Draft

The Need for Energy Storage

Estimating the need

In a world where supply and demand for energy are completely matched there is no need for storage.
However, as variability is introduced into both supply and into demand, a means of balancing the
potential mismatches of supply and demand is required. Such mismatches can be caused by large,
predictable changes in demand due to consumer behaviour and climatic effects, or shorter, less
predictable events such as sudden cold snaps. Also, they can occur due to supply fluctuations resulting
from the effect of weather on wind or solar farms, or, in the shorter term, when generators trip.

This Chapter will focus mainly on the growing need to balance supply and demand created by the
intermittency of wind and solar power and the ways of addressing these imbalances. Short-term
storage (a few hours or a day) has been studied before, but the longer term storage needs are the
main focus and the net-zero emissions target will remove the main sources of flexible and dispatchable
generation from the energy system, i.e., flexible fossil fuel generation.

Storage of both heat and electricity are important and are interrelated because the choices about how
to decarbonise heating in the future will have a major effect on the size of the electricity system. We
begin by identifying the factors that affect the need for energy storage before discussing them in
detail, and estimating the expected size of the UK’s energy storage system.

To address the variability of the future energy system and the different characteristics or storage
technologies, energy may be stored in a number of different ways:

 Electricity storage (chemical – batteries; pumped storage – gravity; kinetic - flywheels)

 Chemical storage ((hydrogen, ammonia, methane)
 Thermal stores (sensible heat - water tank, ceramic; phase change- molten salts)
 Thermal storage embedded in buildings where storage output cannot be controlled.

Our approach seeks to find a balance between variable renewables, other low-carbon energy
sources, and energy storage by considering what options are available. A completely renewable
energy system with storage matched to the likely energy demand in 2050 is studied before
considering alternative systems which are not purely renewable but that are compatible with the
net-zero carbon target. This provides an estimate of the storage needs required to balance
variations on a net-zero carbon system.

Electricity systems including storage

The essentials of an electrical energy system with storage are shown in Figure 1 below.

Electricity demand, or consumption, is normally met by direct supply from the generators. Any
shortfall in supply due to either the inflexibility or intermittency of generators is met from storage. In
times of surplus power, energy is either put into the stores, traded outside the UK through
interconnectors, or curtailed. Overall grid and distribution losses – much of which are in local low
voltage systems – are of the order of 10% of demand.

Electrical energy is expected to always be available when wanted, i.e., highly reliable. Therefore, the
need for storage is created by the inability of the system always to match supply and demand – due
to both the intermittency of wind and solar generation and the inherent variability of demand.

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 Draft

Energy storage could be aligned with the different elements of supply: wind and solar and with
demand, each smoothing out their elements of supply and demand. Whilst it would sound for
renewable sources or energy of deal with the problems of variability and intermittency at source,
this solution would miss the important opportunities both for off-setting fluctuation in one source of
energy against another and smoothing the variability by difference is supply based on location.
Energy storage is never completely efficient and can be much lower than 100%, perhaps as low as
25%. Losses can occur either in the process of converting and storing energy, during storage with
time-dependent losses, or in releasing or reconverting energy to meet demand. Therefore, the
round-trip efficiency of storage technologies that includes all three effects is important for storage
system studies.

Curtailment of
excess wind and Grid
Primary Direct Losses
solar energy
Supply Supply
UK Energy
Generation Demand

Supply to Supply from

Store Store
Interconnections
Stores

Storage System
Losses

Figure 1. Schematic electricity system with storage

In a highly renewable energy system, this mismatch between demand and supply is the Residual
power - defined as:
Residual power = Renewable Supply - Demand

Estimating the Residual power depends on:

On the demand side

The level of future demand.
1. This will depend on the extent to which heating systems, transport, industrial processing, etc.,
are electrified, improvements in efficiency, economic growth, changes in behaviour, etc. Heating
is important because of its scale – twice current electricity demand. It will have a major effect on
the level of future electricity demand. Estimates for electricity demand in 2050 range between
500 TWh for a system in which heating is supplied largely by hydrogen derived from natural gas1
and 750 TWh in which heating is by electricity 2 using heat pumps, hydrogen from electrolysis, or
resistive heating. This study focuses on a mid-way position which uses both hydrogen and heat

1
National Grid (2019)
2
Barrett & Sharp (2020)

2
 Draft

pumps and matches the Climate Change Committee’s 3 central assumption of 2050 demand –
600 TWh.
2. Fluctuation in demand during the year. There are recognised fluctuation of daily demand of 20-
30 GW depending on the season, due to both work patterns and day-night effects. Also, demand
is lower at the week-ends and during holidays. Seasonal effects also have a major effect on
demand, being highest in winter and lower in summer. Also, variations in mean temperature
between years affect the annual level of demand.

3. District heating stores could have a significant effect on the size of electricity demand. Also,
storing solar heat in the summer for use in winter would reduce the demand for electricity to
provide heating, although – as discussed in Chapter X – this is not expected to have a major
impact on the need for electricity storage.

4. The extent to which demand can be shifted in time to better match variable supply – see
Demand Side Response below.
On the supply side

1. The amounts of wind and solar power that are assumed to be available, their variation during
the year and between years, and – since their relative contributions vary during the year – the
wind/solar mix.
2. Interconnectors, which can trade surpluses and deficits with other countries, including wind and
solar from places where the weather may not be closely correlated with the UK’s.
3. Fluctuations in renewables leading to either shortfalls or over-supply and export or curtailment.
We will consider 100% renewables as base case; we are not advocating for this system, but wish to
establish first how provide a reliable supply from renewables before considering some of the zero-
carbon alternatives. Energy deficits can be met by:
1. Supply that is dispatchable (i.e., BECCS, hydro, nuclear, etc.). This role of matching supply and
demand is currently filled by gas generation, but gas with carbon capture and storage may be a
bridging technology. However, unless capture rates can be improved to 99%, to meet the net-
zero target, gas with carbon capture will not be viable for 2050.
2. Energy storage; this will include a range of technologies because of their different
performances, economic characteristics and efficiencies. The round-trip efficiency of electricity
storage varies from over 90% for modern battery systems, 40-70% for compressed air storage
and perhaps 25-50% if ammonia or hydrogen (as discussed in Chapter 3) are used as storage
media. Storage losses are lower when the output is heat rather than electricity.
3. Additional capacity to compensate for losses in storage or to reduce the effects of periods of
low supply, curtailment, or spillage of excess energy at other times.

Storage losses increase the cost of storage and also increase the amount of primary energy that will
be needed to meet demand in systems with highly variable supply. For these reasons, studies of
highly renewable energy systems that can be considered realistic must take account of storage
efficiency.

3
Climate Change Committee (2019)

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Energy Storage
Read Discuss

Energy storage can be defined as the process in which we store the energy that was produced all at once. This
process helps in maintaining the balance of the supply and demand of energy. Energy storage can also be
defined as the process of transforming energy that is difficult to store into a form that can be kept affordably for
later use. These storages can be of any type according to the shelf-life of energy which means some storages
can store energy for a short time and some can for a long time. There are various examples of energy storage
including a battery, flywheel, solar panels, etc.

What are the Types of Energy Storage?

There are five types of Energy Storage:

Thermal Energy
Mechanical Energy
Chemical Energy
Electrochemical Energy
Solar Energy Storage

Thermal Storage
Thermal storage can be defined as the process of storing thermal energy storage. The process of storing
thermal energy is to continuously heat and cool down the container (in which we are storing thermal energy).
And further, we can use this thermal energy later on from this container. It creates a balance between the
demand for energy in daytime and nighttime, winter and▲summer, etc.
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Where is Thermal Energy used?

Thermal Energy is used for the following purposes:

Working with Google Cloud Storage Buckets:

Permissions and Access Control
Google Cloud storage bucket is a fundamental resource in the Google cloud
platform(GCP) used for sto...Read More

Water heating
Cooking
Thermal power plants
Automobiles
Thermal processing of various metals.

Examples of Thermal Energy Storage

Some common examples of Thermal Energy Storage are given below in the article:

Carnot Battery

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A Carnot battery first uses thermal energy storage to store electrical energy. And then, during charging of this
battery electrical energy is converted into heat and then it is stored as heat. Now, upon discharge, the heat that
was previously stored will be converted back into electricity. This is how a Carnot battery works as thermal
energy storage.

Applications of Carnot Battery

These Carnot batteries can be used as grid energy storage as they store extra energy from various renewable
sources just to generate electricity for later use.

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08 : 41Carnot
Sale Ends InSome : 49 Sound
batteryMatter
systems can store
Reflection heat or
of Light cold for
Equations later use.
of Motion For example,
Kinematics Wavedistrict
Theory heating and data
Electromagnetic Induction Physics
center cooling.
In coal-fired power plants, the coal-fueled boiler should be replaced with Carnot batteries as they can
transfer to a generation system without using fossil fuels.

STES Energy System

This is seasonal thermal energy storage. Also, can be referred to as interseasonal thermal energy storage. This
type of energy storage stores heat or cold over a long period. When this stores the energy, we can use it when
we need it.

Application of Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage

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Application of Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage systems are

Greenhouse Heating
Aquifers use this type of storage

Mechanical Storage
They are the most common energy storage used devices. These types of energy storage usually use kinetic
energy to store energy. Here kinetic energy is of two types: gravitational and rotational. These storages work in
a complex system that uses air, water, or heat with turbines, compressors, and other machinery. It provides a
robust alternative to an electrochemical battery.

Where is Mechanical Energy used?

Mechanical Energy is used in,

Generator
Steam engines
Electric motors
Hydroelectric power plants

Examples of Mechanical Energy

Examples of Mechanical Energy storage include:

Flywheels

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These energy storages use mechanical energy to store energy. In these flywheels, electricity is converted into
kinetic energy in the form of a spinning wheel, which can store grid energy. In these flywheels, we can prevent
energy loss by creating a magnetic field that will maintain the wheel in a frictionless vacuum. When we need
power, the spinning wheel can be slowed down in a way that generates electricity.

Application of Flywheels

There are various applications of flywheels some of the most common are:

A motorized generator uses a flywheel to store energy.

Used to increase the speed of electric vehicles
It prevents obstructions in major power systems

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It helps in the maintenance of the gyroscope and mechanical system adjustments.

Compressed Air Systems Storage

These systems use compressed air to store energy for later use. This storage can be of any type: Diabatic,
adiabatic, or isothermal. These storages fulfill the demand of consumers by meeting their demands efficiently.

Application of Compressed Air Systems

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The most common application of compressed air systems are:

Drills
Atomize paints systems
Operating air cylinders in automation systems
Cryogenics system

Pumped Hydro Storage

This type of storage generally helps in storing grid energy. These are used in the balancing of loads by electric
power systems. This energy is stored in the form of the gravitational potential energy of water. When electricity
demand is low then the extra generation capacity is used to pump water into a higher reservoir from a lower

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source. When the demand increases, water can be reversed back into the lower source from the higher reservoir
by using turbines, generating electricity.

Application of Pumped Hydro Storage

Some important applications of Pumped Hydro Storage include:

An electricity storage medium for various renewable energy storage.

Ancillary grid services
Storing Electricity for other purposes

Chemical Storage
Chemical storage can be defined as storing chemicals for later use. These chemicals can be stored in chemical
stores, cabinets, or other storage. These chemicals can be hazardous or non-hazardous. For the current energy
generation system, these storages will be in the form of biomass, coal, and gas. Energy stored chemically can be
used in various sectors such as transporting, heating, and producing electricity.

Where is Chemical Energy used?

Chemical storage is used for,

Power plants
Electric vehicles
Mobiles

Examples of Chemical Energy Storage

There are various examples of chemical energy storage some of the most common are:

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Hydrogen Storage

Storing hydrogen for later consumption is known as hydrogen storage This can be done by using chemical
energy storage. These storages can include various mechanical techniques including low temperatures, high
pressures, or using chemical compounds that release hydrogen only when necessary. It is most widely used in
the manufacturing site, especially in the synthesis of ammonia.

Application of Hydrogen Storage

Some of the important applications of Hydrogen Storage systems are in

Transportation sector as fuel

Industrial sector for power supply

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Residential sector for heating

Biofuels

Biofuel storage stores energy from waste. It can be created by plants, and home, commercial and agricultural
wastes. Biofuel storage stores renewable energy that can be utilized to produce both heat and power.

Application of Biofuels

Some of the important applications of Biofuels are,

Water cleaning
As a lubricant
Electrical energy generation

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Charging of electrical equipment.

Electrochemical Storage
Electrochemistry is the production of electricity through chemicals. Electrochemical storage refers to the storing
of electrochemical energy for later use. This energy storage is used to view high density and power density. The
energy in the storage can be used over a long period.

Where is Electrochemical Storage?

Mobiles
Computers
Music players
Electric vehicles
Wind-based electricity generation

Examples of Electrochemical Storage

Some Examples of Electrochemical Storage include,

Battery

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It consists of a cathode (positive terminal) and anode (negative terminal). Used in portable electronics and
automobiles. There are various forms of battery, for example, lithium-ion, lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, etc. Some
flow batteries included liquid electrolyte solutions, for example, iron-chromium, zinc-bromine, and vanadium
redox.

Application of Battery

Some of the common examples application of batteries include,

Invertors
Micro-grids
Integrated Sensors

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Supercapacitor

They are also known as ultracapacitors or electric double-layer capacitors. They come in the category of
electrochemical capacitors that lack normal solid dielectrics. These supercapacitors fill the void between the
regular capacitor and the rechargeable battery. They have a high energy density of all capacitors. Its charge or
discharge cycle is shorter as compared to other capacitors.

Application of Supercapacitor

Some examples of the application of Supercapacitor includes,

Static random-access memory backup (SRAM)

Elevators

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Cranes
Buses
Trains
Automobiles

Solar Energy Storage

Storing solar energy for later use is known as solar energy storage. It can be done easily just by using sunlight.
It uses no electricity. It just uses the natural source to operate various appliances, vehicles, and many more.

Where is Solar Energy Used?

Solar Energy is mainly used in,

Batteries
Cooking Appliances
Electrical appliances
Fuels

Examples of Solar Energy Storage

Some of the common examples of Solar Energy Storage system includes,

Solar Fuel Cell

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It can be produced through,

Solar panel electricity (Electrochemistry)

Artificial photosynthesis (Photobiology)
Concentrated solar thermal energy (Thermochemistry)
Photons (Photochemically)

Solar fuels can be manufactured and stored in synthetic compounds ammonia, hydrogen, and hydrazine when
there is no sunlight. They are portable or transportable and can be used over a long period.

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2. Overview of Energy Storage Systems

2.1. Chronological order of Energy Storage Systems
The processes of electro-chemicals energy storage started to develop very rapidly in the late
19th century. In 1749, American scientist Benjamin Franklin first used the word ”battery” as
he was doing experiments with electricity using a set of linked capacitors. The Italian physicist
Alessandro Volta invented the first real battery in 1800 [3].

Table 1. Chronological order of ESS

Year Types of Description Ref

battery
1800 Volta cell The invention of the first battery led to the Volta cell, which used [7, 8]
a brine solution as an electrolyte and had alternating copper and
zinc discs divided by cardboard.
1836 Daniel cell Regularly identified as a zinc-copper battery that takes advantage [9]
of a porous barrier between two electrolytes, the Volta cell
developed into the Daniel cell. John Frederic Daniell, a British
chemist, invented the Daniel Cell.
1866 Leclanche Daniel cell transforms into a Leclanche cell invented by a French [10]
cell engineer containing an ammonium chloride conducting solution:
the electrolyte, a negative zinc terminal and a positive manganese
dioxide terminal.
1859 Lead-acid The first rechargeable battery based on lead-acid was invented by [7, 8]
the French physician Gaston Planté, a still used device. They were
all primary batteries until then, meaning they were not typically
rechargeable.
1899 Nickel– The nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery using nickel as the positive [11]
cadmium electrode (cathode) and cadmium as the negative electrode
(NiCd) (anode) was invented by Sweden’s Waldemar Jungner.
1901 Nickel-iron Thomas Edison replaced cadmium with iron, which was called [8, 11]
(NiFe) nickel-iron (NiFe).
1967 Nickel–metal Nickel-metal-hydride development began in 1967. It acts as a [12]
hydride, substitute for NiCd because it only has mild toxic metals and
NiMH provides higher specific energy.
1980 Li-ion American physicist John Bannister Goodenough invented the [13]
lithium-ion nervous system.
1980 Lithium- The lithium-polymer battery invention came in the 1980s. Sony [14]
polymer integrated Goodenough’s cathode and a carbon anode into the
world’s first commercial lithium-ion rechargeable battery in 1991.
1954 - Solar fuel Solar fuels, inspired by environmental concerns, have recently [15]
latest gained interest. This is still under development and study.
In the 1950s, Bell Laboratories discovered that semiconducting
materials were more powerful than selenium, such as silicon. They
succeeded in making a solar cell that was 6percent efficient. The
brains behind the silicon solar cell at Bell Labs were inventors
Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson.

These first measures were identified with the names of Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) and
Alessandro Conte di Volta (1745-1827), which remain in history through the words we use
today: ”galvanic element” and ”volt”. Galvani found that if death meets various metals, a
frog leg begins to move. On the contrary, Volta studied the outcomes obtained when certain

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salt solutions are inserted into various metals. The lead/acid/lead dioxide (lead-acid battery)
mechanism will not be found without these tests [4]. Table 1 shows the chronology of the energy
storage system.

2.2. Comparison and characteristic of Energy Storage System

Therefore, it is crucial to critically analyze the fundamental characteristics of ESSs to create
benchmarks for selecting the best technology. These ESSs can also be defined by their technical
specifications, i.e., max power rating, discharge time, energy density and efficiency. Table
2 concentrates in ESSs currently proficient of giving critical storage capacities of at least 20
MW. A glossary of technical data ESSs is given to help any beginner clearly understand the
characteristics [5, 6].

Table 2. Chronological order of ESS

Max Power Discharge Max cycles Energy Efficiency
Rating time or lifetime density
(MW) (watt-hour
per liter)
Pumped hydro 3,000 4h-16h 30-60 years 0.2-2 70-85%
Compressed air 1,000 2h-30h 20-40 years 2-6 40-70%
Molten salt 150 hours 30 years 70-210 80-90%
Li-ion battery 100 1min-8h 1,000-10,000 200-400 85-95%
years
Lead-acid 100 1min-8h 6-40 years 50-80 80-90%
Flow battery 100 hours 12,000-14,000 20-70 60-85%
years
Hydrogen 100 min-week 5-30 years 600(at bar) 25-45%
Flywheel 20 secs-mins 20,000- 20-80 70-95%
100,000 years

Max power rating (MW or kW): Max power rating for a storage system determines the
rate of energy storage in the storage medium. It is also commonly determined as average value
and a peak value that is often used to indicate maximum power, P max(W ).
Discharge time (energy per unit): The amount of time taken to fully discharge energy
at its rated power by the storage system is called discharge time. The maximum-power for the
duration of the discharge,τ (s) = W st/P max, where Wst is total energy stored and Pmax is
maximum discharge power.
Max cycles / Lifetime (cycles/years): The lifetime for a storage system is to estimate its
performance and be specified as the number of years according to its rated capacity and rated
power.
Energy density (kWh/L): The amount of energy that can be contained in the storage
material per unit volume is referred to as the energy density.
Efficiency (%): The ratio between energy that the ESS discharged and the amount of energy
contained in it is referred to as the ESS discharge efficiency. The ratio of released energy and
stored energy is n = W ut/W st, where Wut is usable released energy and Wst is total energy
stored.

2.3. Classification of ESSs

The growing need for energy storage has pushed into a never-ending effort to find new storage
system solutions that are more effective and cater to specific requirements. There are many types

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Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1962 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1962/1/012035

of ESS technologies coexisting and can be classified on the basis of their particular functions,
response time, the form of energy stored, storage duration and etc., [5]. The energy storage
system may be used for a range of applications. Some of them may be precisely selected for
a particular application. On the other hand, some others are the framework in question in a
broader framework.
The ESS classification is broadly determined based on the form of converted energy. Energy
can be converted either in the form of thermal, chemical, mechanical, or electrochemical energy
or magnetic or electrical fields. Figure 1 illustrates the ESS’s classification.

Figure 1. The classification of energy storage systems.

3. Comparison and Assessment of ESSs

Many studies have been performed specifically for the purpose of drawing up a thorough
comparison between the various types of ESS.

3.1. Comparison between power density and energy density

Figure 2 shows the comparison of ESS technologies between energy density and power density.
When the density of energy and power is more significant, the storage system’s volume is lower.
On the top right, highly dense ESS technologies which are ideal for mobile applications. The
extensive and high-volume storage system is located at the bottom left. Flow batteries, CAES
and PHS, have a low energy density and are extensive area. The volume of it consumes more
storage systems. On the other hand, Li-ion batteries have a large energy density and a high-
power density, so Li-ion is currently used in many applications.

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Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1962 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1962/1/012035

Figure 2. Comparing the ESS technologies between power density and energy density [5, 16].

3.2. Comparison between the system power rating and discharge time
Figure 3 shows the application of the ESSs generally classified into large, medium, and small
scales based on the discharge time at rated power and power rating.
Electrochemical storage systems such as lithium (Li-ion), lead-acid and NaS batteries are
primarily appropriate for applications with a medium discharge time of minutes to hours. For a
short discharge time at rated power applications, all technologies for high-power storage such as
Flywheels, Supercapacitor and SMES are suitable. PHS and CAES are located between medium
discharge times of storage system and large scale for discharge times at rated power.
ESSs currently available for use in applications involving power quality are Supercapacitors,
Ni-Cd, lead-acid battery and Li-ion battery, and Flywheels also appear to be a promising system
for those applications.

3.3. Comparison of life expectancy and efficiency of energy

Figure 4 represents the comparison between life expectancy and energy efficiency of ESSs. Before
choosing a storage technology, this two-parameter is vital to consider, among others, as it affects
the total storage costs.
Both ESS high-power technologies, i.e., Flywheels and EC Capacitors, are distinguished by
their performance, ranging from 90-95% and 84-97%, respectively. Currently, diabatic CAES
systems have a low efficiency of less than 55%. However, the new adiabatic CAES plant is
presumed to achieve an efficiency of around 70% [16]. Li-ion batteries have the highest efficiency
of the electrochemical storage system, estimated to be over 90% or even 97%. PHS systems will
run at 70-87% efficiency, and the use of an adjustable speed machine can increase efficiency in
the future.
Life expectancy can be given either in cycles or years for ESSs. In traditional battery

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The 1st International Conference on Engineering and Technology (ICoEngTech) 2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1962 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1962/1/012035

Figure 3. Comparison of ESSs regarding the rating of the power system and time of discharge
at rated power [5, 17].

Figure 4. Comparison between life expectancy and energy efficiency [17].

technology, lead-acid batteries in the order of 2000 cycles have the longest cycle life. however,
more cycles can be reached by Li-on and NAS than lead-acid batteries. CAES, PHS and
flywheels are technologies with a very long-life cycle of between 10,000 and 30,000 cycles, while

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EC Capacitors are about 100,000 cycles [5].

3.4. Comparison of the investment cost of ESSs

The investment costs of ESSs are compared in Figure 5. Storage-related investment costs are
a significant economic parameter and impact the overall cost of energy production. Hence,
certain types of storage systems can only become profitable if supplied with a certain minimum
of resources. To achieve a precise cost analysis, the total cost of the system must be appraised.

Figure 5. Comparison between Capital Cost per Unit Energy and Capital Cost per Unit
Power [6].

Concerning the capital cost per unit of energy, EC capacitors and high-power flywheels have
the greatest investment cost of some thousand $/kWh. At the same time, metal-air batteries are
the lower-priced storage option. CAES also have a meagre cost for the storage system. Long-
duration flywheels, Li-ion and the zinc-air battery are most-costly technologies in the capital cost
per unit power. Apart from long-duration EC capacitors and high-power flywheels, high-power
EC capacitors are the most affordable.
Data in 2018 and prediction in 2025 for cost and parameters (power conversion system,
capital cost–energy capacity, the balance of plant, construction and commissioning) ranges by
technologies is shown in Figure 6 [18].

3.5. Comparison based on specific power and energy

Between technologies for high-power, the capacitor has the highest specific power of more than
100,000 (W/kg), while TES is the lowest specific power which is 10-30 (W/kg) [5]. In the range
of 800-10,000 (Wh/kg), the fuel cell exhibits exceptionally high specific energy. Higher specific
energy gives an impact on storage weight. Figure 7 shows the comparison between specific power
and energy.

7
The 1st International Conference on Engineering and Technology (ICoEngTech) 2021 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1962 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1962/1/012035

Figure 6. Overview of the 2018 data and 2025 forecasts compiled by technology for parameter
ranges [18].

Figure 7. Comparison between specific power and energy.

8
Abbreviation Denomination
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage
CES Chemical Energy Storage
ECES Electrochemical Energy Storage
EST Energy Storage Technologies
LAB Lead Acid Batteries
LHS Latent Heat Storage
LIB Lithium Ion Batteries
MES Mechanical Energy Storage
PCM Phase Change Materials
PCT Phase Change Temperature
PEM Proton-Exchange Membrane
PHES Pumped Hydro Energy Storage
RFB Redox Flow Batteries
SHS Sensible Heat Storage
SSB Sodium Sulfur Batteries
TCES Thermo-Chemical Energy Storage
TES Thermal Energy Storage
TRL Technology Readiness Level

viii
Before the industrial revolution during the 19th century, the need of energy was
modest compared with today’s situation. The energy need in the industrialized
world increase in line with the technology advances made during the
industrialization. One of the most important technical inventions is the discovery
of electricity. Ever since electricity, in the 20th century become matter of course
in many industrialized societies; the energy need have increased significantly [1]
Today, comforts like hot water, air conditioner and outlets provided with
electricity is taken for granted. Historically, the sources converting energy into
electricity, heat and cold have been mainly non-renewable. Fossil fuels such as
oil, petroleum and natural gas have filled our needs for long period of time [1]
Production of heat, cold and electricity from these sources have the ability to
adapt to demand, hence the need of supplementary energy storage is low.
However, these energy sources are finite and have shown negative
environmental impact. Apart from global warming, the increase in the different
greenhouse gases contribute to ocean acidification, smog pollution, ozone
depletion as well as changes to plant growth and nutrition levels [2]

Based on increased demand, the price of fossil fuels has firmly risen and
number of “crises” have had big economic impact. E.g. the first oil crisis in 1973
more than doubled the price of oil over night and led to great reactions
worldwide [3] Among other things, France then embark on major nuclear
power program to ensure its energy independence. Ever since, nuclear power
accounted for the bulk of the electricity produced in France, corresponding to
75% of the electricity [4] As result of the decision, France has today (2016)
almost the lowest cost of electricity in Europe and is highly energy independent.
Also, the country has extremely low level of CO2 emissions per capita from
electricity generation because of the high proportion of nuclear power.
Nevertheless, nuclear power has caused number of serious accidents that has
led to devastation results due to dangerously high concentrations of radioactive
substances [2] No major accidents have occurred in France but the radionuclides
spread has affected large parts of the world, not only within the area where the
accident happened.

Nuclear accidents and global warming as well as the rising price and limited
amount of fossil fuels has increased the number of different energy sources and
at the present time the proportion of renewable energy sources have increased
[5] Renewable energy sources such as sun- and wind power are less harmful to
the environment and inexhaustible. However, they are unpredictable and more
difficult to control. Therefore, one of today’s largest challenges is to match the
available energy with the energy demand in time, place and quantity [6] This
applies not only electricity but also thermal energy in the form of heat and cold.
For example, if it is possible to store the energy generated from the sun during
sunny days or summer seasons to times with less sun it can minimize the loss in
heat from production to consumption. In that way it is possible to use the
residual heat later on instead of using e.g. additional electricity to generate heat
from an electrical source of heat during times with less sun.

1
Presently there is great number of Energy Storage Technologies (EST)
available on the market, often divided into Electrochemical Energy Storage
(ECES), Mechanical Energy Storage (MES), Chemical Energy Storage (CES) and
Thermal Energy Storage (TES). All the technologies have certain design and
operational parameters that put constraints to when each are suitable to use. All
of the technologies have their advantages and disadvantages therefore which are
ideal in different situations and applications. The more mature technologies
currently used are pumped hydro energy storage (mechanical), some batteries
e.g. lead-acid- and sodium sulfur batteries (electrochemical) as well as sensible
heat storage (thermal) [7] [8] Even though the conventional technologies all are
well known, the development in the field is vast and fast. This creates need to
more in-depth knowledge of each technology to be able to find the one most
suitable for each situation.

Renewable energy sources is hot topic due to global warming, several numbers
of natural disasters etc. In order to optimize its use, energy storage have become
interesting and there is quite lot of ongoing research in the area. Research and
many of the previous studies only examine and compare EST within the same
category (electrochemical, mechanical etc.). This has been done in studies such
as: [9] [10] and [11] Also, many studies compare different EST with particular
application in mind or conversely, comparing different applications with
particular EST. This is exemplified in following studies: [12], [13] and [14]
However, there are gaps regarding more comprehensive comparison that makes
it possible to analyze and compare the storage technologies independently of
applications or category. This project is focusing on bigger perspective and
within this section the problem definition, the purpose, the scope of the project
and the limitations encountered is presented.

Energy storage is relatively new topic for research and many EST are immature
and not commercially used at present (2016). This makes the lack of knowledge
for several numbers of EST [15] The often-limited knowledge makes it difficult
to understand the advantages and disadvantages of different technologies but
also to decide which storage technology that is most suitable for what
application. Currently, these are the two major problems within this subject.

The purpose with this study is to increase understanding of the most common
EST. It is also to gather and present information and numeric values to develop
tool for facilitating first evaluation of the type of the EST that is the most
suitable for particular applications and geographical locations. By fulfilling these
purposes the result aim to answer the question “which of the presented EST are
most suitable for given application?”.

2
The number of EST available today is many and to be able to present profound
analysis some limitations have been necessary. The technologies treated within
this thesis are limited to number of eleven. The number of methods for further
categorization of EST is many. In this study one of the most widely used method
have been applied. That method is based on the form of energy stored in the
system [15] The technologies treated in this study have been divided into four
categories. These categories and including technologies are presented in Figure
that aims to clarify the categorization. The choice of technologies is based on
availability but also on the technology’s potential and variation possibility. Some
of the rather common technologies, e.g. flywheels have been excluded since some
of its disadvantages makes it useful in only limited range of application. Also,
many of the technologies are available in different variants but since this project
aims to facilitating first evaluation, the technologies are limited to its basic
design. The study is not geographically limited to France but it has been made
with the country’s conditions and currently energy storage situation in mind.
Meaning, the purpose has been to provide knowledge guide and tool that
could be used worldwide but examples and discussion have had focus on France.

Figure 1: Schematic illustration of the four categories and associated EST.

The methodology can be divided into three main phases. Initially, information
about different EST were retrieved from various sources including scientific
literature and publications but also relevant information found on web pages
belonging to different organizations and companies. After enough data was
gathered, the following phase was to critically analyze the data obtained and sort
out relevant information to present in the literature study named Energy Storage
Technology Mapping. The main approach was to map all of the applications and

3
storage technologies based on number of important parameters that the
technologies had in common. These two phases main purpose was to collect and
present relevant information in order to increase the knowledge of different EST.

Once the critical analysis and mapping was done, the terminative phase begun.
This phase was comparison of the technologies treated in the literature study.
This comparison was based on the numeric values for each of the common
parameters. The purpose of this phase was to present substrate and tool to
facilitating first evaluation of what kind of EST that was most suitable for
given application. To finally demonstrate the tool’s function and be able to
evaluate its performance small case study was done. graphic illustration of
the workflow and each part’s purposes are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Graphic demonstration of the workflow and purpose of each part.

This part of the thesis is designed on the basis of the divisions presented in
Figure 1. It therefore consists of sections (4.1 Electrochemical Storage, 4.2
Mechanical Storage, 4.3 Chemical Storage and 4.4 Thermal Storage) representing
the four categories of technologies: ECES, MES, CES and TES. Furthermore, every
section consists of two to four different sub sections (4.1.1 Lithium Ion Battery,
4.1.2 Sodium Sulfur Battery etc.) depending of the number of treated EST in each
section. The name and number of technologies treated in each sub section is also
illustrated in Figure 1.

Within each section presenting an EST the technology’s technical construction

including major components are described. Also, commonly used applications at
the present time (2016) and the most crucial conditions and design and
operational criteria are considered. Every section presenting an EST (4.1.1
Lithium Ion Battery, 4.1.2 Sodium Sulfur Battery etc.) lastly contains table with
numeric values of critical design and operational parameters, presented at the
end of each section. This part aims to provide in-depth knowledge of each EST. In
order to increase the understanding of each and every technology’s readiness
level, already at this point, Figure is presented before the following sub
sections. The rating is based on the extent to which the technology is applied and
used in daily life.

4
 Figure 3: Figure demonstrating the technology readiness level (TRL) of the
different technologies [16]

ECES is generic name for batteries being used to store energy. Batteries are
electrochemical devices with the ability to readily convert the stored energy into
electrical energy. Since they are portable and often quite small they can be
located anywhere without geographical considerations [16] Batteries can be
either non-rechargeable (primary) or rechargeable (secondary), only
rechargeable batteries are of interest for large-scale energy storage [2] Batteries
can also be either solid-state batteries or flow batteries. This section present
number of ECES technologies, including both flow- and solid state batteries.

Lithium Ion batteries (LIB), in their most common form, consist of positive
electrode (cathode) of lithium oxides, negative electrode (anode) of graphite
and an electrolyte of lithium salt and organic solvent [2] Figure is intended to
clarify the technical design of the battery.

5
 Figure 4: Schematic diagram describing the design of LIB [17].

Lithium has low density and large standard electrode potential resulting in
batteries with low weight and high operating voltage [2] Furthermore LIB have
no memory effecta low self-charge and one of the best energy-to-mass ratio
which makes them the main energy storage devices for portable electronics such
as mobile phones, TVs and iPads [18] Table includes numeric values for
several parameters in order to enable comparison between LIB and other EST.
The properties have proven to be advantageous also for electric traction of
vehicles, power tools and storage of intermittently available renewable energy
hence LIB is increasingly common in these application areas [17] Although LIB
are extensively used in portable electronic devices and are the main focus for
electrical vehicle applications, they are at present (2016) too expensive for large-
scale grid storage. However, the research is extensive and in the United States
there is number of lithium-ion-based demonstrations that have recently been
installed and tested. These systems would be capable of providing short-term
power output stabilization for wind turbines but, compared with other options
LIB are still too costly to use for application in longer term storage of wind
energy [19]

France has one of the strongest economies in Europe and most of the French
citizens have the ability to own portable electronics, including LIB. Therefore, the
number of LIB is quite extensive in the country [20] Furthermore, the number of
plug-in hybrid and electrical vehicle has increased dramatically in France over
the last couple of years [21] The plug-in hybrid cars often use Nickel-metal
batteries (NiMH) but all of the most bought electrical cars, such as Nissan Leaf
and Ford Focus EV use LIB [22] [23]

aNo memory effect the capacity is not reduced even though the battery is not
fully discharged between charge cycles.

6
LIB has large impact on metal depletion and the lithium mining’s toxicity and
location in natural environment can cause significant environmental-, social- and
health impacts. Therefore its continued use needs to be monitored even if there
is no immediate shortage of lithium at present (2016). Although, LIB are
concededly less toxic than many other batteries, e.g. lead-acid batteries [24]

Advantages: Disadvantages:
High efficiency [8] Expensive [25]
Low weigh, small battery [26]

Table 1: Numeric values of critical parameters for LIB

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
0.001- 0.25- Day- 75-200 300 85-100 1000- 175- 500-
0.1 25 month [8] [30] [27] 4500 4000 2500
[27] [28] [29] [31] [16]b [16]c

Sodium Sulfur Batteries (SSB) consist of two active materials; molten sulfur as
the positive electrode and molten sodium as the negative electrode. The battery
is often referred to as NaS battery due to the chemical abbreviations of its two
main components sodium (Na) and Sulfur (S). solid ceramic, sodium alumina,
separates the electrodes and serves also as the electrolyte [32] SSB is
presented in Figure that aims to clarify the battery’s technical design.

Figure 5: Schematic diagram describing the design of SSB [17].

These materials have the advantages of low density and cost. The specific energy
of SSB is high, the cycle lifetime is long compared to many other batteries and
the charge efficiency is high [2] Because of these advantages SSB are considered
an attractive candidate for large-scale energy storage applications [16] Even so,
both sodium and sulfur have common characteristic of being highly corrosive

b From 2015
c From 2015

7
which might cause corrosive problems. Combined with the fact that the SSB
operates at temperature of around 300°C makes the batteries, as mentioned
most suitable for large-scale energy storage such as for the power grid [2]
Numeric values for several parameters are presented in Table that aims to
enable comparison between SSB and other EST.

Reunion Island Pegase Project is project where SSB have been used to facilitate
load leveling and renewable integration at the Reunion Island, an insular region
of France located in the Indian Ocean. The SSB have power level of 1MW and
can provide the average usage of 2000 households [33] Also, over the last
decade SSB has seen the largest number of demonstrations and field tests
globally, e.g. over 190 sites in Japan. Although, further uptake appears to have
slowed down due to recent safety concerns [19]

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Long lifecycle [8] Highly corrosive behavior [8]
High production cost [34]
High operating temp. [35]

Table 2: Numeric values of critical parameters for SSB

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
1-50 300 Day 150 [2] 150- 75-90 2500 1000- 300-
[36] [28] [37] 250 [8] [16] 3000 500
[15] [16]d [8]e

Lead Acid Batteries (LAB) was invented by the French physicist Gaston Planté
already in 1859 and was the first practical rechargeable battery. LAB normally
consists of lead oxide (PbO2 cathodes and lead (Pb) anodes immersed in sulfuric
acid (H2SO4), with each cell connected in series [38] The technical design is
illustrated in Figure including the main components just mentioned.

d From 2015
e From 2015

8
 Figure 6: Lead acid battery with six cells: output voltage 12V [2].

Comparing with other solid state batteries, the density is quite low but it can
provide large current that is great advantage in many applications such as
starting car [2] LAB is widely used even when surge currentf is not important
and other designs could provide higher energy densities. This is because LAB is
cheap compared to newer technologies. Therefore LAB is also used for storage in
backup power supplies as well as for wheelchairs, golf cars, personnel carriers
and emergency lighting [39] LAB emits lead, which is toxic heavy metal with
severe impacts on the global bioaccumulation, also with potential risks to human
health. However, LAB can be recycled several hundred times and are currently
the most recycled consumer product. Given that the LAB is recycled these
batteries’ disposal is extremely successful from both cost- and environmental
perspectives [40] Table includes numeric values for several parameters and
aims to enable comparison between LAB and other EST.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Can provide high current [2] Contains toxic substance [8]
Mature technology [8] Short lifetime [8]
Highly recycled [40]

Table 3: Numeric values of critical parameters for LAB

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
0-40 0.25- Day- 20 [2] 70 [30] 70-90 500- 300- 200-
[8] 50 month [8] 1000 600 400
[41] [29] [16] [16]g [8]h

fSurge Current sudden increase in current.

g From 2015
h From 2015

9
In Redox Flow Batteries (RFB), two liquid electrolytes are pumped to the
opposite sides of the electrochemical cell. The two liquid electrolytes contain
dissolved metal ions as active masses and they stay dissolved in the fluid
electrolyte, hence no phase change of these active masses takes place. The
negative and the positive redox species are contained in separate storage tanks
and are separated by an ion-selective membrane. Redox-active ions undergo
reduction- or oxidation reactions when they are in contact or very near the
current collector. However, the membrane allows the transport of non-reaction
ions to maintain electrolyte balance and electro neutrality [27] Figure 7
represents the basic principle of RFB with the intent to enhance understanding
of the battery’s appearance and function.

Figure 7: Basic concept of a Redox Flow battery. Based on [19].

Unlike traditional, solid state batteries that store energy within their electrodes,
RFB store their electrical energy within one or more electro-active i species
dissolved into liquid electrolytes. The size and design of the electrochemical cell
defines the power density while the energy density or output depends on the
size of the tanks [42] Some of the advantages of the RFB are high efficiency, long
cycle life, flexible layout and an ability to store large amount of energy [43]
Although, compared with other batteries their density is rather low and the
design might be complicated due to the fact that it often includes pumps, sensors,
control units etc. To enable comparison between RFB and other EST some
numeric values for several parameters are presented in Table 4. For number of
reasons, including the relatively bulky size of RFB, they are most suitable for
high power rechargeable storage. Thus, most of the batteries are currently used
for grid energy storage, such as being attached to electrical grids or power plants.
France has, at the present time (2016) no RFB plants used for greater amount of
energy storage [44]

i Electro-active exhibiting electrical activity or responsive to electrical stimuli.

10
Advantages: Disadvantages:
Short time to fully charge [8] Low specific energy [8]
High design flexibility [19] Electrical current leakage [8]
Fully charged/discharged without loss of capacity [19]

Table 4: Numeric values of critical parameters for RFB

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
0.03- <10 Day- 10-30 25-35 75-85 12000 600- 150-
[27] [8] month [8] [15] [27] [8] [45] 1500 1000
[29] [16] [16]j [8]k

To store mechanical energy, kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy by

using physical movements. Two of today’s most common technologies;
compressed air and pumped hydro storage are described within this section.
Both of these two ECES technologies are location limited that makes it difficult to
store energy over longer distances [8] The MES technologies have however
many other advantages that will be mentioned within this section. The section
includes technical descriptions of the two MES technologies include general
information and technical design as well as numeric values of some of the most
impacting parameters.

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) is based on air being pumped by an

external electricity source to high pressure into large reservoir during
periods of low demands (off-peak) and is released later during periods of high
demands (peak-load) [2]

Regarding large-scale energy storing CAES systems can store the air either
adiabatically or diabatically. An adiabatic process occurs without gain or loss of
heat, where for diabatic process the opposite is true [46] Rather technically, in
diabatic CAES system, compressor driven by motor compresses the air
during the charging process. During the compression process the air heats up
and radiator removes the heat. The energy is stored as compressed air in a
cavern. During discharging, the air cools down due to its expansion and has to
be heated up by burning conventional fuel or biofuel. After being heated, the
air drives a turbine/generator unit, which feeds power into the grid. However,
when the CAES is adiabatic the heat generated during the compression process
is stored. The stored heat is then used to heat up the air while it expands in the
discharging process. Therefore much higher efficiency, increased by around
20% can be achieved if the heat of compression is recovered and stored
adiabatic. Also, the operation is then completely CO2-free as no fuel is required
which is desirable in an environmental perspective [47]. All part of the process is

j From 2015
k From 2015

11
illustrated for both diabatic and an adiabatic system in Figure 8 that depicts
schematic of CAES system.

Figure 8: Schematic diagram of (a) diabatic and (b) adiabatic CAES system [47].

At present time there are only two CAES plants in operation worldwide. The
oldest one was put in operation 1978 and is located in Huntorf, Germany
(320MW) and the newer one was put in operation 1991 and is located in
McIntosch, USA (110MW). Both of these CAES system store the air diabatically
and use natural gas as heat source for the discharging process, which reduced
the overall efficiency (current efficiency: 42% respectively 54%) [47]
Nevertheless, adiabatic stored air is subject of ongoing studies, with no utility
scale plants at the year of 2016 [48]

12
Due to the low storage density very large storages are required independent of
the air being stored adiabatic or diabatic. Salt is self-sealed under pressure and
consequently salt caverns are practically suitable for CAES. It is also possible to
use natural aquifers if no suitable salt formations are present [2] The used
storage media is inexpensive leading to the advantage of low energy cost for
CAES. Other advantages are quick start-up (typically 10 minutes), long storage
capability and large storage capacity [49] Numeric values for some parameters
are presented in Table in order to be able to compare CAES with other EST.

One of the reason there is no CAES system operating in France at the present
time (2016) is due to the fact that CAES systems need certain geological
requirements (e.g. salt caverns) for their installation. These requirements are
limited worldwide and potential locations in Europe are located in the United
Kingdom, northern Germany and in the Netherlands; hence France not included.
Nevertheless, several concepts are under development for air tanks so that it will
be possible to overcome these restrictions [47]

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Large storage capability [28] Geological requirement [47]
Long life (reservoir, compressor, turbine) [47] High investment cost [47]
Small footprint on surface (underground storage) [47]

Table 5: Numeric values of critical parameters for CAES

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
5-300 250 Day 30-60 2- at 60-79 8000- 1250 50-
[50] [28] [29] [50] 70- [16] 12000 [47]l 100
200bar [7] [8]m
[47]

In Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES) systems, water is pumped to an uphill

reservoir from low-level reservoir during periods of low demands. This
process is followed by discharging the stored water back to the lower reservoir
during periods of peak demands. The discharged water then drives the generator
to produce electricity when needed. The same generator is being used for
pumping the water uphill, consequently used as reversible pump-turbine [2]
detailed layout of PHES system is illustrated in Figure 9

l From 2014
m From 2015

13
 Figure 9: Schematic of PHES with combined turbine and electric generator.
Redrawn based on [51]

PHES help utilities to avoid using expensive backup power plants and can make
the power network less volatile. Compared to other EST, PHES has the largest
storage capacity and efficiency of around 70-85% [34] Because of its ability to
provide high power and capacity the technology is favored by high demand. It is
however stationary and have geographical restrictions which makes its
flexibility rather low [52] PHES have short start-up time and can continuously
respond to fluctuations and to sudden surge in demands, which is major
advantage [2] The technology has however geographical restrictions and
requires height differences and major quantities of water [47] number of
parameters including numeric values for PHES are presented in Table that
aims to enable comparison between PHES and other EST.

This storages technology is often combined with nuclear power production,

since the nuclear reactor needs to produce steady output in order to minimize
ageing effects and to maintain reactor stability [2] Due to the fact that France is
one of the world’s biggest nuclear producer and also has hilly areas in the
southeast this is an advantageous storage technology for France. Currently,
France has dozen plants in operation with Grand’Maison Dam as the most
powerful [53] Grand’Maison Dam with an impressive drop of 950 meters and
storage capacity of 140 million m3 of water is located in the Romanche valley, not
very far from the Italian border. The power station, including 12 turbine sets has
total output of 1820MW and an annual production of 1420GWh [54] Also,
globally PHES is the major energy storage technology at present (2016) and was
set in operation already in the early twentieth century. These systems are
normally used as medium-term storage systems, typically able to store between
and hours. Besides being the most widely used technology for energy storage,
PHES is also very developed and mature technology [47]

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Mature technology [8] Geographical restrictions [47]
Very long lifetime [47] Long construction time [8]
Low energy density [47]
High surface footprint [55]

14
 Table 6: Numeric values of critical parameters for PHES
Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
<3100 Small: Day- 0.28 at 0.28 at 65- 10000- 600- 80-
[55] 5000 month 100m 100m 82% 30000 2000 200
Large: [47] [30] [30] [56] [7] [52]n [8]o
140000 [47]
[41]

Endothermic chemical reactions require energy to build chemical bonds in

high-energy product while exothermic reactions release energy, forming
lower-energy product. This makes it possible to develop energy storage systems
that store electricity and heat in the bonds of chemical compounds (atoms and
molecules) to use them for future energy supply. The following section
describes two different technologies of storing energy chemically.

Hydrogen can be produced by reforming of natural gas with steam or by the

electrolysis of water into oxygen and hydrogen. Presently, reforming of natural
gas is more common but electrolysis of water is more convenient in an
environmental perspective. That is due to the fact that electrolysis of water can
be done directly from renewable power. The efficiency is lower using electrolysis
of water but carbon dioxide, which is by-product during the reforming of
natural gas, is absent [57] The electrolysis operates as follows: Water (H2O)
consists of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) and by using electrical energy the
electrolysis can split water into these two basic elements. Technically, two
electrodes in basic electrolysis are connected to direct current (DC) supply
and once sufficient high cell voltage is applied to the cell, redox reaction
occurs. The redox reaction produces oxygen at the anode (positive electrode)
and hydrogen at the cathode (negative electrode) [58] In order to separate the
reaction compartments for hydrogen and oxygen proton conducting polymer
membrane is used. The membrane is called Proton-Exchange Membrane (PEM)
and besides from separating the compartments it also provides the ionic contact
between the electrodes, which is essential for the electrochemical process [30]
Figure 10 shows how the production of the actual gas takes place on the surface
of the two precious metal electrodes.

n From 2014
o From 2015

15
Figure 10: The electrolysis of water; showing where the hydrogen and oxygen are
produced as well as the semipermeable diaphragm between the two half-cells that
allows the separation of the two gases [58]

Independent of production technique small amounts of hydrogen has to be

either compressed into pressurized vessels or liquefied in order to get stored.
Also, nanotubes or solid metal hydrides can serve as storage units for hydrogen
with very high density while man-made underground salt caverns can store
truly great amounts of hydrogen. This enables long-term storage; hence this
technology permits leveling during longer periods of flaws or excess/deficit of
wind- and solar production and can even balance seasonal variations [59] After
storing, hydrogen can be converted back to heat or electricity in an internal
combustion engine or fuel cell. At present (2016), this technology plays only a
minor role in the energy sector and can be used as fuel for portables (vehicles)
such as rockets [30] Although, in recent years energy storage systems based on
hydrogen are receiving increasing attention; the reason is particularly the
technology’s possibility to integrate renewable energy sources [50] To be able to
compare hydrogen storage with other EST number of numeric values for
several parameters are presented in Table 7.

France has rather unique test platform with this kind of energy storage. The
platform was commissioned 2012 and is called the MYRTLE platform. The
platform connects solar panels to hydrogen-based energy storage system. The
system is joined with the power grid, which gives the opportunity to solve
problem of intermittency. The system also offers greater flexibility for grid
operations. Using this unique system the research team at the University of
Corsica associated with CNRS (Centre national de la recherche scientifique) and
CEA (Commissariat l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives) have the
opportunity to plan and test various energy management scenarios [60]

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Can store long time [34] Low efficiency [55]
No emission (coupled to renewable sources) [34] Require costly components [34]
Environmentally benign operating characteristics [8]

16
 Table 7: Numeric values of critical parameters for hydrogen
Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
Varies Varies Hours- 33330 2.7- 20-50 6-20
months [61] 160 at [8] [8]p
[31] 1-
700bar
[29]

Methane can be created in multi-step process. The process starts with

electrolysis where water is divided into hydrogen and oxygen (see section 4.3.1
Hydrogen) followed by methanation reaction such as the Sabatier process. In
the Sabatier process methane and water are being produced by letting the
hydrogen react with carbon dioxide (CO2). The produced methane can then be
stored in gas caverns or more ideally in the natural gas grid and used
temporarily and spatially, adaptably for balancing power by producing
electricity during periods of high demand [6] The Sabatier process is nowadays
often discussed as “Power to Gas” approach [62] The interest of methane-based
energy storage has risen because of its ability to effectively reduce gas emissions
[63] Methane is easy to store and in most countries around the world, including
France there are existing infrastructures for domestic transport and
international trade [64] The two by-products of this process; water and carbon
dioxide are both being recycled for further electrolysis and as means to boost the
Sabatier process respectively. Due to the fact that it is possible to store methane
in the already existing natural gas grid and that the by-products are all recyclable
this technology is favorable for both social and environmental aspects.

result of both the electrolysis and the methanation is excess heat, providing an
additional area of use for this technology. By supplementing the process with
heat storage devices to take care of the excess heat this technology can
contribute conditions for balancing the need for heat as well.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Can store long time [65] Low efficiency [6]
Easy to store [64]
Long distance transport available [64]

Table 8: Numeric values of critical parameters for methane

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
Varies Varies 10000 360- 28-45
[61] 1200 at [6]
200bar
[31]

p From 2015

17
By using TES technologies it is possible to store thermal energy by heating or
cooling storage medium. The stored energy can then be used later on for
cooling- and heating applications as well as for power generation. Sensible heat,
latent heat and chemical reactions are the three primary ways materials can
reserve heat [66] These three different technologies will hereafter be explained
by presenting technical process, general information as well as numeric numbers
for several critical parameters.

Sensible Heat Storage (SHS) is mature technology and is about storing thermal
energy by cooling or heating either liquid or solid storage medium [67] The
name SHS is often used regardless of it is heating or cooling that is being applied.
The storage is based on the temperature difference in the material. The
technology offers capacity that is limited by the specific heat of the storage
medium [11] Compared with other SHS media, water has the highest specific
heat, which currently (2016) makes it the most favorable material for heat
storage in residential applications. Two of the most common water-based
storage systems are water tanks and aquifer storage systems. Figure 11 shows
hot water tank used to store the solar energy collected via solar collector. As
seen in the figure cold water enters at the bottom of the hot water tank. While
passing the collector, the cold water gets heated by the thermal energy
converted from solar energy emitted from the sun. Finally the water delivers
heat at the top portion of the water tank. Regarding the water tank, water
stratifies naturally because the density increases at lower temperature.
Therefore, the hot water flows to the top while the cold water remains at the
bottom, and the intermediate region is the thermocline [68]

Figure 11: Hot water tank connected to solar collector, common application for
SHS systems. Based on [68]

18
In order to minimize the thermal losses during storage, the heat transfer
medium is usually kept in storage tanks with high thermal insulation. For
customarily large-scale applications of storing sensible heat in both solid and
liquid media underground storage is being used. SHS requires large quantities
and volumes of materials, as well as proper design due to low energy density and
the possibility to discharge thermal energy at constant temperatures. The
storage capacity and the efficiency are quite variable as they depend on the
specific heat of the storage medium and thermal insulation technologies that
could be quite varying [11] To enable comparison between SHS and other EST
numeric values for several parameters are presented in Table 9.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Simple application with available materials [8] Large volume needed [8]
Long lifetime [8] Geological requirements [68]
Cost-effectively [11] Heat loss to the ambient [68]
Can store long time [11]

Table 9: Numeric values of critical parameters for SHS

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
0.001- Day- 10-50 25 [11] 50-90 0.1-13
10 year [11] [11] [11]q
[11] [11]

Latent Heat Storage (LHS) involves storing thermal energy in material, known
as phase change material (PCM). PCM change phase at certain temperature
called the phase change temperature (PCT). Rather technically, the chemical
bonds in the PCM will start to break up when the temperature increase above
certain point, the PCT. Also at that point, the material changes from solid to
liquid due to the fact that the material, in an endothermic reaction, will absorb
the heat. Similarly, as the temperature decrease, the material will return to
solid state since the PCM desorbs heat in an exothermic reaction. By controlling
the temperature within specific rate it is possible to store the energy used to
alter the phase of the material [69] In order to store cold, the process is reversed
but the name of the technology usually refers to the same name, LHS.

The storage capacity of PCM is equal to the phase change enthalpy at the PCT
plus the sensible heat/cold stored over/under the whole temperature range of
the storage. Therefore the storage capacity is greater for this technology than for
SHS. This is due to the additional storage capacity associated with the latent
heat/cold of the PCT, per mass or volume of material. Numeric values for
capacity and several other parameters are presented in Table 10 that aims to
enable comparison between LHS and other EST. By using this technology it is
also possible to determine target-oriented discharging temperature that is set
by the almost constant PCT [11] Beyond, the solid-liquid state there are three
other states that can classify the changing of the material: solid-solid, gas-solid

q From 2013

19
and gas-liquid [66] The technology is well suited for temperature regulation as
result of the sharp change in the storage capacity at point of single
temperature, the PCT. E.g. mixing PCM into building material could increase the
thermal capacity of wall manifold [70]. Using a variety of techniques and
materials, LHS can be used for both short-term (daily) and long-term (seasonal)
energy storage [11]

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Small volumes [8] Low thermal conductivity [8]
High storage density (within small temp.) [71] Corrosive nature of material [8]

Table 10: Numeric values of critical parameters for LHS

Power Capacity Storage Specific Energy Efficiency Lifetime Power Energy
Period Energy Density Cost Cost
[MW] [MWh] [time] [kWh/ton] [kWh/m3] [%] [#cycles] [$/kW] [$/kWh]
0.001- Hour- 50-150 100 75-90 10-56
1 [11] week [11] [11] [11] [11]r
[11]

Thermo-Chemical Energy Storage (TCES) is based on storing thermal energy

using chemical reactions. The basic principle of TCES is following; the initial
condition is two or more components combined in chemical compound. The
compound is than broken by adding heat and the divided components are then
stored separately until demand arises. During periods of high demand the
components are reunited into chemical compound and heat is released. The
released heat from the reaction constitutes the storage capacity [11] Both SHS
and LHS are most often limited in time due to heat losses. TCES differs since it
enables to bridge long duration periods between demand and supply. This
makes TCES particularly suitable for large-scale electricity generating [29]

Thermo-chemical reactions can be used to accumulate and discharge cold and

heat on demand but also to regulate humidity in variety of applications using
different chemical reactants. The efficiency of this technology is in the range of
75% to nearly 100% and the TCES materials have among the highest density of
all storage media, hence this technology has great potential. However, storage
technologies based on TCES are mostly under development and demonstration
and further improvements are necessary to make this technology commercially
available [11] Table 11 includes numeric values for several parameters that aims
to enable comparison between TCES and other EST.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Long distance transport available [8] Expensive [8]
High efficiency [11] Technically complex [8]
Highly compact energy storage [8] High capital cost [72]

r From 2013

20
A Guide to Understanding Battery Specifications
MIT Electric Vehicle Team, December 2008

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. This
summary provides an introduction to the terminology used to describe, classify, and compare
batteries for hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and electric vehicles. It provides a basic background, defines
the variables used to characterize battery operating conditions, and describes the manufacturer
specifications used to characterize battery nominal and maximum characteristics.

Battery Basics

• Cell, modules, and packs – Hybrid and electric vehicles have a high voltage battery
pack that consists of individual modules and cells organized in series and parallel. A cell is
the smallest, packaged form a battery can take and is generally on the order of one to six
volts. A module consists of several cells generally connected in either series or parallel. A
battery pack is then assembled by connecting modules together, again either in series or
parallel.

• Battery Classifications – Not all batteries are created equal, even batteries of the same
chemistry. The main trade-off in battery development is between power and energy:
batteries can be either high-power or high-energy, but not both. Often manufacturers will
classify batteries using these categories. Other common classifications are High Durability,
meaning that the chemistry has been modified to provide higher battery life at the expense
of power and energy.

• C- and E- rates – In describing batteries, discharge current is often expressed as a C-rate

in order to normalize against battery capacity, which is often very different between
batteries. A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its
maximum capacity. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire
battery in 1 hour. For a battery with a capacity of 100 Amp-hrs, this equates to a discharge
current of 100 Amps. A 5C rate for this battery would be 500 Amps, and a C/2 rate would
be 50 Amps. Similarly, an E-rate describes the discharge power. A 1E rate is the discharge
power to discharge the entire battery in 1 hour.

• Secondary and Primary Cells – Although it may not sound like it, batteries for hybrid,
plug-in, and electric vehicles are all secondary batteries. A primary battery is one that can
not be recharged. A secondary battery is one that is rechargeable.

Battery Condition
This section describes some of the variables used to describe the present condition of a battery.

• State of Charge (SOC)(%) – An expression of the present battery capacity as a

percentage of maximum capacity. SOC is generally calculated using current integration to
determine the change in battery capacity over time.
 • Depth of Discharge (DOD) (%) – The percentage of battery capacity that has been
discharged expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. A discharge to at least 80 %
DOD is referred to as a deep discharge.

• Terminal Voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with load applied.
Terminal voltage varies with SOC and discharge/charge current.

• Open-circuit voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with no load
applied. The open-circuit voltage depends on the battery state of charge, increasing with
state of charge.

• Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally different for charging
and discharging, also dependent on the battery state of charge. As internal resistance
increases, the battery efficiency decreases and thermal stability is reduced as more of the
charging energy is converted into heat.

Battery Technical Specifications

This section explains the specifications you may see on battery technical specification sheets
used to describe battery cells, modules, and packs.

• Nominal Voltage (V) – The reported or reference voltage of the battery, also sometimes
thought of as the “normal” voltage of the battery.

• Cut-off Voltage – The minimum allowable voltage. It is this voltage that generally
defines the “empty” state of the battery.

• Capacity or Nominal Capacity (Ah for a specific C-rate) – The coulometric

capacity, the total Amp-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain
discharge current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off
voltage. Capacity is calculated by multiplying the discharge current (in Amps) by the
discharge time (in hours) and decreases with increasing C-rate.

• Energy or Nominal Energy (Wh (for a specific C-rate)) – The “energy capacity” of
the battery, the total Watt-hours available when the battery is discharged at a certain
discharge current (specified as a C-rate) from 100 percent state-of-charge to the cut-off
voltage. Energy is calculated by multiplying the discharge power (in Watts) by the
discharge time (in hours). Like capacity, energy decreases with increasing C-rate.

• Cycle Life (number for a specific DOD) – The number of discharge-charge cycles the
battery can experience before it fails to meet specific performance criteria. Cycle life is
estimated for specific charge and discharge conditions. The actual operating life of the
battery is affected by the rate and depth of cycles and by other conditions such as
temperature and humidity. The higher the DOD, the lower the cycle life.

• Specific Energy (Wh/kg) – The nominal battery energy per unit mass, sometimes
referred to as the gravimetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the
battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it
determines the battery weight required to achieve a given electric range.
• Specific Power (W/kg) – The maximum available power per unit mass. Specific power
is a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery weight
required to achieve a given performance target.

• Energy Density (Wh/L) – The nominal battery energy per unit volume, sometimes
referred to as the volumetric energy density. Specific energy is a characteristic of the
battery chemistry and packaging. Along with the energy consumption of the vehicle, it
determines the battery size required to achieve a given electric range.

• Power Density (W/L) – The maximum available power per unit volume. Specific power
is a characteristic of the battery chemistry and packaging. It determines the battery size
required to achieve a given performance target.

• Maximum Continuous Discharge Current – The maximum current at which the

battery can be discharged continuously. This limit is usually defined by the battery
manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage the battery or
reduce its capacity. Along with the maximum continuous power of the motor, this defines
the top sustainable speed and acceleration of the vehicle.

• Maximum 30-sec Discharge Pulse Current –The maximum current at which the
battery can be discharged for pulses of up to 30 seconds. This limit is usually defined by
the battery manufacturer in order to prevent excessive discharge rates that would damage
the battery or reduce its capacity. Along with the peak power of the electric motor, this
defines the acceleration performance (0-60 mph time) of the vehicle.

• Charge Voltage – The voltage that the battery is charged to when charged to full
capacity. Charging schemes generally consist of a constant current charging until the
battery voltage reaching the charge voltage, then constant voltage charging, allowing the
charge current to taper until it is very small.

• Float Voltage – The voltage at which the battery is maintained after being charge to 100
percent SOC to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the battery.

• (Recommended) Charge Current – The ideal current at which the battery is initially
charged (to roughly 70 percent SOC) under constant charging scheme before transitioning
into constant voltage charging.

• (Maximum) Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally different
for charging and discharging.
As it has become much cheaper to produce more reliable electric vehicles that are accessible to the
general public, in addition to climate concerns and their very low running costs, electric vehicles are
becoming more widely produced and popular. In the next decade, we’re going to see a huge increase in
the number of electric cars on our road - as well as other electric vehicles taking to the rails, skies, and
seas—as petrol and diesel-powered vehicles are slowly phased out of production and, in some cases,
banned from sale.

What are electric vehicles?

When we think of electric vehicles, we mostly think of any car (either hybrids or all-electric cars) that use
electricity to run instead of petrol or diesel fossil fuels. While this is pretty much along the right lines,
the term ‘electric vehicle’ or ‘EV’ covers any vehicle that operates on an electric motor or traction motor
instead of an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). This includes not only cars but electric trucks, planes,
trains, boats and two- and three-wheelers.

In this article, we’re going to use the term ‘electric vehicle’ or ‘EV’ to refer to electric cars. As there are
currently an estimated 1.4 billion cars on the road worldwide (compared to roughly 200 million
motorcycles), the car is widely considered to be the most common and popular type of vehicle in use
today. An electric vehicle can therefore be defined as any vehicle that uses one or more electric or
traction motors for propulsion.

How do electric vehicles work?

While the specifics of how an electric vehicle operates depends on what type of EV it is (i.e., whether it’s
a hybrid, battery-electric, or fuel cell electric - more on this shortly) they all broadly work in the same
manner. All EVs are powered by an electric motor. This gets its power from a stack of batteries, and in
most cases electric cars must be plugged in to recharge these batteries. In earlier iterations of the EV,
these batteries were of the lead-acid variety but nowadays, most electric cars will use lithium-ion
batteries as they’re far superior and can store a lot more energy.
Batteries
In EVs - electric cars especially - the batteries are usually found positioned low down in the car. In the
Tesla, for example, the battery runs along the floor. Due to the weight of the batteries (the average
electric car weighs more than the average fuel-powered car!), this helps to regulate the car’s centre of
gravity. Electric cars will also usually feature an auxiliary battery that is used to power the car’s electrics,
much like the battery found in a conventional fuel-powered vehicle. This allows the car’s lights,
infotainment system, and other functions to work even if the main battery runs flat.

Electric motor
The electric motor draws power from the battery to drive the car’s wheels and enable propulsion. Two
motors can be used - one on each of the car’s two axles - to provide four-wheel drive. Today, all electric
motors are fundamentally AC. They spin when the rotor chasing an alternating magnetic field is induced
by an alternating electrical current. Older electric motors were ‘DC brushed’ which used mechanical
brushes to create an alternating current. These had a high failure rate making them unsuitable for
commercial electric cars.

Different types of electric vehicle

There are three main types of electric car, classed by how much electricity is used as their energy
source. These are Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), and Hybrid
Electric Vehicles (HEVs). In addition to these three ‘main’ types of EV, there are ‘outliers’ such as range
extender or fuel cell vehicles.

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)

Battery electric vehicles - often referred to as ‘fully-electric’ or ‘all-electric’ vehicles - are vehicles fitted
with a rechargeable battery as the sole power source. These vehicles have no gasoline engine at all.
BEVs store electricity onboard with high-capacity (usually lithium-ion) battery packs. Their battery power
is then used to run the electric motor and onboard electronics. Due to the absence of an ICE, BEVs do
not emit any harmful emissions at all. BEVs are charged by electricity from an external power source,
with their chargers classified according to the speed at which they recharge a battery (see the below
section on EV charging for more information).
Examples of BEVs include the Tesla Model 3, BMW i3, Volkswagen e-Golf, and the Hyundai Ioniq.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV)
The plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle combines a battery and electric motor with an economical petrol or
diesel engine. As can be deduced from the name, PHEVs can be recharged by plugging into an external
electricity source. In addition, PHEVs can also be powered by their onboard engines and generators, and
they’re able to substitute electricity from the grid for gasoline. In a PHEV, the onboard battery will
usually be much smaller and have a lower capacity than those found in all-electric cars. This means that
PHEVs can’t drive very far on electricity alone, requiring the combustion engine to eventually kick in.
Examples of PHEVs include the BMW i8, Toyota Prius, Ford C-Max Energi, and the Mini Cooper SE
Countryman.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by both fossil fuels and electricity. In a HEV, electricity is generated
by the car’s braking system and this used to recharge the battery. This is known as ‘regenerative
braking’, a process whereby the electric motor helps to slow and bring the vehicle used to a stop using
some of the energy normally converted to heat by the brakes. HEVs start off their journeys using the
electric motor, then the ICE engine steps in as load or speed rises. HEVs are very similar to PHEVs except
that they can’t be plugged in; electricity can only be generated via regenerative braking.
Examples of HEVs include the Toyota Prius Hybrid, the Honda Civic Hybrid, and the Toyota Camry
Hybrid.

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)

Some electric cars get their electricity from a hydrogen fuel cell instead of a battery. As such, these
vehicles are referred to as ‘fuel cell vehicles.’ While there are many different types of hydrogen fuel cell
at the moment, most of them have the same working principle: they combine hydrogen and oxygen to
produce electricity (to propel the vehicle) and water (by-product). As hydrogen fuel cell cars are
powered by this chemical process, they do not need to be recharged and can be driven so long as they
are fuelled by a supply of hydrogen. Filling up the car can take less than five minutes, with the average
range of hydrogen fuel cell cars sitting around 300-350 miles.
Two examples of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai Nexo.
What is the difference between a mild hybrid and a full hybrid?
All types of hybrid cars are powered by a combination of an ICE and an electric motor. Whether a car is a
mild hybrid or full hybrid depends on whether the electric motor can support the car on its own. In a
 mild hybrid, the car only uses the electric motor to support the engine during acceleration and cruising.
The electric motor is unable to power the car on its own. In a full hybrid, however, the electric motor
can power the car on its own; the ICE only kicks in when more power is needed or when higher speeds
are reached.

Powering electric vehicles (Charging EVs)

The two main types of electric vehicle - the all-electric BEV and the PHEV - are powered by plugging the
vehicle into a source of electricity. There’s a lot more to it than this, though, with different
considerations like charging rates and speeds, voltages, ranges, and battery size.

How do you charge an EV?

An electric vehicle can be charged by either plugging it into a socket or a charging unit. Charging units
are being found in more and more public places as the popularity of EVs grows, and you’re usually never
too far from your nearest one. Common locations for charging points include car parks and fuel stations.

How long does charging an electric car take?

There are three main types of EV charging—rapid, fast, and slow. These correspond to power output in
kW and, therefore, the amount of time it takes to charge the EV. Each charger type has an associated set
of connectors that are designed for low- or high-power use, and for either AC or DC charging.

 Rapid: Rapid chargers are the quickest way to charge an EV. They’re usually found on the motorway
network, in service stations, or close to main routes. They supply a high-power alternating or direct
current. The average EV takes roughly an hour on a standard 50 kW rapid charging point, however,
some models of EV can recharge to 80 percent in as little as 20 minutes. All rapid devices have charging
cables tethered to the unit, and rapid charging can only be used on vehicles with rapid-charging
capability. A good example of rapid charging is Tesla’s Supercharger network which provides rapid DC
charging to drivers of its cars. These can charge up to 150 kW.

 Fast: Fast chargers are usually rated at either 7 kW or 22 kW (single- or three-phase 32A). Most fast
chargers provide AC charging but there are some networks that make use of 25 kW DC chargers.
Charging time varies depending on unit speed, but a 7 kW charger is capable of recharging a compatible
EV with a 40 kWh battery in around four-to-six hours, and a 22 kW charger in one-to-two hours. Fast
 chargers are typically found at supermarket car parks, leisure centers, or other destinations where
you’re likely to be parked up for a longer period of time.

 Slow: Most slow chargers are rated up to 3 kW. In reality, however, slow charging takes place between
2.3 kW and 6 kW. The most common slow chargers are rated at 3.6 kW (16A). Charging times vary
depending on the type of charging unit and the EV that’s being charged. Generally speaking, a full
charge on a 3 kW unit will take anywhere between 6 and 12 hours. Most slow charging units are
untethered, unlike rapid and fast chargers, which means that a cable is needed to connect the EV with a
charge point, such as a standard outlet plug. Slow charging is a common method of charging used in
home-based settings. However, it’s not uncommon to see slow EV charging stations deployed at areas
where car parks may be left for a longer period of time, such as 24-hour public car parks and
workplaces. Due to the long charging times, slow chargers aren’t commonly found in other public
settings.

How expensive is it to run an electric car?

The cost to charge an electric car varies depending on the type of vehicle, battery size, the type of
charging system, and where a vehicle is being charged. In the UK, for example, charging an electric car at
home costs roughly £8.40. While there is no definitive answer to this question, we do know that
charging an electric car is considerably cheaper than the cost of filling up a petrol or diesel engine, and
can be made even more cost-effective still when tax breaks, incentives, and home-based renewable
energy generation are factored in.

V2G and G2V technologies

In this step you will start to consider how the electrical design of a V2G system differs from a
conventional unidirectional EV charging system. A conventional EV charging system must take grid
electricity, supplied as Alternating Current (AC), and convert it to Direct Current (DC) in order to
recharge the EV’s battery via the Battery Management System (BMS). This conversion process, known as
rectification, can happen either in the charge point or in the EV itself using an on-board charger.
This is the difference between AC and DC charging systems as shown in Figure 1. The majority of EVs will
have an on-board charger to allow for AC charging and many also facilitate DC charging. There are some
larger electric vehicles that will only support DC charging.
 Figure 1: Conventional Unidirectional AC and DC Charging Systems

In V2G, the charging system is also capable of reversing this process to provide the bidirectional
functionality. This is done using a process called inversion, which takes the DC energy from discharging
the battery and converts it into AC to be released to either the Grid or a private site.

Therefore, V2G can actually be thought of as two different systems depending on whether the battery is
charging or discharging:

 G2V (Grid to Vehicle) = rectification. AC energy from the Grid is converted to DC and supplied to
the EV battery for charging.

 V2G (Vehicle to Grid) = inversion. DC energy from the EV battery when discharging is converted
to AC and supplied to the Grid.

You may occasionally see the term “G2V” used in industry but typically the overall functionality is
referred to as V2G and the two states as simply charging and discharging. Without thinking about the
layout of components, we can depict these two operational states as shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2: Grid-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Grid Architectures

In V2G systems, the hardware must include an inverter to convert DC electricity from the EV battery to
AC to supply the grid. This is in addition to a rectifier to convert AC to DC as per normal EV charging.

The Benefits of V2G

In addition to improving grid stability, EV owners can also generate revenue from their exported
electricity, a factor that can significantly lower ownership costs over a vehicle’s lifetime. For network
operators, V2G can also help to negate expensive infrastructure upgrades, a factor that ultimately
reduces electricity costs for all end consumers.

On an environmental level, V2G lowers carbon emissions by helping EVs utilize higher volumes of
renewable energy. Via specialized V2G software, EVs can charge when renewable sources are freely
available and then feed it back into the network when solar and wind generation is low.

The drawbacks of V2G

While V2G technology has many unique benefits, there are also some challenges that are helpful to
understand. With more frequent charging and discharging, V2G can impact an EV battery’s lifespan,
although only a few percent of its capacity may be required on any given day.

The conversion process of V2G also yields a loss of energy, as current efficiencies are generally between
50% and 70%.

For automakers, V2G functionality requires specialized hardware – primarily in the form of a bi-
directional inverter – in addition to accompanying software.
As a result, V2G integration carries a higher cost for manufacturers, which can limit its inclusion to
specific models and trim levels.

What are the differences between V1G and V2G?

Commonly known as “smart charging”, V1G is currently the cheaper and more common option for EV
implementation. In contrast to V2G, which is two-directional, V1G is one-directional and varies the time
and speed of EV charging to provide grid frequency response and load balancing services.

Although V1G cannot export electricity back to the grid, it provides valuable “load shifting” during
periods of high demand, a function that helps to maintain the integrity of the local energy network.

Cleaner and more reliable energy

By strengthening the power grid and maximizing the use of renewable energy – not to mention
generating income for vehicle owners – V2G is one of the critical factors driving global EV adoption.

And as automakers rapidly electrify both passenger and commercial vehicles, V2G will vastly improve
how we generate, store, and use energy – helping to accelerate us along the road to emission-free
driving.

Which cars use vehicle to grid technology?

As of 2021 there are only a few commercially available cars that are V2G compatible:

 Nissan e-NV200
 Nissan LEAF
 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV
 Mitsubishi Eclipse Cross PHEV
 From 2022 on all electric vehicles from Volkswagen that use the MEB (modular electric-drive
toolkit) will be V2G capable as stated in an interview with the Handelsblatt.

Pacemaker

Pacemaker batteries generally need replacement after five to 10 years along with the unit they are
housed in. While the failure rate of pacemaker batteries is low, early failure can occur and cause
warning signs like skipped heartbeats, slowed heart rate, or fainting. If not replaced when indicated, a
pacemaker can fail and lead to serious harm like blood clots and cardiac arrest.

Why Pacemakers Are Replaced

Pacemakers are electronic devices implanted in the human body. The environment inside the body is
generally hostile to electronics, exposing them to warmth and body fluids that would easily damage cell
phones or laptops.
To ensure that pacemakers the durable and effective in this environment, they are hermetically sealed
to keep moisture out. They are also constructed to withstand changes in external and internal (body)
temperatures.2
The fact that the devices are sealed means that the batteries cannot be removed. Instead, the entire
pacemaker is removed and replaced with a new unit. Depending on the device and other factors (such
as wear and tear), the lifespan of a pacemaker is between five and 10 years.
The current batteries used in pacemakers are manufactured to a high standard. The premature failure
rate of pacemakers is extremely low, generally under 1% after five years of use. There are currently no
pacemakers with removable or rechargeable batteries.

Why Rechargeable Batteries Don't Work

Rechargeable batteries with wireless chargers were once used in some pacemaker models but were
eventually discontinued. The batteries needed recharging for several hours every few days, which not
only became burdensome but caused medical problems if the user didn't keep to the recharging
schedule.4
The service life of rechargeable batteries was also short, around two years, meaning that implantation
surgery would be needed more often rather than less.

How to Know Your Pacemaker Battery Is Low?

Your cardiologist can check your pacemaker's battery function during your regular appointments. They
can also monitor the device remotely through a phone transmitter or the internet.
Usually, the device provides warning signals several months before the battery runs out. Some models
beep when the battery is low.
These warnings can give you and your healthcare provider plenty of time to schedule the surgical
replacement of your pacemaker well before there is a risk of failure.

Surgery to Replace a Pacemaker with a Low Battery

The surgery to replace a pacemaker is usually less complex than the original implantation. This is
because the old leads connected to the heart are left in place while the functional device, called the
pulse generator, is removed along with the self-contained battery.
Pacemaker replacement is usually performed as an outpatient procedure under local anesthesia (which
numbs the surgical site) or general anesthesia (which puts you to sleep). It typically takes two hours to
complete.
Procedures can vary, but they tend to follow the same basic steps:
1. You are attached to several probes that can monitor your blood pressure, heart rate, and blood
oxygen.
2. You are given the appropriate anesthesia. Local anesthesia is given by injection around the
surgical site. General anesthesia is delivered into a vein through an intravenous (IV) line.
3. After cleaning the surgical site with an antiseptic, the surgeon will make an incision near the
edge of the generator to create a pocket, usually just below the collarbone.
4. The surgeon disconnects the old generator from the leads and removes it from the body.
5. A new generator is installed in the pocket, and the leads are reattached.
6. The surgical team checks that the new device is operational and connects remotely to external
monitors.
7. The surgeon finally closes the incision (typically with dissolvable stitches) and bandages the
wound.
You are then wheeled to a recovery room and monitored until the effects of the anesthesia have worn
off. You will then be asked to return for a follow-up visit. If non-dissolvable stitches are used, they will
need to be removed in seven to 10 days.

Signs of Pacemaker Failure

A low battery usually doesn't lead to complete pacemaker failure, but it can cause it to malfunction
(usually by disrupting the timing mechanism of the device). This can make your heart beat irregularly,
too quickly, or too slowly.
A 2020 study published in BMC Cardiovascular Disorders reported that 31% of pacemaker users
experienced symptoms when a battery needed replacement.
In the unlikely event a pacemaker fails, it needs to be treated immediately, If not, the results can be
devastating, leading to atrial defibrillation (rapid, irregular heartbeat), coronary thrombosis (a blood clot
in a heart artery), myocardial infarction (heart attack), and cardiac arrest (when your heart stops
beating).
if you experience signs of a failing pacemaker including:
 Sudden lightheadedness or fainting
 Chest pain with weakness, dizziness, nausea, or vomiting
 Trouble breathing
 Heart palpitations (skipped heartbeats)
 Sudden slower or faster heartbeats
 Constant twitching of chest or abdominal muscles
A low battery is only one cause of pacemaker failure. Others include loose leads, a change in your heart
condition, or an electromagnetic pulse from a power generator.

Pacemaker batteries have an average lifespan of five to 10 years. When battery levels are low, the entire
device (less the power leads) needs to be surgically removed and replaced. Your cardiologist will check
the battery level of your pacemaker with every visit. There are usually built-in warnings to advise you
when the battery levels are low. Pacemaker replacement surgery is usually performed on an outpatient
basis with either local or general anesthesia. The timely replacement of a pacemaker is important as the
failure of the device can lead to potentially serious harm in some, including death.
 Fig.23. Lithium Ion Polymer
Lithium ion batteries and are not toxic and are smaller and charge faster than NiCd batteries. They are
commonly used in tablets, gaming systems, and cell phones.
Superconducting magnetic energy storage
The SMES system is a relatively recent technology. Its operation is based on storing energy in a
magnetic field, which is created by a DC current through a large superconducting coil at a cryogenic
temperature. The energy stored is calculated as the product of the self-inductance of the coil and the square
of the current flowing through it. The response time is very short. The SMES technology has been
demonstrated but the price is still very high.

Flywheel
In an FW the storage capacity is based on the kinetic energy of a rotating disc which depends on the
square of the rotational speed. A mass rotates on two magnetic bearings in order to decrease friction at high
speed, coupled with an electric machine. Energy is transferred to the FW when the machine operates as a
motor (the FW accelerates), charging the energy storage device. The FW energy storage system (FESS) is
discharged when the electric machine regenerates through the drive (slowing the FW). FESSs have long
lifetimes, high energy density, and a large maximum output power. The energy efficiency of an FESS can be
as high as 90%. Typical capacities range from 3–133 kWh.

Plug in electric vehicle

Recent PEVs have been increased extensively and usually include a BESS. PEVs may play an
important part in balancing the energy on the grid by serving as distributed sources of stored energy, a
concept called “vehicle-to-grid”. By drawing on a large number of batteries plugged into the Smart grid
(SG) throughout its service region, a utility can potentially inject extra power into the grid during critical
peak times, avoiding brownouts and rolling blackouts. Therefore, they can play a vital role to improve the
power system reliability and the power quality of the SG.
PEVs can drastically lessen the dependence on oil, and they emit nothing about air pollutants when
running in all-electric modes. However, they do rely on power plants to charge their batteries, and
conventional fossil-fueled power plants release pollution. To run a PEV as cleanly as possible, it needs to be
charged in the hours of the morning when power demand is at its lowest and when wind power is typically at
its peak. The SG technologies will help to meet this goal by interacting with the PEV to charge it at the most
optimal time.
PHEV is hybrid electric vehicle that contains at least (i) a battery storage system of 4 kWh or more,
used to power the motion of the vehicle; (ii) a means of recharging that battery system from an external
source of electricity; and (iii) an ability to drive at least 10 mi in all-electric mode, and consume no
gasoline”. Conceptually, a PHEV is a HEV with large battery pack that can be recharged from the external
source (utility grid or renewable source of energy) to extend the all-electric range (AER) of the vehicles

20
 Fig. 24. Plug in electric vehicle

Hybrid Energy Systems

A hybrid energy system usually consists of two or more renewable energy sources used together to
provide increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in energy supply A hybrid system can
combine wind, solar with an additional resource of generation or storage. They may range in size from
relatively large island grids of many megawatts to individual household power supplies on the order of one
kilowatt.
Hybrid power systems that deliver alternating current of fixed frequency are an emerging technology
for supplying electric power in remote locations. They can take advantage of the ease of transforming the
AC power to higher voltages to minimize power loss in transferring the power over relatively long distances.
Larger systems, nominally above 100 kW, typically consist of AC-connected diesel generators,
renewable sources, loads, and occasionally include energy storage subsystems. Below 100 kW,
combinations of both AC and DC-connected components are common as is use of energy storage. The DC
components could include diesel generators, renewable sources, and storage. Small hybrid systems serving
only DC loads, typically less than 5 kW, have been used commercially for many years at remote sites for
telecommunications repeater stations and other low power applications.
In general, a hybrid system might contain AC diesel generators, DC diesel generators, an AC
distribution system, a DC distribution system, loads, renewable power sources (wind turbines, or
photovoltaic power sources), energy storage, power converters, rotary converters, coupled diesel systems,
dump loads, load management options, or a supervisory control system. Hybrid systems might also include
biomass or hydroelectric generators. A schematic of the possibilities for hybrid systems is illustrated in the
following figure.

Fig. 25. Hybrid energy storage system

Examples of hybrid systems
Wind-solar hybrid system
As the wind does not blow all the time nor does the sun shine all the time, solar and wind power
alone are poor power sources. Hybridizing solar and wind power (min wind speed 4-6m/s) sources together
with storage batteries to cover the periods of time without sun or wind provides a realistic form of power
generation. The system creates a stand-alone energy source that is both dependable and consistent which is
called the solar-wind hybrid system. Generally, these solar wind hybrid systems are capable of small
capabilities. The typical power generation capacities of solar wind hybrid systems are in the range from 1
kW to 10 kW.
Major components of solar-wind hybrid power plant are Solar PV modules, Wind turbine Regulation
and conversion units, Inverters and electronic controllers, Battery Bank Generator (if required).

Working

21
 The hybrid solar wind turbine generator uses solar panels that collect light and convert it to energy
along with wind turbines that collect energy from the wind.
 Solar wind composite power inverter has inputs for both sources, instead of having to use two inverters
and it contains the required AC to DC transformer to supply charge to batteries from AC generators.
 Hence the power from the solar panels and wind turbine is filtered and stored in the battery bank.
 For the times when neither the wind nor the solar system are producing, most hybrid systems provide
power through batteries and/or an engine generator powered by conventional fuels, such as diesel.
 If the batteries run low, the engine generator can provide power and recharge the batteries.
 Adding an engine generator makes the system more complex, but modern electronic controllers can
operate these systems automatically.
 An engine generator can also reduce the size of the other components needed for the system.
 Keep in mind that the storage capacity must be large enough to supply electrical needs during non-
charging periods

Fig. 26. Wind-solar hybrid system

Wind–hydro hybrid system

Hydropower generation is to convert potential energy in water into electrical energy by means of
hydropower generators. As a renewable and clean energy source, hydropower accounts for the dominant
portion of electricity generated from all renewable sources. In many locations of the world, hydropower is
complementary with wind power, while the seasonal wind power distribution is higher in winter and spring
but lower in summer and fall, hydropower is lower in the dry seasons (winter and spring) but higher in the
wet seasons (summer and fall). Thus, the integration of wind and hydropower systems can provide
significant technical, economic, and systematic benefits for both systems. Taking a reservoir as a means of
energy regulation, “green” electricity can be produced with wind–hydro hybrid systems.

Fig. 27. Wind–hydro hybrid system

Wind–hydrogen system
Hydrogen is an energy carrier and can be produced from a variety of resources such as water, fossil
fuels, and biomass. As a fuel with a high energy density, hydrogen can be stored, transported and then
converted into electricity by means of fuel cells at end users. It is widely recognized that wind power, solar
power and other renewable energy power generation systems can be integrated with the electrolysis
hydrogen production system to produce hydrogen fuel. The largest wind to- hydrogen power system in the
UK has been applied to a building that is fuelled solely by wind and “green” hydrogen power with the
developed hydrogen mini grid system technology. In this system, electricity generated from a wind turbine
is mainly used to provide to the building and excess electricity is used to produce hydrogen using a state-of-
the-art high-pressure alkaline electrolyser.

22
 Fig. 28. Wind–hydrogen system

Wind–diesel power generation system

Wind power can be combined with power produced by diesel engine-generator systems to provide a
stable supply of electricity. In response to the variations in wind power generation and electricity
consumption, diesel generator sets may operate intermittently to reduce the consumption of the fuel. It was
reported that a viable wind–diesel stand-alone system can operate with an estimated 50–80% fuel saving
compared to power supply from diesel generation alone. Till now, many new techniques have been
developed and a large number of wind– diesel power generation systems have been installed all over the
world. According to the proportion of wind use in the system, three different types of wind–diesel systems
can be distinguished: low, medium, and high penetration wind–diesel systems. Presently, low penetration
systems are used at the commercial level, whereas solutions for high penetration wind–diesel systems are at
the demonstration level. The technology trends include the development of robust and proven control
strategies

Fig. 29. Wind–diesel power generation system

23
Solar Energy

Solar panels or photovoltaic systems are a very popular and an up and coming renewable energy. Large
silicon based tiles are placed in an unobstructed area to take in sunlight. The tiles transform this sunlight
into electricity. Batteries are specifically useful for these photovoltaic systems that are off “the grid”.
The grid refers to the interconnected network of houses or buildings to a power plant. If a system is on
the grid it is connected to that network and use power made elsewhere. When systems are referred as
off the grid is the total disconnection from a power plant. All of the electricity that can be used in the
system must be produced on its own. In this case, the off-grid energy is produced by solar panels. These
solar panels only produce usable electricity during daylight hours. In order for the electricity to be used
at a later time it must be stored in a battery. Fig. 1 illustrates the solar PV power supplied to the battery
and connected to the common AC bus (grid).

Fig. 1 Solar powered battery charging system to the grid (common AC bus)

In the off grid photovoltaic system the solar tiles act as the primary source of energy while the battery
acts as a backup source. When solar electricity is available it is used but when it is not the battery power
is used. With this configuration, not all electricity harnessed by the tiles can be used because of the
limits of the batteries. In order for these systems to be cost effective, lead acid batteries are used. The
size and amount of batteries used are dependent on the electricity that is used within the system.

When configuring the systems, the batteries are maximized because they have the shortest lifespan and
are one of the most expensive components. As described above, certain charging techniques are used to
significantly increase the lifespan of the batteries used. In order to reduce the detrimental effects of
stratification, the batteries cannot be depleted of all their stored electricity. They can only be discharged
to a certain extent and therefore making the system to unable to work at its maximum potential. When
the batteries are discharged they must be recharged as quickly as possible in order to avoid sulfation
which also decreases the life of the battery.
The photovoltaic system must also implement the technique of float charging the batteries in order to
avoid gassing. As described above the float technique does not guarantee that the batteries will be
charged to their full potential when sunlight is removed from the system. The float technique only
guarantees the maximum charge is within a certain threshold. These limits placed on the system by the
different charging techniques do not allow it to operate at its maximum potential, but are implemented
done because they decrease the overall cost of the system.

With batteries being one of the most expensive and most replaced parts in a photovoltaic system they
are the limiting factor for the potential of the systems as well as the financial feasibility. Lead acid
batteries are most commonly used because they are mass produced, but they are not the ideal battery.
The entire system must be set up to maximize the battery life, therefore limiting other parts. With
replacement every 1000-2000 cycles, the cost to maintain the system quickly adds up and in some cases
becomes too expensive.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is also a very popular renewable energy that requires batteries to operate. Wind energy is
the fastest growing renewable energy technology in the world. Wind energy uses a large propeller to
rotate a turbine that creates electricity. Massive amounts of these turbines are set up in windy areas
and make up wind farms. Batteries are useful for wind energy systems that are connected as well as
disconnected to the grid. This is because batteries can be used in two different applications within the
wind energy system. Like the photovoltaic system, batteries can be used for off grid storage of electricity
during non-windy times. The wind however, cannot be predicted as easy as the sun so applying different
charging techniques does not really help the lifespan of the batteries used. Figs. 2 & 3 present the wind
power to the battery and grid, respectively.

Fig. 2 Wind powered battery charging system

Fig. 3 Wind power connected to the grid

The second application of batteries within wind energy systems that are both on and off the grid is
signal stabilization. The wind comes and goes making the turbine spin at different speeds at almost
every instant. In order to be useful for the grid, or the interconnected network of electricity produced, it
must be consistent and stable. Most cases batteries are added in between the turbine and the grid to
stabilize the electricity produced. They are not the most efficient at doing so but they are the most cost
effective.

This signal stabilization is done by charging and discharging the battery at the same time. Although it is
not very advantageous, lead acid batteries can be charged and discharged at the same time. Wind
moves the turbine and sporadically charges the battery. The load, or whatever is using the electricity
produced is hooked up to the battery and discharging it. The battery charge will go up if the turbine
produces more energy than used and vice versa. If the constant charge and discharge is done in a certain
threshold in the batteries charge percentage it can last longer than if it is done with a higher or lower
charge. Due to the near impossibility of predicting the wind, it is very difficult to build a system that
maximizes the life of the batteries but still performing the stabilization. Complicated systems are being
built to replace the batteries. But for now, the battery acts as the bridge between the wind energy and
the grid. By implementing a battery in the system the fluctuations decrease by 2.5%.

This fluctuation stabilization can lead to consistent replacement of the batteries but like the
photovoltaic system the lead acid battery is the most cost effective but not the ideal battery for use.
Batteries are configured in different series and parallel configurations within the system based upon a
quality of the batteries known as internal resistance. Different size batteries have different internal
resistances. These batteries are configured very specifically to make an ideal internal resistance for the
system.

The two ways the batteries can be implemented into the system is in “series” and in “parallel”. A series
connection puts the batteries in a train like structure. They are connected to each other by one wire this
creates only one path for the electricity to flow. The parallel connection hooks them up side by side
using multiple wires. This allows for the electricity to flow in more than one path. A series connection
within the batteries makes the internal resistances add together creating a higher internal resistance of
the system, while a parallel connection divides the internal resistances into a smaller number. An easy
analogy would be to think of driving on a road: The series connection is a one lane road that is easily
blocked. The parallel connection has multiple lanes and allows for the flow to be much easier even if one
lane is blocked.

Like the photovoltaic systems the wind systems are also limited by the batteries used inside them. The
lead acid batteries used in storage and stabilization inside the system have the shortest lifespan and
need replacing more than any other component. The system is sporadic and unpredictable making it
harder for the system to be modified to maximize the battery life. If another way of stabilizing the
electrical system could replace the batteries, the system would be much more cost effective.

Although battery technology has vastly improved in recent years, the push was mainly for more power
in small spaces. This is specifically advantageous for low small handheld electronics, but larger power
applications are still using old lead acid technology. Unlike the newer batteries such as lithium ion, lead
acid batteries still used liquids inside to create electricity. These chemicals are very dangerous and
damage the environment if not disposed of correctly. They are much larger than new technology and
exponentially heavier due to the use of the lead. They cannot be completely discharged like new
batteries can and do not have as long of a lifespan. Only because of their easy production methods are
they still in use today. Scaling up a newer battery technology to the power of a lead acid is not worth the
price. Alternative batteries need must be produced to continue the growing renewable energy industry
and cut its costs.

Solar and wind power require batteries because of the inconsistency of power being produced. This
power inconsistency can be seen in most other renewable energy applications as well. Wave power
generates power using the ocean waves needs these batteries to store the energy is produces every few
seconds. Tidal power that creates electricity much like the wind power needs batteries to stabilize as
well as store energy. These renewable sources of power will always be in need of battery storage
elements. In order to implement these better batteries must be used to lessen the cost and
maintenance.

With the lithium ion battery needing to be specifically designed for such a large application other
battery technologies are being tested in renewable energy application. The ultracapacitor is being
considered as an option. The ultracapacitor has a much longer lifespan than the lead acid battery. It
does not contain any liquids and does not rely on any chemical reactions. It can be completely
discharged without problem and can be stored in any state. The charges can flow in and out much faster
so it can be charged at a much faster rate. This result in the system is more efficient and the batteries
lasting much longer than before. Although these batteries have the ideal characteristics for renewable
applications, they need must be mass produced and cost effective before they will be widely
implemented.

Energy Audit and Management

Energy audit plays an important role in ascertaining and assessing the current status of buildings and
facilities in terms of its energy consumption, scope of conservation, and energy savings.

Buildings and facilities consume energy, and these can be divided under various categories - production
consumption and support functions of energy, and both are tracked on an annual basis through Energy
Performance Index (EPI). The energy consumption (EPI) of production in IT companies or corporate
facilities are tracked through the UPS power consumption consumed for IT processes and other related
functions. However, in the manufacturing or industrial segments, it is the consumption of actual
production that accounts for EPI calculation. Besides this, the consumptions through the support
functions such as HVAC, lighting and other utility areas get tracked separately. The HVAC system and
related air conditioning equipment consume 50% to 60% of the total energy consumption; the rest of
the load consumption comes from the various facilities such as lighting, kitchen, and cafeteria
equipment, among others.
The exact trend can be determined only through a thorough energy audit. The trend also changes to a
major extent basis the property being owned or leased out and whether the whole campus belongs to a
single occupier or multiple users who share the common loads like Chillers plants, Cooling towers, VRV
systems, fuel consumption, pumping, STP, ETP and the ventilation system’s power consumption.

The energy audit begins with the decision by the top management to ascertain how to invest in the
energy audit, thereby making cost saving efforts through long term energy conservation and by
investing in energy efficient equipment or services either at inception or at later stages. The use of “Star
Rated” equipment as defined by BEE-Bureau of Energy Efficiency- India can be incorporated at the
design stage or later stages. Currently, majority of the properties are designed for green building
certifications like LEED, IGBC, GRIHA, etc., automatically catering to a long-term vision in terms of their
commitment to conserve energy and participate in the global energy conservation and net-zero
emission.

The designated consumers defined by BEE-India as mentioned in the list below are already present
under the energy conservation code lens to ensure they follow the ECBC(Energy Conservation Building
Code) and PAT (Perform Achieve and Trade) schemes. Also, to have stronger governance, it is mandated
to have a certified energy manager to ensure that the process is followed as per laid down standards
and procedure of BEE (Bureau of Energy Efficiency India).

List of Designated Consumers/Industries currently mandated to have energy managers and participate
in PAT schemes are as under.

• Aluminium
• Cement
• Chlor Alkali
• Fertilisers
• Iron and Steel
• Pulp and Paper
• Railways
• Textile
• Thermal Power stations
chemicals, or mechanical power. Even if fossil fuels supplies are unlimited, it is better to use renewable
energy sources as they are clean technologies. Burning fossil fuels causes pollutant emissions and
greenhouse gases contributing to global warming [2]. Renewable energy education is a relatively new
field and previously it formed a minor part of traditional engineering courses. Modern renewable
energy education includes a study of the technology, resources, systems design, economics, industry
structure and policies in an integrated package.

Renewable energy and micro-grid had emerged from the development of new grid technology referred
as smart grids [3]. Smart grids are computer controlled micro-grids. “renewable energy sources”; often
referred to as distributed energy resources (DERs), while “smart-grids” refers to the whole electrical
energy distribution networks from electricity generation to its transmission and storage with the
capability to react to dynamic changes on energy distribution and load regulation [4]. A different
review on smart grid concepts was described by Di Santo et al., who defined smart grid as; “a
generation, transmission, and distribution system set with a two-way communication system
controlled by the grid operator” [5]. In their study, the key element was the contact between the grid
operator, electric utility, and consumers. In this review the authors categorized smart grid components
as: smart homes, smart consumption, smart consumption, and smart distribution. A number of
studies discussed socio-economic and socio-technical aspects symbolizing [6, 7].

1.1 Definition of smart grid

A smart grid can be defined as an electric system that uses information, two-way, cyber-secure
communication technologies, and computational intelligence in an integrated fashion across electricity
generation, transmission, substations, distribution and consumption to achieve a system that is clean,
safe, secure, reliable, resilient, efficient, and sustainable [8]. This definition covers the entire spectrum
of the energy system from the generation to the end points of consumption of the electricity. Figure 1
illustrates different components of smart grid [9]. The ultimate smart grid is a vision, and it will
require cost justification at every step before implementation, then testing and verification before
extensive deployment.

Figure 1.
Components of smart grid [9].

Worldwide researches are going on micro-grids, there application and control to overcome the
weaknesses of the centralized power grids [5]. Additionally the utilization of local sources of energy to
provide local loads helps decreasing energy losses in transmission and distribution.
The conception of micro-grid (MG) for integrating distributed generation (DG) system is rapidly
becoming important for reliable and sustainable renewable energy development. In ideal situation, it
also allows for incorporating energy storage systems (ESSs), which are used to optimize energy
consumption. Further, MG development in modern power sector had brought another emerging idea
called smart grid [10].

Micro-grid can be defined as follows: an integrated energy system intelligently organizing

interconnected loads and distributed energy resources and capable of operating in parallel with, or
separately, from the existing utility’s grid [11]. A description of possible micro-grid architecture is
shown in Figure 2. Power electronic components are the base for flexible operation. The connection
point to utility grid is called point of common coupling (PCC).

Figure 2.
Micro-grid architecture overview [12].

There are various requirements to support the micro-grid operation. Micro-grid is either used as a
replacement for petrol generator to provide onsite energy generation or incorporated with the
electricity grid. MG components propose the means for local control of electricity from both supply
and utilization sides. Table 1 shows the cost of its major parts as a percentage of the total cost.
Table 1.
Micro-grid major cost items [13].
1.2 Benefits and barriers of micro-grid

Benefits of micro-grid are shown in Table 2. The common technical barriers are problems concerning,
dual-mode switching from grid-connected to off-grid mode, power quality and control, and protection
issues. These issues are still a subject of research. Regulatory barriers are related to rules of power
trading between micro-grid and the main network. The main financial barrier is the high replacement
costs of the micro-grid components. Last of all, stakeholder barriers take in issues with differing self-
interest and the expertise to manage operations.

Table 2.
Micro-grid benefits [14].

A dv e rt i s e m e n t
348 Chapter 5 Vehicle Applications: Traction and Control Systems

The maximum power of the electric motor (50 kW) and that of the engine
(57 kW) are the same as the common HSD Prius. The combined maximum
power is 100 kW, and a maximum speed of 100 km/h with the electric motor
only is anticipated. The battery can be recharged from the electric grid in 1–1.5 h
at 200 V or in 3–4 h at 100 V.

5.5. Traction Batteries

5.5.1. General Requirements

In the previous sections, characteristics of EV and HEV batteries have often

been mentioned. A summary of their requirements can be in place here [12].

5.5.1.1. EV Requirements
The battery:

• Must have a large capacity for an acceptable range. A typical electric car
uses 95–125 Wh/km, depending on the route and the driving style
• Must be capable of regular deep discharge (80% DOD) operation
• Must be designed to maximize energy content and deliver sufficiently high
power even with deep discharge to ensure long range
• Must accept very high repetitive pulsed charging currents (greater than
5 C) if regenerative braking is required
• Without regenerative braking, must accept at least continuous 2 C charge
• Must routinely receive a full charge
• Needs a battery management system (BMS)
• Needs thermal management
• Has voltage in the range of 200–350 V
• Has energy in the range of 25–40 kWh
• Accepts continuous discharge currents of up to 1 C and peak currents of
3 C for short durations.

5.5.1.2. HEV Requirements

The battery:

• Is designed to maximize power delivered

• Must deliver high power (up to 40C) in repetitive shallow discharges and
accept very high recharge currents
• Has a very long cycle life: some hundred thousands of shallow cycles
 5.5. Traction Batteries 349

• Has operating range between 15 and 40% DOD (in the SOC range of
40–80%) to allow for regenerative braking
• Never reaches full discharge
• Rarely reaches full charge
• Needs thermal management
• Needs a BMS
• Needs interfacing with overall vehicle energy management
• Has a voltage > 100 V
• Has a power > 40 kW (50 hp) for full hybrids
• Has energy in the range of 1–10 kWh depending on the application.

5.5.2. Battery Management System

In EVs or HEVs, battery management is much more demanding than for

portable batteries (Chapter 3). It has to interface with a number of other on-
board systems, it has to work in real time in rapidly changing charge/discharge
conditions as the vehicle accelerates and brakes, and it has to work in harsh and
uncontrolled environments [13].
The BMS must manage the system over the entire operating cycle of the
EV/HEV vehicle, and has to ensure the following functions [2]:

• Collecting information from sensors in the battery: current, voltage,

temperatures, etc. The information is processed by the BMS to ensure
correct battery operation.
• Controlling the charger to ensure proper charge of the battery. The charger
can be an onboard or outside. The control is designed to react to data from
the sensors associated with each battery module (telemetry boards), and
responds according to parameters or special algorithms in the computer.
The control of the charger is normally accomplished via the vehicle
communication bus, which allows dialogue with other on-board equipment.
• Managing cell balance to ensure optimum performance of the battery. Balancing
is necessary in multi-cell batteries: the weakest cell limits the total performance
of the battery. The BMS controls the balancing electronic devices integrated on
each telemetry board according to a predetermined strategy or algorithm.
• Safety control: avoids overcharge or overdischarge or other major
anomalies that can occur in case of failure of the battery, auxiliary
equipment or surrounding environment. The action of the electronic
system can be physical (emergency shut down of the battery) or
informational (reporting trouble to the user).
• Reporting the battery state: communication of information (alarms, gauge,
etc.) to the user and to other on-board equipment via the communication bus.
350 Chapter 5 Vehicle Applications: Traction and Control Systems

• Thermal management of the battery: the BMS monitors the temperature of

the cells in all modes of operation (drive, charge, etc.) and controls the
pump, fans and heater to manage the temperature of the battery.
• Communication with the vehicle: vehicle computer and BMS exchange
data via the communication bus (CAN 2.0B). This bus is a standard of the
automotive field.
• Maintenance via the BMS: users will have the ability to connect
maintenance and diagnostic tools to undertake necessary operations for
the maintenance of the battery.
• Data transfer to a laptop PC, which can monitor and store the battery
measurement data collected by the BMS; in this way, the results can be
examined using normal software tools such as spreadsheets.

The block diagram of a BMS is shown in Figure 5.13 for a Li-ion battery,
but a similar scheme is valid for any battery system.
As shown in the figure, the BMS not only performs battery monitoring and
control, but interfaces with the vehicle controller via the CAN bus. The BMS
can thus be coupled to other vehicle systems, for example anti-theft devices
which disable the battery.
Determining the battery state of charge is particularly critical in an HEV.
These batteries require both high-power charge capability (regenerative brak-
ing) and high-power discharge capability for start or acceleration. Therefore,

CSC – cell/module supervisory controller

Li - ion battery Balancing

Redundant cell cell voltages
voltage measurement temperatures

Current measure
Algorithms and
data processing
Redundancy control
Communication
BMS CAN bus, Serial link...

Contactors, fuses Battery

management unit
(1 per battery)
Vehicle
controller

Figure 5.13. BMS developed by Johnson Controls – Saft for an electric vehicle using a
Li-ion battery pack.
Source: From Ref. [14].
 5.5. Traction Batteries 351

SOC Headroom for regen charge

100%

Battery overcharge risk

Working range
50%

Poor fuel economy due to extra

operation of petrol engine
Shorter battery life

0%

Figure 5.14. Battery SOC and performance.

Source: From Ref. [13].

they must be maintained at a SOC that allows delivering the required power,
while still having enough headroom to accept regenerative charge without
overcharging the cells. A safe range, as indicated in Figure 5.14, is between
40 and 80% SOC. Any battery may provide higher discharge powers at high
DODs; however, for the above reasons, an upper limit of 80% is set in this case.
The lower limit is set to optimize fuel economy and also to prevent over-
discharge which could shorten the battery’s life.
A BMS specifically intended for HEV has recently been described in a
series of papers [15–17]. It is based on the so-called extended Kalman filtering
(EKF) and aims at determining battery state of charge, power fade, capacity fade
and instantaneous available power of the battery pack. The method was applied
to a Li-ion polymer battery but can be extended to other chemistries.
The requirements of an efficient BMS for EVs and HEVs are quite different vs
those of portable electronics (PEs), as clearly evidenced in Table 5.14.
The particularly harsh environment of HEVs motivates the use of advanced manage-
ment techniques and algorithms. A correct algorithm sequence is the following [15]:

• Initialization (as soon as the vehicle is turned on, the algorithms must be
initialized)
• SOC update (voltage, temperature and current are measured)
• SOH update (battery capacity and other parameters are estimated)
• Maximum available power (based on the SOC and a dynamic cell model,
the BMS estimates the maximum discharge power)
• Equalization (the BMS determines which cells need a special charge to
keep the pack balanced).
352 Chapter 5 Vehicle Applications: Traction and Control Systems

Table 5.14. Typical characteristics of HEV, EV and portable electronics (PE) from the
viewpoint of BMS.
Characteristic HEV EV PE
Maximum rate 20C 5C 3C
Rate profile Very dynamic Moderate Piecewise
constant
SOC estimation Very precise Precise Crude
Predict available Yes Yes No
power
Cell balancing Continuous Continuous, or on On charge only
charge only
SOH estimation Required Required Not essential
Lifetime 10–15 years 10–15 years <5 years
Source: From Ref. [14].

This procedure needs a good cell mathematical model, which may allow
estimating all the relevant quantities. SOH estimation, in particular, includes
battery capacity fade, power fade and self-discharge. The cell model parameters
must be adjusted to account for cell ageing [16, 17].
Battery thermal management is also critical for the battery life and the
vehicle life and performance. Battery temperature influences the availability
of discharge power (for start up and acceleration), energy and charge accep-
tance during energy recovery from regenerative braking. These factors affect
vehicle driveability and fuel economy. Therefore, batteries should ideally
operate within a temperature range that is optimum for performance and
life. This range varies with battery chemistry, and is usually much narrower
than the specified operating range for the vehicle (identified by the vehicle
manufacturer). For example, the desired operating temperature for a lead-acid
battery is 25 to 45°C; however the specified vehicle operating range could
be –30 to 60°C [18].
For thermal batteries, such as ZEBRA and lithium-metal-polymer batteries
(see Chapter 2), thermal management is considered an integral part of the
battery pack and has been included in the design by the battery manufacturers.
For ambient temperature batteries, for example VRLA, Ni-MH and Li-ion, this
aspect was not obvious initially, but now EVs and HEVs with these batteries
also have efficient thermal management systems (BTMS).
The goal of a BTMS is to make a battery pack working at an optimum
average temperature (with life and performance trade-off) with even tem-
perature distribution in the modules and within the pack. However, the
BTMS has to meet the requirements of the vehicle as specified by the
manufacturer: it must be cheap, compact, lightweight, easily packaged and
 5.5. Traction Batteries 353

compatible with location in the vehicle. It must also consume low power,
allow the pack to operate under a wide range of climate conditions (from
very cold to very hot), and provide ventilation if the battery generates
potentially hazardous gases.
A BTMS may use air (Figure 5.15), or liquid (Figure 5.16) . The thermal
management system may be passive (i.e. only the ambient environment is used)
or active (i.e. a built-in source provides heating and/or cooling at low or high
temperatures). The thermal management control strategy is done through the
battery electronic control unit.
Heat transfer with air is achieved by directing/blowing the air across the
battery modules. Instead, heat transfer with liquid could be achieved:
(a) through discrete tubing around each module; (b) with a jacket around the
module; (c) submerging modules in a dielectric fluid for direct contact; and
(d) placing the modules on a liquid heated/cooled plate (heat sink). Using tubes
or jackets, the heat transfer medium could be water/glycol or even refrigerants,
which are common automotive fluids. If modules are submerged in the heat
transfer liquid, the liquid must be dielectric, such as silicon-based or mineral
oils, to avoid electrical shorts.

Outside air Battery pack Exhaust

Fan
A. Passive cooling – outside air ventilation

Cabin air
Outside air
Battery pack Exhaust

Vehicle Fan
Return
heater and
evaporator
cores

B. Passive heating and cooling – cabin air ventilation

Outside air
Battery pack Exhaust

Auxiliary or vehicle Fan

heater and evaporator cores Return

C. Active heating and cooling – outside or cabin air

Figure 5.15. Thermal management using air.

Source: From Ref. [18].
354 Chapter 5 Vehicle Applications: Traction and Control Systems

Liquid direct-contact or indirect

Liquid
Battery Pack
Battery pack
Pump

Outside air Exhaust

Liquid/air heat Fan

exchanger

D. Passive cooling – liquid circulation

Liquid direct-contact or indirect

Liquid
Battery pack
Pump

Vehicle engine
coolant Return
Liquid/liquid
heat exchanger Pump
E. Active moderate cooling/heating – liquid circulation

Liquid direct-contact or indirect

Liquid
Battery pack
Pump

Vehicle engine
coolant Return Air from evaporator
Liquid/liquid or refrigerant from
heat exchanger Pump AC heat condenser
exchanger

F. Active cooling and heating – liquid circulation

Figure 5.16. Thermal management using liquid.

Source: From Ref. [18].

For the same flow rate, the heat-transfer rate for most practical direct-
contact liquids, such as oil, is much higher than with air because of the thinner
boundary layer and higher fluid thermal conductivity.
Current HEVs, for example Toyota Prius and Honda Insight, use cabin air
for cooling and heating the pack: in this case, ambient air is heated and cooled
by the air-conditioning (AC) system (Figure 5.15B).
As shown in Figure 5.16D, ambient air can be used for heat rejection in a
passive liquid system; however, this is only possible if the ambient temperature
is in the range of 10–35°C. Outside of these conditions, active components such
as evaporators, heating cores, engine coolant, etc., are needed.
Principle of MHD Generation

The principal of MHD power generation is very simple and is based on Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that when a conductor and a magnetic field moves
relative to each other, then voltage is induced in the conductor, which results in flow of current
across the terminals.
As the name implies, the magneto hydro dynamics generator shown in the figure below, is
concerned with the flow of a conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic and electric fields. In
conventional generator or alternator, the conductor consists of copper windings or stripswhile in
an MHD generator the hot ionized gas or conducting fluid replaces the solid conductor.
A pressurized, electrically conducting fluid flows through a transverse magnetic field in a
channel or duct. Pair of electrodes are located on the channel walls at right angle to the magnetic
field and connected through an external circuit to deliver power to a load connected to it.
Electrodes in the MHD generator perform the same function as brushes in a conventional DC
generator. The MHD generator develops DC power and the conversion to AC is done using an
inverter.
The power generated per unit length by MHD generator is approximately given by,
Where, u is the fluid velocity, B is the magnetic flux density, σ is the electrical conductivity of
conducting fluid and P is the density of the fluid.
It is evident from the equation above, that for the higher power density of an MHD generator
there must be a strong magnetic field of 4-5 tesla and high flow velocity of conducting fluid
besides adequate conductivity.

MHD Cycles and Working Fluids

The MHD cycles can be of two types, namely

1. Open Cycle MHD.
2. Closed Cycle MHD.
The detailed account of the types of MHD cycles and the working fluids used, are given below.
Open Cycle MHD System

In open cycle MHD system, atmospheric air at very high temperature and pressure is passed
through the strong magnetic field. Coal is first processed and burnet in the combustor at a high
temperature of about 2700oC and pressure about 12 ATP with pre-heated air from the plasma.
Then a seeding material such as potassium carbonate is injected to the plasma to increase the
electrical conductivity. The resulting mixture having an electrical conductivity of about 10
Siemens/m is expanded through a nozzle, so as to have a high velocity and then passed through
the magnetic field of MHD generator. During the expansion of the gas at high temperature, the
positive and negative ions move to the electrodes and thus constitute an electric current. The gas
is then made to exhaust through the generator. Since the same air cannot be reused again hence it
forms an open cycle and thus is named as open cycle MHD.
Closed Cycle MHD System

As the name suggests the working fluid in a closed cycle MHD is circulated in a closed loop.
Hence, in this case inert gas or liquid metal is used as the working fluid to transfer the heat. The
liquid metal has typically the advantage of high electrical conductivity, hence the heat provided
by the combustion material need not be too high. Contrary to the open loop system there is no
inlet and outlet for the atmospheric air. Hence, the process is simplified to a great extent, as the
same fluid is circulated time and again for effective heat transfer.

Advantages of MHD Generation

1. Here only working fluid is circulated, and there are no moving mechanical parts. This
reduces the mechanical losses to nil and makes the operation more dependable.
2. The temperature of working fluid is maintained by the walls of MHD.
3. It has the ability to reach full power level almost directly.
4. The price of MHD generators is much lower than conventional generators.
Superconducting Magnetic
Energy Storage Systems (SMES)
Rohit Imandi · Follow
3 min read · Jan 24, 2021

Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) stores energy in the

form of magnetic fields within a coil. The system uses superconducting
materials to convert the input energy into magnetic fields. As a result,
SMES has a significantly high, perhaps the highest round-trip
efficiency (> 90%) when compared to other energy storage systems.
Moreover, the first practical SMES were developed during the late 1980s
[1]. While the SMES technology has been in the industry for over 30
years, it is still not a popular energy storing option amongst experts.
And the exploration begins!

Working of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage System: The

Reason Behind Its Unpopularity
When a direct current (DC) flows through an electrically conducting
coil, it generates a magnetic field which in turn keeps the current
circulating. Unlike the coils made using iron and copper for day-to-day
activities like transformers, SMES use a superconducting material. The
electrical resistance of such a coil is 0 and hence eliminates all resistive
losses. In other words, superconducting coil conducts electric current,
the current generates a magnetic field which keeps it flowing and all of
this for zero energy loss. So, SMES converts the off peak current from
the grid into DC and then stores it in the superconducting coil
“forever”. Isn’t this perfect? As the saying goes, if something seems too
good to be true, it probably is too good to be true!

The catch here is that the coil made of superconducting material must
be cooled cryogenically. Once the temperature drops below the
superconducting material’s critical temperature, its electrical
resistance drops to 0. At the critical temperature, the material exhibits
superconducting properties and this temperature is different for
different materials. The most popular and economical
superconducting material is a niobium-titanium alloy with a critical
temperature of 10 K (-263 °C). However, some of the best
superconducting materials have critical temperatures close to absolute
zero — 0 K (-273 °C) [1].
 Fig 1 — Flow Diagram Depicting the Working Principle of SMES [2]

To summarize, a superconducting current can only be maintained at

temperatures below the critical temperature and this requires extreme
refrigeration. To add to the list, the grid needs to supplies the power to
run the refrigerator as well as other systems. While the coil itself is free
of energy loss the entire storage system is not, because the conversion
systems are not 100% efficient.
Reasons to Choose A Superconducting
Search Magnetic EnergySign
Write
Sign
Storage
up In
System
Although it has a primary disadvantage similar to a liquid air energy
storage system (LAES), there are multiple advantages which in due time
have the potential to overshadow the system’s cons [1]:

As mentioned earlier, round-trip efficiency is greater than 90%

A low startup time (5 ms) allows the system to connect to the grid
instantaneously

High output current density as the coil can discharge large amounts
of current over a short period of time

A long life span comparable to that of a pumped hydro system as

the system does not have any moving parts

Conclusion
Supercapacitor

A capacitor is pair of two conductors of any shape, which are separated through a small
distance or in close proximity and have equal and opposite charge. In other words,
a capacitor is a device that stores electric energy. A supercapacitor is also a capacitor but its
capacitance value is much higher than other capacitors.

Supercapacitor is an electrochemical capacitor that has high energy density and better performance
efficiency as compared to the common capacitor, the reason why it has the prefix ‘super ’attached to it.
It stores and releases energy by reversible desorption and adsorption of ions at the electrode-electrolyte
interface.

Conventional capacitors have low energy density with wider cell voltage and higher specific power. On
the other hand, supercapacitors have high capacitance over a lower limit of cell voltage.

Let us understand the structure of the supercapacitor:

Supercapacitors are made up of two electrodes, an electrolyte and a porous membrane separator. This
specific structure of supercapacitors makes them have the features of conventional capacitors as well as
electrochemical batteries.

Nanomaterial-based supercapacitors are used to increase the electrode surface area so as to achieve
high performance and enhanced capacitance.

Let us now move to learn more about the types and properties of supercapacitors.

Types of Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors are also referred to as gold capacitors, power capacitors, ultracapacitors or super
condensers. On the basis of their charge storage mechanism, these are classified into three types:

1. Electrostatic double-layer capacitors

2. Pseudo capacitors

3. Hybrid capacitors

Electrostatic Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC)

This type of capacitor works on the charge storage mechanism where a charge is physically stored on
the surface of the electrodes without causing any irreversible chemical reactions via the formation of an
electrical double layer. Usually, carbon-based electrodes are used in supercapacitors which are
separated by a dielectric substance that acts as an insulator and possesses electrical properties that
eventually affect the performance of the supercapacitor.

Charges are electrostatically stored in supercapacitors. An electric field is generated at each electrolyte
as soon as the voltage is applied across the terminals which leads to the polarisation of the electrolyte.
As a result of which ions diffuse through the dielectric to the porous electrodes of opposite charges. In
such a way, the formation of an electric double layer takes place at each electrode. This results in the
increased surface area of each electrode and decreased distance between the electrodes.

Pseudo Capacitors

Pseudo-capacitors are also called faradaic supercapacitors. These devices use electrodes made up of
redox-active materials such as metal oxides (MnO2, RuO2, etc.) and conducting polymers (polyanilines,
polypyrroles, and polythiophenes). These electrodes store charge through reversible faradaic reaction
mechanisms, near the electrode or at the electrode surface where charges are transferred across the
metal-electrolyte interface.
Hybrid Capacitors

These capacitors have adopted both the mechanisms of EDLC and pseudo capacitors. Hybrid capacitors
are composed of electrodes with different characteristics based on chemical as well as electrical
mechanisms. As a result, one electrode exhibits electrostatic capacitance and the other provides
electrochemical capacitance. The advantage includes higher operating voltage (3.8 V maximum),
increased capacitance and energy density.
Properties of Supercapacitors

Some properties of supercapacitors are listed in the points below:

o Supercapacitors have a long cycling time, with a high cycle efficiency (84-97%) and this is
considered to be one of the most important features of supercapacitors.

o Supercapacitors have capacitance ranging from 1mF to >10kF

o Supercapacitors have a high energy density of up to 10 Wh/kg

o There is less potential for pollution in supercapacitors as no heavy metals are used in their
development.

o The charge/discharge time of supercapacitors ranges from milliseconds to a few seconds.

o Supercapacitors come up with the property of a longer service life of about 10-15 years

o As supercapacitors have higher capacitance with lower voltage limits, they are preferred over
batteries and conventional capacitors.

Working Principle of Supercapacitors

A supercapacitor operates by storing electrical energy between two electrostatic double layers created
by the formation of thin charge layers on the electrolyte-electrode interface. Because
the capacitance value of a capacitor is always exactly proportional to the surface area of its conduction
plates, which in this instance is very big, a supercapacitor can store a high quantity of charge value. In
addition, the magnitude of capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates,
which is significantly shorter in supercapacitors than in regular capacitors.

The porous materials or nanomaterial used to cover the metal plates of a supercapacitor are typically
carbon in the form of activated charcoal. Static electricity, also known as electrostatics, is used to store
energy in capacitors. Both positively and negatively charged ions are produced in the electrolyte
solution between the two plates of the supercapacitor.

When a voltage is supplied across the supercapacitor’s plates, one of the plates develops a positive
charge, while the other plate develops a negative charge. This attracts the negatively charged ions in the
electrolyte to the positively charged plate and the positively charged ions to the negatively charged
plate. On the inner surface of both plates, a thin coating of ions is deposited. This results in the
production of an electrostatic double layer, which is similar to connecting two capacitors in series. Each
charge possesses high capacitance as the distance between both the resultant capacitors is very thin
and the area of electrodes is high.

Advantages of Supercapacitors
 o High efficiency

o High energy and power density as it uses activated carbon material that increases the
capacitance value

o High-performance reliability with higher charging rates

o Supercapacitors can easily be connected in series like batteries to provide bigger voltages used
in power-demanding equipment

o Supercapacitors have a high specific power, low resistance which enables them to produce high
load currents

o Supercapacitors are developed in small sizes and lightweight which makes them easily installed
in small areas.

o Supercapacitors have a longer cycling time as compared to the battery and higher service life.

Disadvantages of Supercapacitors

o Supercapacitors have high self-discharge rates.

o Supercapacitors have low voltage limits which demand serial connections to produce high
voltage.

o Supercapacitors have the highest dielectric absorption of any type of capacitor.

o Full energy spectrum can’t be used due to the linear discharge of voltage.

Uses of Supercapacitors

Unique storage capability of supercapacitors make them a choice in different fields. Let’s now discuss
them one by one:

o Supercapacitors are used in hybrid buses in the field of transportation as they combine with the
battery to increase battery life and decrease the size.

o The usage of supercapacitors is increasing rapidly in the area of energy-efficient services and
these are being introduced in automotive vehicles to provide stored energy in a few seconds.

o Memory devices in laptops, smartphones, tablets etc., are developed using supercapacitors.
These are also used in LED Flash units.

o Supercapacitors are even used in the field of renewable energy such as in wind energy to supply
power to the pitch control of blades.

o Supercapacitors are consistently being used in other fields such as industry, military, medical,
transpiration, music etc.
 Difference between Supercapacitor and Battery

Parameters Supercapacitor Battery

Energy storage Electrons stored through ion Electrons stored through
mechanism adsorption at electrode-electrolyte electrochemical redox
interface reactions
Charge/Discharge Charges/Discharges within seconds Takes hours to
time charge/discharge fully
Cycle life >500,000 cycles 500-1000 cycles
Power density Very high, 10 kW/kg Moderate, 1 kW/kg
Energy density Low, 5 Wh/kg High, 30-250 Wh/kg
Self-discharge 20-30% per day Low, 5-20% per month
Operating -40°C to 65°C 0°C to 50°C
temperature range
Cost High High but prices declining
Applications Brief high-power loads e.g.lasers, Portable devices, electric
buses vehicles

Difference between Capacitor and Supercapacitor

Parameters Capacitor Supercapacitor

Working Stores charge electrically via separation Stores charge electrostatically at
Principle of charge on two conductive plates the electrode-electrolyte
separated by an insulator interface
Dielectric Ceramic, plastic film, air Activated carbon, carbon
Material aerogel, graphene, metal oxides
Capacitance Few Farads (F) Thousand Farads (F)
Energy <1 Wh/kg 5-10 Wh/kg
Density
Power ~100 W/kg ~10 kW/kg
Density
Charge Time Seconds to hours Minutes
Discharge Seconds to hours Minutes
Time
Examples Aluminium electrolytic, Tantalum, Activated carbon, Graphene,
Ceramic Pseudocapacitors
Applications Filters, timing circuits Memory backup, cameras, laser
printers, EVs
Bio Gas Storage

Selection of an appropriate biogas storage system makes a significant contribution to the efficiency and
safety of a biogas plant. There are two basic reasons for storing biogas: storage for later on-site usage
and storage before and/or after transportation to off-site distribution points or systems. A biogas
storage system also compensates fluctuations in the production and consumption of biogas as well as
temperature-related changes in volume.

There are two broad categories of biogas storage systems: Internal Biogas Storage Tanks are integrated
into the anaerobic digester while External Biogas Holders are separated from the digester forming
autonomous components of a biogas plant.

The simplest and least expensive storage systems for on-site applications and intermediate storage of
biogas are low-pressure systems. The energy, safety, and scrubbing requirements of medium- and high-
pressure storage systems make them costly and high-maintenance options for non-commercial use.
Such extra costs can be best justified for biomethane or bio-CNG, which has a higher heat content and is
therefore a more valuable fuel than biogas.

Low-Pressure Biogas Storage

Floating biogas holders on the digester form a low-pressure storage option for biogas systems. These
systems typically operate at pressures below 2 psi. Floating gas holders can be made of steel, fiberglass,
or a flexible fabric. A separate tank may be used with a floating gas holder for the storage of the
digestate and also storage of the raw biogas. A major advantage of a digester with an integral gas
storage component is the reduced capital cost of the system.

The least expensive and most trouble-free gas holder is the flexible inflatable fabric top, as it does not
react with the H2S in the biogas and is integral to the digester. These types of covers are often used with
plug-flow and complete-mix digesters.
Flexible membrane materials commonly used for these gas holders include high-density polyethylene
(HDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), and chlorosulfonated
polyethylene covered polyester. Thicknesses for cover materials typically vary from 0.5 to 2.5
millimeters.

Medium-Pressure Biogas Storage

Biogas can also be stored at medium pressure between 2 and 200 psi. To prevent corrosion of the tank
components and to ensure safe operation, the biogas must first be cleaned by removing H2S. Next, the
cleaned biogas must be slightly compressed prior to storage in tanks.

High-Pressure Biogas Storage

The typical composition of raw biogas does not meet the minimum CNG fuel specifications. In particular,
the CO2 and sulfur content in raw biogas is too high for it to be used as vehicle fuel without additional
processing. Biogas that has been upgraded to biomethane by removing the H2S, moisture, and CO2 can
be used as a vehicular fuel.

Biomethane is less corrosive than biogas, apart from being more valuable as a fuel. Since production of
such fuel typically exceeds immediate on-site demand, the biomethane must be stored for future use,
usually either as compressed biomethane (CBM) or liquefied biomethane (LBM).

Two of the main advantages of LBM are that it can be transported relatively easily and it can be
dispensed to either LNG vehicles or CNG vehicles. Liquid biomethane is transported in the same manner
as LNG, that is, via insulated tanker trucks designed for transportation of cryogenic liquids.

Biomethane can be stored as CBM to save space. The gas is stored in steel cylinders such as those
typically used for storage of other commercial gases. Storage facilities must be adequately fitted with
safety devices such as rupture disks and pressure relief valves.

The cost of compressing gas to high pressures between 2,000 and 5,000 psi is much greater than the
cost of compressing gas for medium-pressure storage. Because of these high costs, the biogas is typically
upgraded to biomethane prior to compression.
 Fuel Cell Basics
Through this website we are seeking historical materials relating to
fuel cells. We have constructed the site to gather information from
people already familiar with the technology–people such as
inventors, researchers, manufacturers, electricians, and marketers.
This Basics section presents a general overview of fuel cells for
casual visitors.

What is a fuel cell? How do fuel cells work?

Why can't I go out and buy a fuel cell?
Different types of fuel cells.
 What is a fuel cell?
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical
reaction. Every fuel cell has two electrodes called, respectively, the
anode and cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take place
at the electrodes.

Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically

charged particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst,
which speeds the reactions at the electrodes.

Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen. One
great appeal of fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very
little pollution–much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating
electricity ultimately combine to form a harmless byproduct, namely
water.

One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount

of direct current (DC) electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are
usually assembled into a stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the
same.

Top

How do fuel cells work?

The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can
be directed outside the cell to do work, such as powering an electric
motor or illuminating a light bulb or a city. Because of the way
electricity behaves, this current returns to the fuel cell, completing an
electrical circuit. (To learn more about electricity and electric power,
visit "Throw The Switch" on the Smithsonian website Powering a
Generation of Change.) The chemical reactions that produce this
current are the key to how a fuel cell works.

There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit
differently. But in general terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at
the anode where a chemical reaction strips them of their electrons.
The hydrogen atoms are now "ionized," and carry a positive electrical
charge. The negatively charged electrons provide the current through
wires to do work. If alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC output
of the fuel cell must be routed through a conversion device called an
inverter.
 Graphic by Marc Marshall, Schatz Energy Research Center

Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types
(like the one illustrated above), it there combines with electrons
returning from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have
traveled through the electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types
the oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the electrolyte
to the anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions.

The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate
ions to pass between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or
other substances could travel through the electrolyte, they would
disrupt the chemical reaction.

Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and

oxygen form water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is
supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, it will generate electricity.

Even better, since fuel cells create electricity chemically, rather than
by combustion, they are not subject to the thermodynamic laws that
limit a conventional power plant (see "Carnot Limit" in the glossary).
Therefore, fuel cells are more efficient in extracting energy from a
fuel. Waste heat from some cells can also be harnessed, boosting
system efficiency still further.

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So why can't I go out and buy a fuel cell?

The basic workings of a fuel cell may not be difficult to illustrate. But
building inexpensive, efficient, reliable fuel cells is a far more
complicated business.
Scientists and inventors have designed many different types and
sizes of fuel cells in the search for greater efficiency, and the
technical details of each kind vary. Many of the choices facing fuel
cell developers are constrained by the choice of electrolyte. The
design of electrodes, for example, and the materials used to make
them depend on the electrolyte. Today, the main electrolyte types are
alkali, molten carbonate, phosphoric acid, proton exchange
membrane (PEM) and solid oxide. The first three are liquid
electrolytes; the last two are solids.

The type of fuel also depends on the electrolyte. Some cells need
pure hydrogen, and therefore demand extra equipment such as a
"reformer" to purify the fuel. Other cells can tolerate some impurities,
but might need higher temperatures to run efficiently. Liquid
electrolytes circulate in some cells, which requires pumps. The type
of electrolyte also dictates a cell's operating temperature–"molten"
carbonate cells run hot, just as the name implies.

Each type of fuel cell has advantages and drawbacks compared to

the others, and none is yet cheap and efficient enough to widely
replace traditional ways of generating power, such coal-fired,
hydroelectric, or even nuclear power plants.

The following list describes the five main types of fuel cells. More
detailed information can be found in those specific areas of this site.

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 Different types of fuel cells.
Alkali fuel cells operate
on compressed
hydrogen and oxygen.
They generally use a
solution of potassium
hydroxide (chemically,
KOH) in water as their
electrolyte. Efficiency is
about 70 percent, and
operating temperature is
150 to 200 degrees C,
(about 300 to 400
degrees F). Cell output
ranges from 300 watts
(W) to 5 kilowatts (kW).
Alkali cells were used in Drawing of an alkali cell.
Apollo spacecraft to
provide both electricity and drinking water. They require pure
hydrogen fuel, however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are
expensive. And like any container filled with liquid, they can leak.

Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-temperature

compounds of salt (like sodium or magnesium) carbonates
(chemically, CO3) as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80
 percent, and operating
temperature is about
650 degrees C (1,200
degrees F). Units with
output up to 2
megawatts (MW) have
been constructed, and
designs exist for units up
to 100 MW. The high
temperature limits
damage from carbon
monoxide "poisoning" of
the cell and waste heat
can be recycled to make
additional electricity.
Drawing of a molten carbonate cell Their nickel electrode-
catalysts are
inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other cells. But the
high temperature also limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCs–
they would probably be too hot for home use. Also, carbonate ions
from the electrolyte are used up in the reactions, making it necessary
to inject carbon dioxide to compensate.

Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the

electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80 percent, and operating
temperature is between 150 to 200 degrees C (about 300 to 400
degrees F). Existing phosphoric acid cells have outputs up to 200
kW, and 11 MW units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon
monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the
choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be
removed. Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts
must be able to withstand the corrosive acid.

Drawing of how both phosphoric acid and PEM fuel

cells operate.

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells work with a polymer

electrolyte in the form of a thin, permeable sheet. Efficiency is about
40 to 50 percent, and operating temperature is about 80 degrees C
(about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs generally range from 50 to 250
kW. The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack, and these
cells operate at a low enough temperature to make them suitable for
homes and cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum
catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane, raising costs.

Solid Oxide fuel cells

(SOFC) use a hard,
ceramic compound of
metal (like calcium or
zirconium) oxides
(chemically, O2) as
electrolyte. Efficiency is
about 60 percent, and
operating temperatures
are about 1,000 degrees
C (about 1,800 degrees
F). Cells output is up to
100 kW. At such high
temperatures a reformer
is not required to extract
Drawing of a solid oxide cell hydrogen from the fuel,
and waste heat can be
recycled to make additional electricity. However, the high temperature
limits applications of SOFC units and they tend to be rather large.
While solid electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.
More detailed information about each fuel cell type, including
histories and current applications, can be found on their specific parts
of this site. We have also provided a glossary of technical terms–a
link is provided at the top of each technology page.

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