
• ALWAYS LARGER THAN THE NEUTRAL ATOM
• When atoms gain electrons they repel each other more
• Ionization energy: energy required to remove an electron
from the atom in the gaseous state.
• Across a period:
• Why?
• Down a group:
• Why?
• Relationship to size:
• Why?
• Choose the element with the higher ionization energy from each
pair.
• Mg or P

• As or Sb

• N or Si

• O or Cl
• Metallic character: the properties typical of a metal, especially
tendency to lose electrons in chemical reactions.
• Across a period
• Why?
• Down a group
• Why?
• Relationship to ionization energy
• Why?
• Choose the more metallic element from each pair.
• Sn or Te

• Si or Sn

• Br or Te
Trend Summary on a Periodic Table
• Which of the following is the largest atom?
• Na, Al, N, Rb

• Which of the following has the highest ionization energy

• O, S, F, Cl