Name:_________________________________________________________________

Chemistry 117 Laboratory

University of Massachusetts Boston

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
________________________________________________________________

LEARNING GOALS:

1. Obtain practice with calculation using volume, mass, moles and molecules to
calculate density, concentration, molecular mass and Avogadro’s number.
2. Become familiar with the process of estimation, especially on a molecular scale.
3. Gain an appreciation for the enormity of Avogadro’s number.
4. Gain practice in deductive reasoning and problem solving.

This exercise consists of two different strategies for experimentally determining

Avogadro’s number. You are to work in groups of four on both tasks. We will be
estimating Avogradro’s number by measuring the volume required to form a monolayer
of stearic acid across the surface of water using a 1 mM solution of stearic acid in hexane.
In task 2, you will be given a section of aluminum foil, a ruler, an analytical balance, and
data on the density, molecular weight and atomic radius of aluminum and asked to devise
another strategy for estimating the value of Avogadro’s number and the thickness of the
aluminum foil in number of layers of aluminum atoms. While you wait for your TA to
help you get started with Task 1, you should begin thinking about Task 2.

INTRODUCTION
The concept of the mole
The atomic masses on the periodic table have the units of both amu (atomic mass units)
and g/mol. The mass of a single proton or neutron is approximately 1.00 amu. The
electrons weigh several orders of magnitude less. Thus, the atomic masses on the
periodic table represent the masses of the atoms of a given element in amu. It is based on
the average number of proton and neutrons that make up their nuclei. In terms of g/mol,
the atomic masses represent the masses in grams of a defined quantity of atoms of a given
element. The concept of the mole is useful and convenient because it connects the
microscopic and macroscopic world. One mole of atoms is the number of atoms required
such that the collective mass of these atoms in grams is equal to the mass in amu of an
average atom. There are 6.022·1023 particles (atoms, molecules, formula units, ect) in
one mole of particles. This number is called Avogadro’s number.

Although we honor him by the name of the quantity, Amadeo Avogadro (1776-
1856) did not suggest the concept of the mole and never determined how many particles
constituted that unit. A few years after Avogadro’s death, a German scientist, Joseph
Loschmidt, estimated the size of a molecule which made it possible for others to estimate
the number of molecules in a volume of gas. Because Avogadro hypothesized that equal
volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contained equal numbers of

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particles, Loschmidt’s estimate is only one step away from determining the number of
particles in a mole. The French scientist Jean Perrin is credited with determining the first
value of Avogadro’s number in 1908; he got values in the range of 5.4 to 6.0 x 1023.
Once the American physicist Robert Milliken determined the charge on an electron in
1915, a more accurate value for Avogadro’s number was obtained by dividing the
Faraday constant (the charge on a mole of electrons) by the charge on a single electron.
Finally, modern sophisticated equipment has yielded the most accurate value of
Avogadro’s number to date:

NA = 6.02214199 x 1023

We’ll typically use the number expressed to four significant figures, 6.022 x 1023.

A mole of anything contains Avogadro’s number of particles. For chemical entities –

electrons, atoms, ions, molecules – a mole of material is an amount that contains the same
number of particles as there are 12C atoms in 12.00000 g of 12C. A sample of a
monoatomic element that has a mass equal to its atomic mass, expressed in grams,
contain one mole of atoms. Thus 26.98 g of Al contain 6.02 x 1023 atoms of aluminum
and hence one mole of aluminum.

One mole of items may consist of…

atoms examples: 39.95 g Ar per mole Ar atoms or 35.45 g Cl per mole Cl atoms.
molecules compounds which exist as discrete molecules
examples: 70.90 g of Cl2 per mole of Cl2 molecules or
342.30 g of C12H22O11 per mole of sucrose molecules.
formula units ionic compound do not form discrete molecules, but we can still state
that, for example, there are 58.44 g NaCl per mole of NaCl.

Avogadro’s number and the idea of a mole provide us with two of the most important
conversion factors we’ll use throughout chemistry when we solve quantitative problems
dealing with chemical reactions. We use conversion factors in dimensional analysis
when we need to convert one quantity into another with different units. In fact, in this
experiment you will be using several conversion factors including density (mass/volume),
molecular mass (mass/mol) and concentration (mol solute/volume solution) and you will
be determining Avogadro’s number, which is also a conversion factor that is used to go
between the number of particles and moles (particles/mol). Here’s the basic idea:

Conversion factor = desired units

starting units

Conversion factors enable us to calculate the information sought from the information
given and using conversion factors in conjunction with dimensional analysis enables us to
see the units cancel.

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 information sought = information given · desired units
starting units
EXAMPLES
Density: Convert from volume to mass or mass to volume

What is the mass of 2.0 mL of ethanol (Density is 0.789 g/ mL)?

(2.0mL ) ⋅ ⎛⎜ 0.789 g ⎞⎟ = 1.57 8 g

⎝ 1mL ⎠

What volume does 1.500 g of glycerol take up? (Density is 1.261 g/ mL)?

⎛ 1mL ⎞
(1.500 g ) ⋅ ⎜⎜⎟⎟ = 1.189 5 mL
⎝ 1.261g ⎠
Molecular Mass: Convert from mass to mol or mol to mass

How many grams of ethanol are in 0.0200 mol of ethanol? Molar mass (FW) of
ethanol 46.08 g/ mol?
(0.0200mol ) ⋅ ⎛⎜ 46.08 g ⎞⎟ = 0.9216 g
⎝ 1mol ⎠
How many moles of ethanol are in 1.578 g of ethanol? Molar mass (FW) of
ethanol 46.08 g/ mol?

⎛ 1mol ⎞
(1.578 g ) ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.03424 5 mol
⎝ 46.08 g ⎠
Concentration: Convert from volume of solution to moles of solute and from moles of
solute to volume of solution

How many moles of acetic acid are present in 20.00 mL of a 0.001000 M solution
of acetic acid?

(20.00mL ) ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1L ⎞ ⎛ 0.001000 mol ⎞

⎟⋅⎜
−5
⎟ = 2.000 ⋅10 mol
⎝ 1000 mL ⎠ ⎝ 1L ⎠

How many mL of a 0.200 M (mol/L) solution of acetic acid contain 0.0400 mol of
acetic acid?

(0.0400mol ) ⋅ ⎛⎜ 1L ⎞ ⎛ 1000 mL ⎞
⎟⋅⎜ ⎟ = 200 mL
⎝ 0.200 mol ⎠ ⎝ 1L ⎠

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NA(Avogadro’s number): Convert from the number of particles to moles and from moles
to the number of particles

How many atoms of iron are there in 0.150 mol of Fe atoms?

⎛ ⎞
(0.150mol ) ⋅ ⎜⎜ 6.022 ⋅10
23
⎟⎟ = 9.03 ⋅10 22 atoms
⎝ 1mol ⎠

How many nmoles of water molecules are contained in 1.50·1015 water

molecules?
⎞ ⎛ 10 nmol ⎞
(1.50 ⋅1015 molec )⋅ ⎛⎜
9
1mol
⎟ ⋅ ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2.49nmol
⎝ 6.022 ⋅10 molec ⎠ ⎝ 1mol ⎠
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Often a problem will require the use of multiple conversion factors:

How many molecules of liquid propanol are in 5.00 mL of propanol, given its
density is 0.8034 g/mL and its molar mass is 60.10 g/mol?

⎛ 0.8034 g ⎞ ⎛ 1mol ⎞⎛ 6.022 ⋅10 molec ⎞

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(5.00mL ) ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 4.03 ⋅10 22 molec
⎝ 1mL ⎠ ⎝ 60.01g ⎠⎝ 1mol ⎠

Part 1: Determination of Avogadro’s Number from a Stearic Acid Monolayer

You will determine a numerical value of Avogadro’s number using a molecule of known
size. When it is prepared under controlled conditions, stearic acid forms a monolayer – a
film of a substance that is exactly one molecule thick. A solution of known concentration
(in mol/L) of stearic acid in a volatile solvent can be used to cast a monolayer; if one
knows the amount of stearic acid present and measures the size of the area covered, one
can calculate the number of molecules present. Forming a monolayer on water is not
really that difficult, and you’ve probably seen one if you’ve observed a thin layer of oil
spreading on the surface of a puddle after a rainstorm.

Stearic acid is a naturally occurring compound called a long chain fatty acid. The ‘long
chain’ is the fatty part, so named because it is non-polar and hydrophobic (‘water-
hating’). The acid part of the name refers to the presence on one end of the chain of a
carboxylic acid functional group, which is polar and hydrophilic (‘water-loving’). The
structure of stearic acid is shown in Fig. 1.

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 Stearic acid is C18H36O2 or CH3(CH2)16COOH

Its molecular weight is 284.5 g/mol; its density

is 0.85 g/cm3.

The shape of the molecule is essentially

cylindrical if the long hydrocarbon tail is
stretched out to its maximum extension.

The drawing has a dotted line that stands for

the air-water interface. The hydrophilic
carboxylic acid end of the molecule associates
preferentially with polar water; the long fatty
tail avoids the water. You should be able to
envision the molecule inscribing a circular
footprint in the water as it spins around.

Figure 1: Formulas and pictures describing the stearic acid molecule.

Almost 85% of the mass of stearic acid is due to the presence of the hydrophobic tail.
Consequently the solubility of stearic acid in water is very low. That behavior plays a
role in the formation of a stearic acid monolayer at the air-water interface.

Scientists have proposed a model that describes what happens when fatty acids form
films on water. We’ll use that model to picture what happens in this experiment in which
you place drops of a solution of stearic acid in hexane on the surface of water. Hexane is
very volatile, so it evaporates, leaving the stearic acid at the air-water interface. Initially,
isolated molecules of stearic acid lie on the surface with the carboxylic acid group in
contact with the polar water molecules. As more stearic acid molecules are added, they
begin to crowd each other so that all the carboxylic acid groups contact the water; this
pushes the hydrocarbon tails away from the surface. After enough molecules have been
added, the molecules appear to be standing upright on the surface as shown in Fig. 2.

The cylinders represent the

molecules of stearic acid as
shown in Fig. 1.

The arrows indicate the

carboxylic acid at the air-water
interface.

Figure 2. A stearic acid monolayer

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PART 1: PROCEDURE

Making the monolayer.

1. Cover a section of the lab bench with paper towels and place a clean plastic tray on
them. This will catch excess water and avoid a big mess later.

2. Fill the tray with distilled water until the water level is above the surface of the tray’s
edge.

3. Get a piece of thread approximately 60 cm long. Tie a double knot, leaving

approximately 2 cm long loose ends. Trim the ends as close to the knot as possible
without cutting the knot.

4. Carefully place the string on the surface of the water. Avoid dunking the string under
the surface of the water. Also make sure your string doesn’t overlap itself.
5. Bend down so that the surface of the water is at eye level. Check for any points of the
string that may not be in contact with the surface of the water. If the string is not
touching the surface, it may look kinked. In places where it does not contact the surface,
tap the string down using a glass rod or metal spatula. You’re essentially making a
floating dam to retain the monolayer. It is essential that there are no gaps between the
string and the surface through which the monolayer can escape.

6. Without the tip on the syringe, fill it with the solution of stearic acid in hexane. Place
the tip on the syringe and squirt out a small amount of the solution into the sink to fill the
tip and rid the syringe of any bubbles. This will make the readings you take more
accurate.

7. Hold the syringe with one hand and grasp the plunger with the other. Practice
releasing the solution dropwise into the sink until you can repeatedly release one drop at
a time, rather than a stream.

8. Read and record the volume of the fluid in the syringe (#1 in data table below). Note
that it is a 1.0 mL syringe. Make sure you use the same reference point on the plunger
for future readings.

9. Release a drop of solution into the center of the area on the surface of the water that is
enclosed by the string. Add drops one at a time. After a few drops you should notice that
the surface tension of the layer of hexane and stearic acid causes the string to tighten to a
circle, but then relax again as the hexane quickly evaporates. As you add more drops,

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this will continue until a point is reached where the perfect circle remains, after the
hexane has evaporated. This means you have a monolayer of stearic acid covering the
area of the string on the water in the tray.

10. Take the reading on the syringe at this point (#2 on data table).

11. Measure the diameter of the circle by holding a ruler just above the surface of the
water and estimating the dimension (#7 on data sheet)

CLEANUP: Simply scrape the surface of the water with a clean ruler. After doing this,
you may have to top off the water in the tray.

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Data Sheet: Concentration of Stearic Acid solution: __________ M

Trial 1 Trial 2

1. initial volume of solution in syringe ________ _________

2. final volume of solution in syringe ________ _________

3. volume used to cover surface ________ _________

4. moles of stearic acid used ________ _________

(mol = CSA⋅V)

5. mass (g) of stearic acid used ________ _________

FW of stearic acid (284.5 g/mol)

6. volume of stearic acid used ________ _________

(Density of stearic acid = 0.85 g/cm3)

7. diameter of the monolayer (cm) ________ _________

(as measured)

8. area of monolayer ________ _________

(A = πr2)

9. thickness (t) of monolayer ________ _________

(t = V/A)

10. size of one carbon atom ________ _________

(height of one carbon atom; h = t/18)

11. volume of one carbon atom, vatom ________ _________

(vatom = h3, volume of a cube)

12. volume of one mole of carbon, vmol ________ _________

v(mol) = (FWcarbon)(1/D)
(D, density of diamond, = 3.51 g/cm3)

13. number of atoms per mole ________ _________

{NA = vmol/vatom}

[RECORD YOUR ANSWERS For Avogadro’s Number On the board

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Notes on the calculations:

The estimation of Avogadro’s number requires some assumptions on your part, as well as
the use of some additional data.

1.-4. These values are the measurements you made in lab plus a calculation based on the
density of stearic acid.

The next series of calculations require you to look at the structure of stearic acid and
make some assumptions. Remember the model that describes how molecules of stearic
acid stand up on the surface of water. Knowing the volume occupied by the stearic acid
and the area of the cylindrical patch of monolayer, you can calculate the thickness of the
monolayer. At this point, look at Fig. 1 again. Each stearic acid molecule can be
approximated as a cylinder 18-carbons high. From that approximation and the thickness
of a monolayer, you can calculate the ‘thickness (t),’ the ‘size,’ the dimension of the
space occupied by one carbon atom. Now think for a minute about how various shapes
pack together. We drew the stearic acid molecule as a cylinder with a circular foot-print.
How do circles pack? Like this … see all the empty space?

The dimension of the space occupied by a

carbon atom can be considered the volume
of a sphere with the same diameter as the
circles drawn. To include all that space
around the sphere in the calculation,
considered a square with an edge the same
length as the diameter of the circle.

The volume of the space effectively occupied by a carbon atom is a cube whose edges are
the same dimension as the diameter of the cylinder in Fig. 1.

The density of pure carbon as diamond is 3.51 g/cm3. Using that value and the mass of a
mole of carbon, you can calculate the volume that a mole of carbon occupies. You
estimated the volume of one carbon from the stearic acid experiment. Knowing the
volume occupied by one mole of carbon and the volume occupied by one atom of carbon,
you can calculate the number of carbon atoms in one mole.

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 RESULTS FOR PART 1

Trial Values for NA (board)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
AVERAGE ±stdev

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PART 2

You are given a rectangle of aluminum foil, a ruler and a mass balance. The aluminum
foil came from a typical 250 sq ft roll you can buy at any supermarket. Using these tools,
in conjunction with the following data; atomic mass is 26.98 g/mol, density is 2.7 g/cm3,
atomic radius is 143 pm, and the aluminum atoms pack together with 74 % efficiency (26
% open space between the atoms), devise another strategy for estimating Avogadro’s
number. HINT: The approach should be analogous to what was done in PART 1. The
volume per mole can be derived from the density and atomic mass. The volume per atom
can be estimated from the atomic radius and the packing efficiency. Refer to the figure
on pg 7 to ponder the concepts of packing efficiency and open space.

By measuring the mass and area of your rectangle, you should be able to perform some
calculations that will enable you to estimate the number of layers of aluminum atoms that
make up the thin sheet of foil.

Your TAs have been instructed to let you struggle with this. They may help to explain
the concept of packing efficiency, but between the four of you, you should be able to
figure this out. Start Brainstorming with your group members.

Show work here.

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LAB REPORT (do not forget to staple your graded data sheet to your lab report)

Your lab report will consist of a written abstract, a methods section and your data sheet
(pg 8, 10 and 11). The abstract is worth 20 points and the methods section is worth 10
points. The data sheet is worth 30 points. The following is a grading rubric for the
abstract. See syllabus for information on how to prepare a well-written abstract.

Abstract
Content
2 pts All of the key pieces of data discussed.
2 pts The data is interpreted correctly.
2 pts The conclusions drawn from the data are correct.
2 pts It is evident that the student understands the main points of the laboratory
experiment.
2 pts It is evident that the student was able to connect the learning goals of the
experiment with data obtained in the experiment.

Quality of your writing

2 pts It is written in complete sentence(s).

2 pts The sentences are comprehendible to the reader.
2 pts It summarizes the experiment, calculations and the result and frames the
activity in the context of the learning goals.
2 pts It is an appropriate length; 3-6 sentences.
2 pts It is written in the passive voice with no pronouns or phrases such as “In
this lab we”.

Methods Section (10 pts)

Briefly outline both approaches used to estimate Avogadro’s Number.

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