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Sanction no. ः MSCERT/avivi/sp/2015-16/1673 Date : 06/04/2016

GENERAL SCIENCE
STANDARD SIX

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and

Curriculum Research, Pune.

The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP

on a smartphone by using the Q. R. Code given on title page
of the textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-learning
material of the relevant lesson will be available through the
Q. R. Code given in each lesson of this textbook.

A
First Edition : 2016 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
Fourth Reprint : 2020 Curriculum Research, Pune - 411 004.
The Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research reserves all rights relating to the book. No part of this book
should be reproduced without the written permission of the Director,
Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and Curriculum
Research, ‘Balbharati’, Senapati Bapat Marg, Pune 411004.

Chief Coordinator : Coordination :

Smt. Prachi Ravindra Sathe Rajiv Arun Patole
Special Officer for Science
Science Subject Committee :
Dr Chandrashekhar Murumkar, Chairman
Dr Dilip Sadashiv Jog, Member Translation :
Dr Abhay Jere, Member Dr Sushma Jog
Dr Sulabha Nitin Vidhate, Member Smt. Manisha Dahivelkar
Smt. Mrinalini Desai, Member
Scrutiny :
Shri. Gajanan Suryawanshi, Member
Smt. Mrinalini Desai
Shri. Sudhir Yadavrao Kamble, Member
Smt. Dipali Dhananjay Bhale, Member
Shri. Rajiv Arun Patole, Member-Secretary Coordination :
Science Study Group : Dhanavanti Hardikar
Dr Prabhakar Nagnath Kshirsagar Academic Secretary for Languages
Dr Shaikh Mohammed Waquioddin H.
Santosh Pawar
Dr Vishnu Vaze
Assistant Special Officer, English
Dr Ajay Digambar Mahajan
Dr Gayatri Gorakhnath Choukade
Shri. Prashant Panditrao Kolse
Smt. Kanchan Rajendra Sorate Typesetting :
Shri. Shankar Bhikan Rajput DTP Section, Textbook Bureau, Pune
Smt. Manisha Rajendra Dahivelkar Paper :
Shri. Dayashankar Vishnu Vaidya 70 GSM Creamwove
Smt. Shweta Thakur
Shri. Sukumar Navale Print Order :
Shri. Hemant Achyut Lagvankar
Shri. Nagesh Bhimsevak Telgote Printer :
Shri. Manoj Rahangdale
Shri. Mohammed Atique Abdul Shaikh
Smt. Jyoti Medpilwar
Smt. Dipti Chandansingh Bisht Production :
Smt. Pushpalata Gawande Sachchitanand Aphale
Smt. Anjali Khadke Chief Production Officer
Shri. Rajesh Vamanrao Roman Rajendra Vispute
Shri. Vishwas Bhave Production Officer
Smt. Jyoti Damodar Karane

Cover and illustrations : Publisher :

Smt. Janhavi Damle-Jedhe Vivek Uttam Gosavi
Shri. Suresh Gopichand Isave Controller
Ms. Ashana Advani Maharashtra State Textbook Bureau,
Shri. Manoj Kamble Prabhadevi, Mumbai - 400 025.

B
D
 Preface
The ‘Primary Education Curriculum - 2012’ was prepared in the State of
Maharashtra following the ‘Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act, 2009’ and the ‘National Curriculum Framework - 2005’. This syllabus approved
by the State Government is being implemented serially from the academic year
2013-2014. In the syllabus as well as in the textbooks for Std III to V, General Science is
included in ‘Environmental Studies’. However, Std VI onwards, it is included separately.
Accordingly, the Textbook Bureau has prepared this textbook of General Science for
Std VI. We are happy to place it in your hands.
Our approach while designing this textbook was that the entire teaching-learning
process should be child-centred, the emphasis should be on self-learning and the
process of education should become enjoyable and interesting. During the teaching-
learning process, there should be clarity about the specific competencies that children
are expected to achieve at the various stages of primary education. That is why, the
expected competencies regarding General Science have been given in the textbook. In
keeping with these competencies, the content included in the textbook has been presented
in an innovative way. The content, activities and projects have been given under specific
headings in each chapter to get the children to observe things carefully, to learn by
actually doing something, to compile information, to classify this information or data, to
draw conclusions from it, and so on. The supplementary information given in the textbook
will help to make children’s learning more effective. At several places, projects have
been given to help make teaching as activity-oriented as possible. The main objective
of this textbook is to inculcate a scientific attitude among the children. Along with
science, an introduction to the use of technology in the surroundings and an emphasis on
environmental and social awareness are the important features of this textbook.
This book was scrutinized by teachers, educationists, and experts from all parts of
the State, to make it as flawless and useful as possible. Their comments and suggestions
have been duly considered by the Science Subject Committee while finalizing the book.
The Science Subject Committee and the Study Group of the Textbook Bureau and the
artists have taken great pains to prepare this book. The Bureau is thankful to all of them.
We hope that this book will receive a warm welcome from students, teachers and
parents.

Pune (Dr Sunil Magar)

Date : 9 May 2016, Director
Akshay Tritiya, Maharashtra State Bureau of
Indian Solar Year : Textbook Production and
Vaishakh 19, 1938 Curriculum Research, Pune.

E
 For Teachers
• We learn many new facts while studying science. So, young children with a lot of
curiosity find the subject enjoyable. However, the real objective of learning science
is to learn to think about the world and all the events that take place in it, in an
objective and rational manner so as to lead a happy confident life. Through the
study of science we also expect children to develop social consciousness, awareness
about conservation of the environment and adeptness in handling technology.
• We need to have adequate factual information and understanding about our world.
However, in a rapidly changing world, the knowledge gained today may not suffice
tomorrow. Hence, the skills required for obtaining knowledge must be learnt. These
are the very skills that are learnt in the process of studying science.
• Many topics in science are more easily learnt by direct observation than by reading
about them. Some abstract phenomena become visible through the effects they have.
Hence, we do experiments related to them. They help to learn the skills of inference
and verification. While learning science, these skills are learnt and internalized.
This is an important objective of learning science.
• That we should be able to articulate what we have learnt, explain it to others, use it
for further studies and finally bring about proper changes in our behavior is also an
expectation from the learning of science. That is why, it is important to ensure that
along with the content of the subject, these skills are also developed.
• Can you recall? is a section for reviewing the related topics already learnt, while
the purpose of Can you tell? is introducing a topic by bringing together what the
children might already know about a topic through their own reading or experience.
Try this is meant to give some specific experience while Let’s try this are the
parts that teachers must demonstrate to the class. Use your brain power! makes
children apply the knowledge gained. Always remember... gives some important
instructions or values. The sections Find out, Do you know? and Science watch
are to create an awareness of the vast information that cannot be included in the
textbook and to inculcate the habit of doing reference work independently.
• Teachers can see for themselves that this textbook is not meant for reading and
explaining but for guiding students to gain knowledge by carrying out the given
activities. Reading the textbook after the children have carried out the activities and
discussed them in the class will make it easy and will also help to bring together and
reinforce what they have already learnt. The attractive pictures will support their
efforts to learn.
• Teachers should prepare well for discussions under Can you tell?, Use your brain
power! etc. and for the various activities and experiments. They should maintain an
informal atmosphere during such discussions and activities, encourage everyone to
participate and make efforts to organize Science Days, presentations in the class, etc.
Front Cover : Experiments included in the textbook. Back Cover : Biodiversity on the Kaas Plateau
F
 English General Science - Standard VI - Learning Outcomes
Suggested Pedagogical Processes Learning Outcomes

The learner is to be provided with The learner —

opportunities in pairs/groups/ 06.72.01 Identifies materials and organisms such
individually in an inclusive setup as plant fibres, flowers on the basis of
and encouraged to - observable features, i.e. appearance,
• Explore surroundings, natural texture, function, aroma, etc.
processes, phenomena using senses 06.72.02 Differentiates materials and organisms,
viz. watching, touching, tasting, such as, fibre and yarn; tap and fibrous
smelling, hearing. roots; electrical conductors and insulators;
• Pose questions and find answers on the basis of their properties, structure
through reflection, discussion, and functions.
designing and performing 06.72.03 Classifies materials, organisms and
appropriate activities, role plays, processes based on observable properties,
debates, use of ICT etc. for example, materials as soluble,
• Record the observations during the insoluble, transparent, translucent and
activity, experiments, surveys, field opaque; changes as can be reversible and
trips/visits, etc. irreversible, plants as herbs, shrubs, trees,
creeper, climbers, components of habitat
• Analyse recorded data, interpret
as biotic and abiotic; motion as rectilinear,
results and draw inference/make
circular, periodic etc.
generalisations and share findings
with peers and adults. 06.72.04 Conducts simple investigations to seek
answers to queries, for example, what are
• Exhibit creativity presenting novel
the food nutrients present in animal fodder?
ideas, new designs/patterns,
Can all physical changes be reversible?
improvisation etc.
Does a freely suspended magnet align in a
• Internalise, acquire and appreciate, particular direction?
values such as cooperation, 06.72.05 Relates processes and phenomenon with
collaboration, honest, reporting, causes, for example, diseases due to
judicious use of resources, etc. deficiency of diet/deficiency diseases;
• Observe the Universe and different adaptations of animals and plants with
facts and different events occurring their habitats, quality of air with pollutants
in the universe. etc.
06.72.06 Explains processes and phenomenon
for example, processing of plant fibres,
movements in plants and animals,
formation of shadows, reflection of light
from plain mirror, variation in composition
of air, preparation of vermi compost etc.
06.72.07 Measures physical quantities and expresses
in SI units, for example, length.
06.72.08 Draw labelled diagrams/flow charts of
organisms and processes, for example,
parts of flowers, joints; filtration, water
cycle, etc.
06.72.09 Constructs models using materials from
surroundings and explains their working,
for example, pinhole camera, periscope,
electric torch, etc.

G
 06.72.10 Applies learning to scientific concepts in
day to day life, for example, selecting
food items for a balanced diet, separating
materials, selecting season appropriate
fabrics, using compass needle for finding
directions, suggesting ways to cope with
heavy rain/drought etc.
06.72.11 Makes efforts to protect environment, for
example, minimising wastage of food, uses
of water, uses of electricity, and generation
of waste, spreading awareness to adopt
rain water harvesting, care for plants
(plantation) etc.
06.72.12 Exhibits creativity in designing, making
use of available resources, planning etc.
06.72.13 Exhibits values of honesty, objectivity,
cooperation, freedom from fear and
prejudices.
06.72.14 Comparative study of star, planet, satellite,
Asteroid by observing them in the Universe.
06.72.15 Collect information of different concepts,
processes by using internet and different
ICT technology.

CONTENTS
No. Chapters Page No.

1. Natural Resources – Air, Water and Land ............................................ 1

2. The Living World ................................................................................... 9
3. Diversity in Living Things and their Classification ............................ 18
4. Disaster Management .......................................................................... 26
5. Substances in the Surroundings – Their States and Properties ............. 32
6. Substances in Daily Use ...................................................................... 42
7. Nutrition and Diet ................................................................................ 50
8. Our Skeletal System and the Skin ....................................................... 57
9. Motion and Types of Motion .............................................................. 65
10. Force and Types of Force ..................................................................... 70
11. Work and Energy ................................................................................. 76
12. Simple Machines .................................................................................. 84
13. Sound ................................................................................................... 91
14. Light and the Formation of Shadows ................................................... 97
15. Fun with Magnets .............................................................................. 105
16. The Universe ...................................................................................... 112
H
 1. Natural Resources – Air, Water and Land
Atmosphere

Observe.

Observe the picture alongside and

answer the questions.
1. Where do we see the birds ?
2. Where is the cow grazing ?
3. Locate the trees and the road.
4. Where does the river come from ?
How does it flow ?
Hydrosphere
5. Where is the aeroplane ?
6. Where are the fish seen ?
Lithosphere
7. On what is the sailboat floating ?

Natural resources 1.1 : Spheres of the earth

You can see that some things in the picture are

in water, some on land, and some in the sky, that is, Air, water and land are
in the air. Thus, all things on the earth are associated the factors important
with air, water and land. Air, water and land are for sustaining the living
called the earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere and world on the earth
lithosphere, respectively. Moreover, different living and for fulfilling their basic
things occupy these three spheres of the earth. needs. They are called
These living things and the parts of the lithosphere, natural resources.
hydrosphere and atmosphere which they occupy are
together called the biosphere. These spheres have
formed on the earth naturally. We have learnt all
this in the previous standards.
The atmosphere is the layer of air that surrounds
the earth. The surface of the earth comprises water
and land, that is, the hydrosphere and lithosphere. Of
these, the hydrosphere occupies a much larger part
than the lithosphere. Figure 1.2 shows the proportion
Land 29%
of land and water on the earth’s surface.
We also look upon these natural components in Water 71%
solid, liquid and gaseous form as resources. In other
words, we use them to fulfil our requirements. Let us
now study all these three components in detail. 1.2 : Proportion of land and water
1
 Can you recall ? What are the five layers of the atmosphere ?
Air
The air in the atmosphere around the earth contains nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
six inert gases, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, water vapour and dust particles. The
troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of gases in the air, while this proportion
is about 19% in the stratosphere. Further, in the mesosphere and ionosphere, the proportion
of the mass of gases goes on decreasing. Gases are not found in the exosphere and beyond.

You can see that air is a mixture of Other constituents

several gases and is the chief constituent of air 0.07%
of the earth’s atmosphere. Besides these
Carbon dioxide
gases, air also contains water vapour Argon 0.9% 0.03%
and dust particles. The amount of the
Oxygen 21%
gases in the air is the greatest near the
surface and decreases as we go higher
and higher from the surface. That is, air
becomes rarer at higher altitudes. Nitrogen
78%
The proportions of the constituents
of air and some of their uses are given
here. 1.3 : Proportions of the various
gases in the air

Some uses of gases in air

• Nitrogen – Helps living things • Argon – Used in electric bulbs.
to build the necessary proteins. • Helium – Used for obtaining low
It is useful in the production of temperature and also for generating
ammonia and in airtight packaging lift in airships.
of foodstuffs. • Neon – Used in decorative lights
• Oxygen – Necessary for respiration and for street lighting.
in living things and for combustion. • Krypton – Used in fluorescent
• Carbon dioxide – Plants use it for tubes.
producing their food. Used in fire • Xenon – Used in flash photography.
extinguishers.

Always remember...
The living world on the earth is sustained due to the balance between various
gases and other constituents of air. The atmosphere is a very important filter. It
allows the light and heat of the sun to reach the earth, which is necessary for
life. But it prevents the harmful elements from reaching the earth. It is in the
atmosphere that fog, clouds, snow and rain are produced.
2
 Observe and discuss. What is the similarity in the three pictures below ?

1.4 : Air pollution

All the above pictures show large scale emission Harmful substances
of smoke through different agencies. This smoke released in air through
directly mixes with the atmosphere, disturbing the combustion of fuels
balance between the constituents of air. This is called
l Nitrogen dioxide
air pollution. Harmful gases are given out through
l Carbon dioxide
combustion of fuels in vehicles and in big industries
l Carbon monoxide
and also through incomplete combustion of fuels like
l Sulphur dioxide
wood and coal. As a result, air pollution is increasing
day by day. l Soot

Ozone layer – the protective shell

There is a layer of ozone (O3) gas in Do you know ?
the lower part of stratosphere. Ozone gas is
not directly useful for the survival of living In metropolitan cities like Mumbai,
things, yet it is very important for living Pune or Nagpur boards are displayed
things to have this layer of ozone at a high at places of heavy traffic to show
altitude around the earth. The ultra violet the proportions of the various
rays coming from the sun are very harmful constituents of the air at that place.
for living things. The ozone gas absorbs these Due to these boards, we can see the
rays. As a result, life on earth is protected. amount of harmful elements in the
air.
The ozone layer is destroyed if chemical
gases like carbon tetrachloride or the
chlorofluorocarbons used in air conditioners
and refrigerators mix with the air.
The 16th of September is celebrated
as ‘Ozone Protection Day’ all over the
world to make everyone aware of the
importance of ozone.

Use your brain power !

What would have happened if there were no air on the earth ?

3
Water Purpose for which Amount of
water is used Water (approx.)
in litres
Try this.
- Bath
Observe how much water is used and - Brushing teeth
for what purposes it is used in your house - Washing clothes
for a whole day. Record it in a chart like
and utensils
the one shown here. Discuss this data
in the class. Divide the total amount of - Mopping the floor
water used in your house by the number - Drinking
of persons to find out how much water - Cooking
each person needs. Total use of water
You will see that it is almost
impossible for us to spend even a single In nature, water occurs in three
day without water. We need to drink three
states. Water does not have colour,
to four litres of water every day so that all
our bodily functions run smoothly. Other taste or odour. Many substances readily
living things also require water although dissolve in water. Therefore, water is a
the amount of water they need may vary universal solvent.
according to the size of their body. Thus, The blood of animals and the sap
we see that water is very important. in plants contain a very high proportion
If hydrogen gas burns in air, it of water. No living thing can survive
combines with oxygen and water is without water. Therefore it is said that
formed. We have learnt about some ‘Water is life.’
characteristics of water in the previous
standards.
Water available on earth Percentage
Seas, Oceans 97%
Observe and discuss.
2.7%
Groundwater, ice, Water available
and water
Sales
for drinking Water available for
in other forms drinking (fresh water)

Total 100%
1st Qtr

Seas and Oceans 2nd Qtr

3rd Qtr
We cannot use all the water on earth
because seawater is salty. Some water is
in the frozen state. A very small quantity
of water is available for drinking. Yet it
1.5 : Distribution of water on the earth
is enough for all living things.

Find out.
In what ways is the water in seas and oceans useful even though it is salty ?
4
 Observe and discuss. For which purposes is water being used ?

Do other living things use

water like we do ?
We use water in large
quantities. We have learnt
that water on the earth is
regulated through the water
cycle. The water vapour
formed from oceans is the
main source of water in the
water cycle. It gets converted
into rain, creating fresh water
sources on earth.

1.6 : Uses of water on the earth

We get water from natural sources

Always remember...
such as streams, rivers, ponds, springs and
lakes. Man also digs wells and borewells
to lift ground water. Apart from this, man 1. Use water sparingly.
has also constructed bunds and dams of 2. Block water, let it percolate.
various sizes on rivers. 3 Store water wherever possible.
Due to the uncontrolled use of water 4. Reuse water wherever possible.
for an increasing population, industry and Remember, stored water does not
farming, it is now in short supply. Water become stale at once.
scarcity has become a serious problem.

l What is land made of ? l Is land flat everywhere ?

Can you tell ? l What do you see on land ? l Does man produce soil/land ?

l What has man created on land ?

l If a deep pit is dug in the ground, what do you find there?
Land
Land is seen in the form of stones, soil, big rocks. It is not flat everywhere. It is
hilly in some places and flat in others. All terrestrial animals including man live on
land. Some terrestrials dig burrows in the ground for shelter. This means that they use
land for fulfilling their need. We also use land for farming and for building houses and
roads. We make use of plants and animals in the forests that grow on land. The
minerals, crude oil and natural gas obtained from the earth (land) are very important
for us. It means that land is an important resource. Let us see exactly what land is
made of.
5
 1. Take a transparent plastic bottle, a
Let’s try this. handful of soil, some stones, sand, some
dry leaves and water.
2. Cut off the upper tapering part of bottle.
Dry leaves Put the rest of the materials in the lower
Soil part and add water.
3. Stir the mixture thoroughly and put it
aside.
Sand
Observe it the next day and answer.
Small stones
l How does the mixture in the bottle look
Big stones now ?
l Do you see layers in it ?
1.7 : Layers of the mixture in the bottle l What is seen in the different layers from
The land on earth also looks like this. If a top to bottom?
pipeline is being laid in your neighbourhood,
observe carefully the pits dug for this
purpose. You will see some layers under the
land surface, as shown in the accompanying
figure. Humus
If the land has mature soil, the topmost Soil
layer is formed by the decomposition of the
remains of plants and animals. This layer is Immature
called ‘humus’. It is usually found in dense soil
forests. The land below this is full of sand,
soil, small stones, worms, and insects. Soil
and pieces of bedrock are found below this
Layer of
layer of land. This soil is immature. Further soil and
below this layer the proportion of soil small rocks
decreases and that of rock increases. This is
the layer of bedrock. The main minerals in
the soil are derived from these rocks. That is
why, soil in different regions is different. The Bedrock
colour and texture of soil are both determined
by the bedrock.
1.8 : Layers of land
The process of soil formation
The soil on the land is formed by a natural process. The abiotic components of soil are
supplied through the weathering of the bedrock. Due to the heat, cold and water of the sun,
wind and rain respectively, the bedrock breaks down into pieces. Stones, sand and soil are
formed from these pieces. Microbes, worms and insects are found among them. Rodents
like mice and rats are also found here. The roots of trees growing on the land also help
weathering of rocks. The process of soil formation is slow and continuous. It takes about
a thousand years for a 2.5 cm thick layer of mature soil to form.
6
Another random document with
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employing the syncopated form, the triple rhythm clashes with the
dual rhythm, require assurance, which can be given by easy means.
The uncertainty occasioned them by the sudden appearance of the
unexpected rhythm, contradicted by the rest of the orchestra, always
leads the performers to cast an instinctive glance towards the
conductor, as if seeking his assistance. He should look at them,
turning somewhat towards them, and marking the triple rhythm by
very slight gestures, as if the time were really three in a bar, but in
such a way that the violins and other instruments playing in dual
rhythm may not observe the change, which would quite put them
out. From this compromise it results that the new rhythm of three-
time, being marked furtively by the conductor, is executed with
steadiness; while the two-time rhythm already firmly established,
continues without difficulty, although no longer indicated by the
conductor. On the other hand, nothing, in my opinion can be more
blamable, or more contrary to musical good sense, than the
application of this procedure to passages where two rhythms of
opposite nature do not co-exist, and where merely syncopations are
introduced. The conductor, dividing the bar by the number of
accents he finds contained in it, then destroys (for all the auditors
who see him) the effect of syncopation; and substitutes a mere
change of time for a play of rhythm of the most bewitching interest.
If the accents are marked, instead of the beats, in the following
passage from Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony, we have the
subjoined:—

[Listen]

whereas the four previously maintained display the syncopation and

make it better felt:—
 [Listen]

This voluntary submission to a rhythmical form which the author

intended to thwart is one of the gravest faults in style that a beater
of the time can commit.
There is another dilemma, extremely troublesome for a
conductor, and demanding all his presence of mind. It is that
presented by the super-addition of different bars. It is easy to
conduct a bar in dual time placed above or beneath another bar in
triple time, if both have the same kind of movement. Their chief
divisions are then equal in duration, and one needs only to divide
them in half, marking the two principal beats:—

[Listen]

But if, in the middle of a piece slow in movement, there is

introduced a new form brisk in movement, and if the composer
(either for the sake of facilitating the execution of the quick
movement, or because it was impossible to write otherwise) has
adopted for this new movement the short bar which corresponds
with it, there may then occur two, or even three short bars super-
added to a slow bar:—

[Listen]

The conductor’s task is to guide and keep together these

different bars of unequal number and dissimilar movement. He
attains this by dividing the beats in the Andante bar, No. 1, which
precedes the entrance of the Allegro in 6/8, and by continuing to
divide them; but taking care to mark the division more decidedly.
The players of the Allegro in 6/8 then comprehend that the two
gestures of the conductor represent the two beats of their short bar,
while the players of the Andante take these same gestures merely
for a divided beat of their long bar.
 Bar No. 1

Bars Nos. 2, 3,
and so on.
 It will be seen that this is really quite simple, because the division
of the short bar, and the subdivisions of the long one, mutually
correspond. The following example, where a slow bar is super-added
to the short ones, without this correspondence existing, is more
awkward:—
 [Listen]

Here, the three bars Allegro-assai preceding the Allegretto are

beaten in simple two-time, as usual. At the moment when the
Allegretto begins, the bar of which is double that of the preceding,
and of the one maintained by the violas, the conductor marks two
divided beats for the long bar, by two equal gestures down, and two
others up:—

The two large gestures divide the long bar in half, and explain its
value to the hautboys, without perplexing the violas, who maintain
the brisk movement, on account of the little gesture which also
divides in half their short bar.
From bar No. 3, the conductor ceases to divide thus the long bar
by 4, on account of the triple rhythm of the melody in 6/8, which
this gesture interferes with. He then confines himself to marking the
two beats of the long bar; while the violas, already launched in their
rapid rhythm, continue it without difficulty, comprehending exactly
that each stroke of the conductor’s stick marks merely the
commencement of their short bar.
This last observation shows with what care dividing the beats of
a bar should be avoided when a portion of the instruments or voices
has to execute triplets upon these beats. The division, by cutting in
half the second note of the triplet, renders its execution uncertain. It
is even necessary to abstain from this division of the beats of a bar
just before the moment when the rhythmical or melodic design is
divided by three, in order not to give to the players the impression of
a rhythm contrary to that which they are about to hear:—
 [Listen]

In this example, the subdivision of the bar into six, or the division
of beats into two, is useful; and offers no inconvenience during bar
No. 1 when the following gesture is made:—

But from the beginning of bar No. 2 it is necessary to make only

the simple gestures:—
on account of the triplet on the third beat, and on account of the
one following it which the double gesture would much interfere with.
In the famous ball-scene of Mozart’s Don Giovanni, the difficulty
of keeping together the three orchestras, written in three different
measures, is less than might be thought. It is sufficient to mark
downwards each beat of the tempo di minuetto:—

[Listen]

Once entered upon the combination, the little allegro in 3/8, of

which a whole bar represents one-third, or one beat of that of the
minuetto, and the other allegro in 2/4, of which a whole bar
represents two-thirds, or two beats, correspond with each other and
with the principal theme; while the whole proceeds without the
slightest confusion. All that is requisite is to make them come in
properly.
 CHAPTER VI.
How To Prepare a Score

Methodical mastery of the full score, mental

reading, use of piano. Preparing a score for
rehearsal and performance.

To the average layman and even a great many musicians, an

orchestral score appears to be about as intricate in appearance as a
blue print of a complicated engine. The simile of the blue print and
the score is not inapt inasmuch as the blue print represents on paper
every detail of the mechanical construction of the engine, and,
likewise, the musical score is an exact description on paper of every
detail of the musical composition.
No attempt will be made in this book to describe the
development of the core from the days of the early Italian opera
composers who did not even write out parts for the players, to our
own time when hardly anything is left to the imagination of the
musician, and everything is written in the music. Likewise, the
aesthetic interpretation and evaluation of the musical content of the
score will be left undiscussed, to make way for the presentation of
the practical aspect of a methodical system of learning to read
quickly and accurately the mere notes of the score.
It is related that a celebrated professional magician, in order to
train his sense of vision, quickness of mental perception and
memory, used to practice looking at a show window for exactly one
minute and then writing down from memory the name of every
article he saw therein. By practice he was enabled to increase the
number of articles remembered from a relatively small number to a
total which included everything in the window. Now, what the
magician did with his sense of vision, quickness of mental
perception, and memory is precisely what the musician must do in
learning to read the full score.
Possibly the most confusing thing to the beginner in score
reading is the increased demands made upon his vision. Accustomed
to reading music in one or two staves, the eye is now called upon to
comprehend as many as 24 to 30 staves in a glance. At first this
seems an impossible task but like many other seemingly impossible
tasks it can be accomplished by patient and systematic practice. Of
course, every conductor has his own way of mastering a score and
the author can only give his personal method. However, this method
has been followed successfully by students, and in practically every
case has been found successful.
It is assumed that the conductor has some ability in piano-
playing. Naturally, the more the better, although it is not necessary
to be equipped with the highest virtuoso technic. A knowledge of the
scales and arpeggios, the ability to play Bach’s Two and Three Part
Inventions and Well-Tempered Clavichord might be considered a
working equipment for the conductor. Let it be explained here, that
while the ideal of score reading is to be able to read and hear every
note of the partitur without the aid of the piano, the value of the use
of the instrument in the process of developing this ability and as a
constant means of checking and proving one’s capacity is
unquestioned.
The best exercise for widening or broadening the sense of vision
is to practice the playing of three or more part vocal scores. A
collection of early church music such as “Musica Sacra,” published by
Peters, contains the most practical material. Herein are to be found
in two, three, four, five, six, eight, ten and twelve parts and staves,
the lovely old polyphonic works of the early Italian masters and the
patient practice on these, always adding one more part, will do
much toward the spreading of a sense of vision that has become
limited by the habitual perusal of just one or two lines. The absolute
independence of each individual part makes these polyphonic
choruses highly valuable as practice material.
The second difficulty of the full score is the fact that not all of the
instruments are written in the familiar clefs and many of them are
transposed into different keys because of their peculiar mechanical
construction.
Following the method employed in the conducting classes of the
High School for Music in Berlin, the author has found the use of
Bach’s chorales with each of the four parts written in a different clef,
most effective in imparting the ability to transpose. These chorales
should be taken from the various two-line editions (Peters, Breitkopf
& Härtel, C. C. Birchard) and copied by the student on four separate
lines, using the Soprano, Alto, Tenor and Bass clefs for the
respective parts.

The Soprano clef,

Alto clef,

and the Tenor clef,

are C clefs, i.e., the note on the staff indicated by the clef is
 middle C;

with the Soprano clef this is the first line, with the Alto clef the third,
and with the Tenor clef, the fourth. Knowing the position of middle C
it should not be difficult to trace the position of the other notes of
the scales. The following is an example of the old and new vocal
scores:

Passion Chorale (Bach)

[Listen]
 For variety, the student might make use of ordinary four part
hymn tunes in the same manner. These chorales and hymn tunes in
the old clefs must not be merely played through a few times, but are
to be practiced daily until the process of playing the old clefs has
become as automatic as playing in the treble and bass clefs. This will
give the student the necessary mental gymnastics and make the
reading and playing of the various transposing instrumental parts
comparatively easy.
So much for the purely technical preparation in the process of
learning to read and transcribe scores.
The following headings are descriptive of a method of score
preparation generally used by modern conductors:
1. The Architectural or General Impression.
2. Detailed study of the individual parts.
3. Detailed study of individual sections
(strings, woodwinds, brass, and
percussion).
4. Mental hearing of the composition in parts
and as a whole.
5. Piano transcription as a means of checking
up and ratifying the mental concept.
When a building is viewed for the first time hardly anything more
than a general impression of the type of architecture, size,
symmetry, and color is made upon the mind. The details of
construction, materials used, number of floors, style of windows and
doors are only comprehended after closer study.
At the first perusal of a score, which should always be away from
the piano, the impression made is just as general as in viewing the
building. Hardly more than the contour of the melody and bass,
outstanding climaxes and general character can be grasped at the
first reading.
 Next, a reading through either with or without piano, of each
individual part reveals the details of construction, and the playing on
the piano of the various sections gives the harmonic and polyphonic
content of the work. A practical knowledge of Instrumentation is
most helpful at this stage of the work.
After this detailed study, the work should be read through
mentally at about the speed of actual performance, the climaxes
noted, the emotional content determined, and a diagram of the form
fixed in the mind. There is always a danger of losing the perspective
of the work as a whole if too much detailed study is indulged in. The
ability to read and hear music without the aid of an instrument is
absolutely essential for the conductor. It can be acquired to a degree
by proper study. Such works as Wedge’s “Sight Singing and Ear
Training” (G. Schirmer) and Robinson’s “Aural Harmony” (G.
Schirmer) are invaluable helps. “Musical Form” by H. Anger
(Augener) is a most practical treatise on the subject and contains
clear instructions for analyzing the piano Sonatas of Beethoven and
the Fugues in Bach’s “Well-tempered Clavichord.”
Upon being questioned as to his opinion of the importance of the
conductor’s “ears” or hearing, Wilhelm Furtwängler, the eminent
German conductor, made the following reply: “Generally considered,
there is no such thing among conductors as a good or bad ‘ear.’
There is only a greater or lesser mastery of the material, that is, the
score and its every detail. One can only hear individual mistakes in
the complicated mass of sound when one knows completely just
what the composer wanted.” (Pult and Takstock, Dec., 1925).
Of course there are conductors who learn the content of a score
quickly from listening to the orchestra as they rehearse. But, it
matters not how clever the conductor is, his orchestra always senses
when it is being used as the means of their leader’s learning the
score and their respect for him is lowered. There is a fable of a
young conductor who wished to impress himself on his men by a
display of sharp hearing. He secretly wrote in a false F ♯ in the
second bassoon part of a particularly loud and boisterous passage.
At the rehearsal in the midst of the orchestral rumpus he suddenly
stopped the orchestra and cried out impatiently, “F sharp, F sharp in
the second bassoon is wrong,” only to be answered by the first
player, “Beg pardon, Sir, the second bassoon is absent today.”
To play a full score accurately and fluently on the piano, is an art
in itself and in the course of musical history we hear of only a few
musicians who really could do this. Saint-Saëns, Liszt, and Von
Buelow were said to be proficient in this difficult art, and
undoubtedly their marvelous piano technique was a most important
factor in their prima-vista score transcriptions. To fluently play a
printed pianoforte arrangement of a Beethoven Symphony takes as
much technique as to play one of his sonatas. We must not forget
the comparative simplicity of even a Wagner score when compared
with such a work as Varese’s “L’Amériques” or “The Rites of Spring”
by Stravinsky, and it is just likely that any of the three masters just
mentioned would have great difficulty in reading Honegger’s “Pacific
231” at the piano.
For the average conductor then, the piano does not become the
supreme channel for expressing the score, but is used merely as an
aid to his mental and spiritual master of its intricacies.
There still remains for discussion one phase in the work of score
preparation, and that is—memory. Just as among concert players the
old custom of playing from the printed page has given way to the
one of playing and singing everything from memory, so have modern
conductors taken to dispensing with their scores in performance.
The increased amount of preparatory work involved in
memorizing a score certainly gives one an increased insight into the
composition and to be freed from the necessity of reading the
printed page gives a much greater authority and command in the
whole attitude of the conductor at the performance. We never read
of any great military commander leading his troops to battle with his
eyes glued on the map, and we have all heard of the conductors
who have their heads in the score when they should have the score
in their heads. Arturo Toscanini memorizes every detail of the score
before the first rehearsal and conducts even the rehearsals from
memory. This, of course, is such miraculous achievement in the
mastery of the purely technical that it ceases to be technique and
becomes an integral part of the conductor’s being.
The improved gramophone with the new process records of the
great orchestral, choral and operatic masterworks can be put to
splendid use by the student of conducting. Score in hand, these
records should be listened to until completely absorbed and then
they should be conducted. The operatic arias are particularly good
practice for practising the art of conducting accompaniments.
In concluding this chapter the following paragraph from Adrian
Boult’s “Handbook on the Technique of Conducting” is most fitting.
He says, “In conducting there is a double mental process. There is
the process of thinking ahead and preparing the orchestra for what
is to come, that is to say, of driving it like a locomotive. There is also
the process of listening and noting difficulties and points that must
be altered, in fact of watching the music, as a guard watches his
train. At rehearsal the second of these is the more important.
Occasionally one must take hold and drive one’s forces to the top of
a climax, just as a boat’s crew on the day before the race does one
minute of its hardest racing, but takes it pretty easy otherwise. The
main thing at a rehearsal is to watch results and to act on them. At a
performance it is the other way about—the conductor must take the
lead. It is then too late to alter things like faulty balance or wrong
expression, but the structure and balance of the work as a whole
and the right spirit are the two things of paramount importance.”
 CHAPTER VII
The Technic of the Baton

in Choral Conducting

There seems to be in the minds of some musicians an idea that a vast

difference exists between chorus conducting and orchestra conducting. In
fact, it is a very common fact that there are many fine musicians who obtain
excellent results from their choruses but who are completely at a loss when
it comes to conducting even the orchestral accompaniment of the choral
works they are presenting. The tales told by sophisticated orchestral players
on their return from music festivals in the provinces about the antics of
many choral conductors would be funny if they were not tragic.
Usually, the choral conductor is a good musician and knows his musical
subject matter thoroughly. Through the process of much careful rehearsing
and teaching, he succeeds in imparting his ideas of interpretation to his
chorus, which in turn comes to understand the meaning of his gestures. Up
until the first orchestral rehearsal, which is usually the only one, everything
goes smoothly; but as soon as the highly trained and sensitive orchestra
tries to follow the conductor’s beat, a state of utter chaos ensues. Much time
is wasted, the conductor becomes irritable, the chorus demoralized, the
orchestra scornful, and in general the outlook for a successful concert begins
to look very black. Finally, the more practical side of the orchestra rises
above the disgruntled and disillusioned attitude and it rescues the situation
by playing more in spite of the conductor rather than because of him. This
picture is not exaggerated and has almost a universal application. The
author, in his orchestral playing days, has witnessed such scenes not only in
the United States but also in France and Germany, and has been told by
competent authorities that the same conditions exist in England. In fact, this
little tale is one that will be verified by almost every experienced orchestral
musician.
The cause of much of this ineffective conducting is a profusion of vague,
meaningless (to the orchestral player) gestures on the part of the choral
conductor, who has gotten into the habit of making many motions because
of certain conditions peculiar to choruses and choral music. First of these
conditions is the average chorus member’s rather low standard of musical
ability, (in comparison with the professional orchestra) which causes the
conductor to lead his charges through intricate rhythmical mazes by
indicating every 32d note and beating out the melodic contour rather than
giving the basic beats and subdivision of the beats. Secondly, the conductor
usually has the assistance of a good accompanist who plays the piano
arrangement of the orchestral score so efficiently that the conductor ceases
to even think about it, and who provides a firm rhythmical background by
crisp and incisive marking of the main beats of the measure. Naturally, the
conductor cannot change the habits acquired during many weeks of
rehearsal and when he finally finds himself in front of the critical
professional orchestra, he is confronted with the task of leading this
complicated organization with gestures engendered by the peculiar
weaknesses of his choral body and which are totally confusing to the
strange orchestra.
There is only one remedy for this condition. Directors of choruses must
remember that essentially there is no difference between orchestral
conducting and choral conducting, although there is a vast difference
between orchestral and choral training and rehearsing. It is not necessary to
give the chorus a special gesture for each 32d note of the melodic line.
Chorus members will give a rhythmical performance of a work only when
they are made to feel the main pulsations of the movement, and this can be
accomplished only by using such established gestures which clearly mark
the fundamental rhythm. Naturally, such gestures will easily be understood
by the orchestral musicians as well as by the chorus singers. Of course, this
refers definitely to the conducting of combined orchestral and choral forces.
The conducting of part songs accompanied or unaccompanied calls for a
somewhat different treatment.
In A Capella music, the conductor usually dispenses with the baton in
order to gain more expressive freedom of both hands. In comparison with a
choral-orchestral composition, these part songs and polyphonic choruses
have but few individual parts and the conductor is not so much concerned
with the actual beating of time as with the subtle indication of interpretative
shades and meaning. Nevertheless, the author believes that the
fundamental gestures are a sufficiently comprehensive basis for the most
expressive type of conducting.
It is not the purpose of this chapter to enter into the details of choral
training and interpretation. Those subjects have been admirably treated by
other writers and for the chorus master seeking truly authoritative advice in
these matters, the following books are recommended:

Coward—Choral Technic and Interpretation (Novello)

Russell—English Diction (Ditson)
Henderson—The Singer’s Art.
Mees—Choirs and Choir Music
Schweitzer—Bach
Newman Flower—Handel
Pyne—Palestrina
D’Indy—Beethoven
Prunieres—Monteverdi
The last five give invaluable hints on the proper interpretation of the
works of their respective subjects.
For teaching a chorus sight singing and proper vocal habits:

Friedlander-Davison—Choral Exercises (Peters Ed.)

Stainer—Choral Society Vocalization (Novello)
Graveure-Treharne—Superdiction (G. Schirmer)
This last gives the conductor highly valuable suggestions of methods to
obtain correct and effective diction.
 CHAPTER VIII
“The Point of the Baton”

A collection of significant paragraphs by

various authorities on the Art of
Conducting.

“Rhythm. What is rhythm? We all know that music moves in

beats or pulses, and at regular intervals—say, at every two, three, or
four beats—some of these are stressed or accented. It is these
accents which produce rhythm; therefore rhythm may be defined as
a pattern of accents, or a phrase of pulses made characteristic by
the effect of its contrasted strong and weak accents. Rhythms may
be observed even in statuary and architecture. Rhythms may be
regular, as when they follow the time-signatures; and irregular, as
when many syncopations are introduced.”

“One of the distinguishing features of modern choral technique is

what I term ‘characterization,’ or realism, of the sentiment expressed
in the music.... Contrasts of tone-color, contrasts of differently placed
choirs, contrasts of sentiment—love, hate, hope, despair, joy, sorrow,
brightness, gloom, pity, scorn, prayer, praise, exaltation, depression,
laughter, tears—in fact all the emotions and passions are now
expected to be delineated by the voice alone. It may be said, in
passing, that in fulfilling these expectations choral singing has
entered on a new lease of life. Instead of the cry being raised that
the choral societies are doomed, we shall find that by absorbing the
elixir of characterization they have renewed their youth; and when
the shallow pleasures of the picture theatre and the empty elements
of the variety show have been discovered to be unsatisfying to the
normal aspirations of intellectual, moral beings, the social, healthful,
stimulating, intellectual, moral and spiritual uplift of the choral
society will be appreciated more than ever.”

“The first thing a conductor requires is self-reliance, born of

mastery of the subject he has to conduct and confidence in himself.
If he is nervous and apologetic, if, when he makes a slip, he feels
crushed and would like to sink through the floor, he had better leave
conducting alone. It is the confident, not-to-be-daunted man who is
fit to be a leader of men.”

“The conductor must take every precaution to make the

rehearsals interesting. The test of a society’s success is the
popularity of the rehearsals, and the test of the rehearsals is the
feeling that if one be not attended something in the way of
enlightenment or pleasure has been missed.”

“The man who lacks tact is not fit to be a conductor. Tact is the
lubricant that keeps the administrative machinery smoothly working
when heat and friction would otherwise arise.”
(From “Choral Technique and Interpretation” by Coward)
Novello

“Finally, one word more on the art of conducting itself. More and
more I have come to think that what decides the worth of
conducting is the degree of suggestive power that the conductor can
exercise over the performers. At the rehearsals he is mostly nothing
more than a workman, who schools the men under him so
conscientiously and precisely that each of them knows his place and
what he has to do there; he first becomes an artist when the
moment comes for the production of the work. Not even the most
assiduous rehearsing, so necessary a pre-requisite as this is, can so
stimulate the capacities of the players as the force imagination of
the conductor. It is not the transference of his personal will, but the
mysterious act of creation that called the work itself into being takes
place again in him, and, transcending the narrow limits of
reproduction, he becomes a new-creator, a self-creator. The more
however his personality disappears so as to get quite behind the
personality that created the work,—to identify itself, indeed, with this
—the greater will his performance be.”
(From “On Conducting” by Weingartner)
Breitkopf & Härtel

From Grove’s Dictionary

“Definition—The word ‘conducting’ as used in a musical sense
now ordinarily refers to the activities of an orchestra or chorus
leader who stands before a group of performers and gives his entire
time and effort to directing their playing or singing, to the end that a
musically effective ensemble performance may result.
“This is accomplished by means of certain conventional
movements of a slender stick called a baton (usually held in the right
hand), as well as through such changes of facial expression, bodily
posture, et cetera, as will convey to the singers or players the
conductor’s wishes concerning the rendition of the music.”

“Schumann was sadly wanting in the real talent for conducting.

All who ever saw him conduct or played under his direction are
agreed on this point. Irrespective of the fact that conducting for any
length of time tired him out, he had neither the collectedness and
prompt presence of mind, nor the sympathetic faculty, nor the
enterprising dash, without each of which conducting in the true
sense is impossible. He even found difficulty in starting at a given
tempo; nay, he even sometimes shrank from giving any initial beat,
so that some energetic pioneer would begin without waiting for the
signal, and without incurring Schumann’s wrath! Besides this, any
thorough practice, bit by bit, with his orchestra, with instructive
remarks by the way as to the mode of execution, was impossible to
this great artist, who in this respect was a striking contrast to
Mendelssohn. He would have a piece played through, and it did not
answer to his wishes, have it repeated. If it went no better the
second or perhaps third time, he would be extremely angry at what
he considered the clumsiness, or even the ill-will of the players, but
detailed remarks he never made.”
It must not be imagined that if one is fortunate enough to
acquire the style of handling the baton which we have been
advocating, one will at once achieve success as a conductor. The
factors of musical scholarship, personal magnetism, et cetera,
mentioned in preceding pages, must still constitute the real
foundation of conducting. But granting the presence of these other
factors of endowment and preparation, one may often achieve a
higher degree of success if one has developed also a well-defined
and easily-followed beat. It is for this reason that the technique of
time-beating is worthy of some degree of serious investigation and
of a reasonable amount of time spent in practice upon it.

As quoted from Wagner—

“The whole duty of the conductor is comprised in his ability
always to indicate the right tempo. His choice of tempi will show
whether he understands the piece or not.... The true tempo induces
correct force and expression....
“Obviously the proper pace of a piece of music is determined by
the particular character of the rendering it requires. The question
therefore comes to this: Does the sustained, the cantilena,
predominate, or the rhythmical movement? The conductor should
lead accordingly.”

As quoted from Weingartner.

 “He should know it (the score) so thoroughly that during the
performance the score is merely a support for his memory, not a
fetter on his thought.”

“A good rule to follow is this: ‘Talk little at the rehearsal, but

when you do talk, be sure that every one listens.’”
(From “Essentials in Conducting” by Gehrkens.)
Oliver Ditson Company.

Remarks by Dr. H. Kretzschmar

“Everything depends upon the question as to who stands at the
head and how the rehearsals are conducted. Wherever one piece
after the other is disposed of with the aid of piano thumping, singing
must soon come to an end. The training, or at least the supervision
of the individual member must form the foundation of choral activity,
and the performance and study of accompanied compositions must
constitute only half of the work. Constant practice in a capella
singing is indispensable. It is this that trains the ear and teaches
vocalisation just as well as, if not better than the study of solos in
which half the faults are hidden and half the trouble saved for the
less gifted by the piano.
“A choral society which now and then sings a few movements by
Palestrina or a fine madrigal will give a more beautiful performance
of a Handel oratorio than one whose sense for tone has not been
independently awakened.”
(As quoted in “Choirs and Choral Music” by Arthur Mees)

“A Conductor who desires to organize a choral society must bear

in mind: First—that he needs to make many friends; then to do all in
his power to keep them; Second—that he must expect active
opposition from other professionals, passive resistance from lazy
singers, and discouragement from a considerable class of people
who never can see how anything worth while in choral music can be
done in their community. They are sometimes ‘dog-in-the-manger’
people; usually pessimists. This last mentioned class (the pessimists)
are perhaps the most dangerous of all. They should be carefully kept
out of the ranks of the society, for their conversation and manner
are most demoralizing. One such member can do more to kill a
society than half a dozen enthusiasts can do to keep it alive. The
Conductor, as organizer, should bear in mind that the indolent may
be stirred upon and possibly converted into willing and effective
workers. If the Conductor is made of the right sort of material the
pessimists will not discourage him, while the jealous opposition of
other professionals will but stir him to greater efforts.”
(From “Choir and Chorus Conducting” by F. W. Wodell)

“Remember, in conducting, that your thought and gestures will

almost certainly be too late rather than too early. Anticipate
everything.
“When actually conducting never think of technique; it is loo late
by that time. It is your job to impress what you want on the
orchestra and choir somehow. How you do it is a matter for
consideration afterwards, or better still, beforehand.”

“A great many qualities are needed to conduct rehearsals

successfully. The two most important things are to see that
everybody is happy and comfortable and to waste no time. Never
stop the orchestra to say what you can show with a gesture. If a
passage is going very badly, persevere with it to the end of the
section, then point out all the mistakes and take it right through
again if there is time. Continual stoppages irritate everybody and
waste a great deal of time.”

“An enormous amount of time in rehearsing can be saved by

preparation of the copies, and here the conductor must never spare
his own time in seeing that the parts, if in manuscript, are clear and
their expression marks uniform, that the lettering is consistent and
that the letters are in places where they will be wanted for rehearsal.
Everything possible should be marked in the parts beforehand. It is
almost always the conductor’s fault if he has to ask the orchestra to
mark anything at a rehearsal, unless he has unlimited time for this.”
(From “A Handbook on the Technique of Conducting”
by Adrian C. Boult.)
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS ESSENTIAL TO THE BROADER MUSICAL
CULTURE OF THE CONDUCTOR

ON CONDUCTING
(General)
Gehrkens: Essentials in Conducting O. Ditson
Schroeder: Handbook of Conducting Augener
Wagner: On Conducting Reeves
On Conducting Breitkopf &
Weingartner:
Härtel
The Orchestral Conductor Carl Fischer,
Berlioz:
Inc.
A Handbook on the Technique of
Boult, Adrian: Reeves
Conducting
Earhart: The Eloquent Baton Witmark
Schmid: The Language of the Baton Schirmer
Scherchen: Handbook on Conducting Oxford

ON SCORE READING
Gal, H.: Directions for Score Reading Philharmonia
Introduction to Playing from
Riemann, Hugo: Augener
Score
Preparatory Exercises in Score
Morris-Ferguson: Oxford
Reading

ON CHORAL CONDUCTING
Choral Technique and
Coward: Novello
Interpretation
Wodell: Choir and Chorus Conducting Presser
 Words in Singing Vincent Music
Brennan:
Co.
Coleman: Amateur Choir Training Oxford
Conducting for Women’s
Coleman: Oxford
Institutes

ON INSTRUMENTATION
Forsyth: Orchestration Macmillan
Jacob: Orchestral Technique Oxford
Modern Orchestration and Carl Fischer,
Kling:
Instrumentation Inc.

HISTORY OF MUSIC
Pratt: The History of Music Schirmer
Dickinson: The Study of the History of Music Scribner
Colles: The Growth of Music Oxford
Stanford & A History of Music
Macmillan
Forsyth:
Parry: The Evolution of the Art of Music Appleton
Bauer & Peyser: How Music Grew Putnam
Hadow: Oxford History of Music (7 Vols.) Oxford
Beginnings of the World’s Music Carl Fischer,
Parkhurst:
Inc.
Scholes: Miniature History of Music Oxford

BIOGRAPHY
Beethoven Boston Music
D’Indy:
Co.
Bekker: Beethoven Dutton
Thayer-Krehbiel: Beethoven G. Schirmer
Parry: Bach Putnam
Spitta: Bach Novello
Henderson: Wagner Putnam
Jahn: Mozart Novello
Newmarch: Tchaikovsky Chester
Engel: Alla Breve—Thumb Nail Sketches